1.
1897 in Italy
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See also,1896 in Italy, other events of 1897,1898 in Italy. Increasing wheat prices caused social unrest, february 2 – Despite the guarantees given by the Great Powers on the Ottoman sovereignty over Crete, Col. Timoleon Vassos unilaterally proclaimed the union of the island with Greece. The Powers reacted by demanding that the Greek Prime Minister Theodoros Deligiannis immediately withdraw Greek forces from the island in exchange for a statute of autonomy, the bold action of the Greeks exites popular admiration in Italy and sympathy with the Cretan Christians. He warns Greece and Cretan insurgents to cease all hostile actions against the Turks, february 21 – Popular manifestations in Rome and other towns in Italy in favour of the union of Greece and Crete, which is under Ottoman rule. March 21 – First round of the Italian general election, march 28 – Second round of the Italian general election,1897. The Ministerial left-wing bloc, led by Giovanni Giolitti remained the largest in Parliament, april 5-May 8 – Greco-Turkish War over the status of the Ottoman province of Crete, whose Greek majority long desired union with Greece. Italian volunteers under the command of Ricciotti Garibaldi go to Crete to fight for the unification of Crete with Greece, Greece will suffer a heavy defeat and the Great Powers will force the Greek army to abandon the island. April 12 – After four days of debate Prime Minister Antonio di Rudinì survives a vote of confidence over the policy towards Greece in relation with the Cretan State. April 22 – King Umberto I is attacked by an unemployed anarchist ironsmith, Pietro Acciarito, december 5 – Minister of War, General Luigi Pelloux, resigns over a conflict about army promotions. Prime Minister Di Rudini is tasked with forming a new Cabinet, the previous one was riddled with irreconcilable positions, Di Rudini now tries to form a more unified government. December 14 – Prime Minister Di Rudini forms a new Cabinet, november 1 – Juventus F. C. founded as Sport-Club Juventus by a group of young students from Turin. Modern Italy,1871 to the Present, New York, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-4058-2352-4
2.
1898 in Italy
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See also,1897 in Italy, other events of 1898,1899 in Italy. Events from the year 1898 in Italy, monarch – Umberto I Prime Minister - Antonio di Rudinì Luigi Pelloux The year is marked by widespread bread riots all over Italy. The tariff on the duty on imported wheat is lowered from 75 lire a tonne to 50 lire. In 1897 the wheat harvest in Italy was substantially lower than the years before, moreover, import of American grain was more expensive due to the Spanish–American War in 1898. Wheat prices in Milan increased from 225 lire a tonne to 330 lire a tonne in April 1898, in order to try to diminish the rising prices the government of Antonio Di Rudinì was urged to abolish the duty on imported wheat. The lowering of the tariff is generally considered to be too little, street demonstrations demanding bread and work began in the South of Italy, which already had seen widespread revolts by the Fasci Siciliani in 1893–94. In towns like Bari and Naples rioting could be suppressed, while Florence was controlled by demonstrators for a whole day, the situation escalated when demonstrators were shot by nervous policemen, and rioting increased. The Finance Minister in the administration of Prime Minister Antonio di Rudinì, Luigi Luzzatti and its lyrics were written by Giovanni Capurro and the music was composed by Eduardo di Capua. January 2 – Bread riots in Sicily near Agrigento, january 17–18 – Two days of bread riots in Ancona after a demonstration of women demanding a reduction in the price of bread. February 27 – To annihilate the Sicilian Mafia, Italian troops arrest 64 people of Palermo, April 27 – Bread riots start in Bari, where a mob of 2,000 attacks the tax office. The riots expand to many parts of Italy, with several people killed, in Naples, women lead the mobs carrying loaves of bread or red flags on long staves. May 7–9 – Bread riots in Milan, Florence and Livorno, the Bava Beccaris massacre, named after the Italian General Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris, quells widespread riots in Milan. On May 9,1898, the troops used artillery to breach the walls of a monastery outside Porta Monforte, according to the government, there were 118 dead and 450 wounded. The opposition claimed 400 dead and more than 2,000 injured people, filippo Turati of the Italian Socialist Party was arrested, accused of inspiring the riots. May 14 – Bread riots continue in areas in Italy, such as Naples and Pontedera. May 28 – Fall of the administration of Antonio di Rudinì following the May massacres in Milan, june 18 – The recently reformed new administration of Antonio di Rudinì resigns. June 29 – Luigi Pelloux forms a new government, wins the first FIGC endorsed Italian Football Championship at the Velodromo Umberto I in Turin against Internazionale F. C. Torino. Modern Italy,1871 to the Present, New York, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-4058-2352-4 Sarti, Italy, a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present, New York, Facts on File Inc
3.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
4.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
5.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
6.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
7.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
8.
1880s
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The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
9.
1890s
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The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
10.
1900s (decade)
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The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
11.
1910s
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The 1910s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1910, and ended on December 31,1919. The 1910s represented the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the half of the 19th century. The murder triggered a chain of events in which, within 33 days, the conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11,1918, leading to the controversial, one-sided Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28,1919. However, each of these states had large German and Hungarian minorities, the decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. Russia also had a similar fate, since World War I led to a collapse in morale as well as to economic chaos and this atmosphere encouraged the establishment of Bolshevism, which was later renamed as communism. Like the Mexican Revolution, the Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October Revolution, much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed. Many of the restaurants were equipped with dance floors. Prohibition in the United States began January 16,1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, armenian Genocide during and just after World War I. Wadai War Italo-Turkish War First Balkan Wars – two wars took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Saudi-Ottoman War Latvian War of Independence - a military conflict in Latvia between the Republic of Latvia and the Russian SFSR. The Russian Revolution is the term for the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917. April 13,1919 - The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Amritsar in the Punjab Province of British India, sows the seeds of discontent, xinhai Revolution causes the overthrow of Chinas ruling Qing Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China. Madero proclaims the elections of 1910 null and void, and calls for a revolution at 6 p. m. against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution lead to the ouster of Porfirio Díaz six months later, the Revolution progressively becomes a civil war with multiple factions and phases, culminating with the Mexican Constitution of 1917, but combat would persist for three more years. Germany abolishes its monarchy and becomes under the rule of a new elected government called the Weimar Republic, federal Reserve Act is passed by United States Congress, establishing a Central Bank in the US. George V becomes king in Britain, fourteen Points as designed by United States President Woodrow Wilson advocates the right of all nations to self-determination. Rise to power of the Bolsheviks in Russia under Vladimir Lenin, creating the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, easter Rising against the British in Ireland, eventually leads to Irish independence. Several nations in Eastern Europe get their own state, thereby replacing major multiethnic empires
12.
1920s
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The 1920s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1920, and ended on December 31,1929. French speakers refer to the period as the Années folles, emphasizing the social, artistic. The economic prosperity experienced by many countries during the 1920s was similar in nature to that experienced in the 1950s and 1990s, each period of prosperity was the result of a paradigm shift in global affairs. These shifts in the 1920s, 1950s, and 1990s, occurred in part as the result of the conclusion of World War I and Spanish flu, World War II, the 1920s saw foreign oil companies begin operations throughout South America. Venezuela became the second largest oil producing nation. In some countries the 1920s saw the rise of political movements. Communism spread as a consequence of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ victory in the Russian Civil War, fear of the spread of Communism led to the emergence of far right political movements and fascism in Europe. The devastating Wall Street Crash in October 1929 is generally viewed as a harbinger of the end of 1920s prosperity in North America, the Roaring Twenties brought about several novel and highly visible social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, “Normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism during World War I, jazz blossomed, and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, large baseball stadiums were built in major U. S. cities, in addition to palatial cinemas. Most independent countries passed womens suffrage after 1918, especially as a reward for support of the war effort and endurance of its deaths. Egypt officially becomes an independent country through the Declaration of 1922, though it remains under the military. Prohibition was finally repealed in 1933, organized crime turns to smuggling and bootlegging of liquor, led by figures such as Al Capone, boss of the Chicago Outfit. The Immigration Act of 1924 places restrictions on immigration, the major sport was baseball and the most famous player was Babe Ruth. The Lost Generation, was the name Gertrude Stein gave to American writers, poets, and artists living in Europe during the 1920s. A peak in the early 1920s in the membership of the Ku Klux Klan of four to five million members, followed by a rapid decline down to an estimated 30,000 members by 1930. The Scopes Trial, which declared that John T. Scopes had violated the law by teaching evolution in schools, major armed conflict in Ireland including Irish War of Independence resulting in Ireland becoming an independent country in 1922 followed by the Irish Civil War
13.
1893
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As of the start of 1893, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – Webb C. Ball introduces railroad chronometers, which become the general railroad timepiece standards in North America, january 13 – The Independent Labour Party of the United Kingdom has its first meeting. January 15 – The Telefon Hírmondó service starts with around 60 subscribers in Budapest, january 21 – The Cherry Sisters first perform in Marion, Iowa. February 1 – Thomas Edison finishes construction of the first motion picture studio in West Orange, february 19 – The SS Naronic is believed to have sunk due to a storm. February 23 – Rudolf Diesel receives a patent for the diesel engine, february 24 – American University is established by an Act of Congress in Washington, D. C. February 28 – USS Indiana, the first battleship in the United States Navy comparable to other battleships of this time, is launched. March 4 – Grover Cleveland is sworn in as President of the United States, march 10 – Ivory Coast becomes a French colony. March 20 – In Belgium, Adam Worth is sentenced to 7 years for robbery, april 1 – The rank of Chief Petty Officer is established in the United States Navy. April 6 – The iconic Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is dedicated after 40 years of construction, april 8 – The first recorded college basketball game occurs in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania between the Geneva College Covenanters and the New Brighton YMCA. April 17 – Riots of Mons during the Belgian general strike of 1893, The day after, april 17 – The sorority Alpha Xi Delta is founded at Lombard College in Galesburg, Illinois. May – The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland is formed, may 1 – The 1893 Worlds Fair, also known as the Worlds Columbian Exposition, opens to the public in Chicago, USA. The first United States commemorative postage stamps are issued for the Exposition, may 5 – Panic of 1893, A crash on the New York Stock Exchange starts a depression. May 9 – Edisons 1½ inch system of Kinetoscope is first demonstrated in public at the Brooklyn Institute, may 10 – Nix v. Hedden, the United States Supreme Court legally declares the tomato to be a vegetable. June 6 – Prince George, Duke of York marries Mary of Teck, june 7 – Gandhi commits his first act of civil disobedience in India. June 17 – Gold is found in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, june 20 – The Wengernalpbahn railway in Wengen, Switzerland is opened. June 20 – Lizzie Borden acquitted of murdering her parents in Fall River, june 22 – The flagship HMS Victoria of the British Mediterranean Fleet collides with HMS Camperdown and sinks in 10 minutes, Vice-admiral Sir George Tryon goes down with his ship. July 1 – U. S. President Grover Cleveland is operated on in secret, July 6 – The small town of Pomeroy, Iowa, is nearly destroyed by a tornado,71 people are killed and 200 injured. July 11 A revolution led by general and politician José Santos Zelaya takes over power in Nicaragua
14.
1894
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As of the start of 1894, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February – In Korea, peasant unrest erupts in the Donghak Peasant Revolution, both China and Japan send military forces, claiming to come to the ruling Joseon dynasty governments aid. January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film, january 9 – New England Telephone and Telegraph installs the first battery-operated telephone switchboard in Lexington, Massachusetts. February 17 – American outlaw John Wesley Hardin is released from prison, march 12 – For the first time, Coca-Cola is sold in bottles. March 21 – A syzygy of planets occurs as Mercury transits the Sun as seen from Venus, march 25 – Coxeys Army, the first significant protest march in the United States, departs from Massillon, Ohio, for Washington, D. C. January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire, february 12 French anarchist Émile Henry sets off a bomb in a Paris café, killing one person and wounding twenty. The barque Elisabeth Rickmers of Bremerhaven is wrecked at Haurvig, Denmark, february 15 – At 04,51 GMT, French anarchist Martial Bourdin attempts to destroy the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, England, with a bomb, killing himself instead. April 11 – Britain establishes a Protectorate over Uganda, April 16 – Manchester City Football Club is formed in England. April 21 A bituminous coal miners strike closes mines across the central United States, April 23 – St. April 27 – Canadas largest known landslide occurred in Saint-Alban, Quebec. Displacing 185 million cubic metres of rock and dirt, leaving a 40 metres scar, may – Bubonic plague breaks out in the Tai Ping Shan area of Hong Kong. May 1 Coxeys Army arrives in Washington, Coxey is arrested, the May Day Riots break out in Cleveland, Ohio. May 11 – Pullman Strike, Three thousand Pullman Palace Car Company factory workers go on a strike in Illinois. May 14 A meteor shower is seen in southern France, Blackpool Tower is opened in Blackpool, England. May 21 – The Manchester Ship Canal and Docks are opened by Queen Victoria, june 22 – Dahomey becomes a French colony. June 23 – The International Olympic Committee is founded at the Sorbonne, Paris, june 24 – Sadi Carnot, president of France, is assassinated. June 30 – The Tower Bridge in London opens for traffic, july – A fire at the site of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago destroys most of the remaining buildings. July 4 The Republic of Hawaii is proclaimed by Sanford B, the football club FC La Chaux-de-Fonds is founded in Switzerland. July 22 – Paris–Rouen Competition for Horseless Carriages, the first automobile competition, august 1 – War is declared between the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan, over their rival claims of influence on their common ally, the Joseon dynasty of Korea
15.
1895
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As of the start of 1895, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – Dreyfus affair, French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, january 17 – Félix Faure is elected President of French Republic after the resignation of Jean Casimir-Perier. January 21 – The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is founded in England by Octavia Hill, Robert Hunter, february 9 – Mintonette, later known as volleyball, is created by William G. Morgan at Holyoke, Massachusetts. February 11 – The lowest ever UK temperature of −27.2 °C is recorded at Braemar in Aberdeenshire and this record is equalled in 1982 and again in 1995. February 14 – Oscar Wildes last play, the comedy The Importance of Being Earnest, is first shown at St Jamess Theatre in London, february 20 – Venezuelan crisis of 1895, U. S. The bill recommends Venezuela and Great Britain settle their dispute by arbitration, february 25 – The first rebellions take place marking the start of the Cuban War of Independence. March 1 – William Lyne Wilson is appointed United States Postmaster General, March 3 – In Munich, bicyclists have to pass a test and display license plates. March 4 – Japanese troops capture Liaoyang and land in Taiwan, March 18 – First worldwide gasoline bus started in Germany between Siegen and Netphen March 30 – Rudolf Diesel patents the Diesel engine in Germany. April 6 – Oscar Wilde is arrested in London for gross indecency after losing a libel case against the Marquess of Queensberry. April 7 – Nansens Fram expedition to the Arctic reaches 86°13. 6N, april 14 – A major earthquake severely damages Ljubljana, the capital of Carniola. April 16 – The town of Sturgeon Falls, Ontario, is incorporated, april 17 – The Treaty of Shimonoseki is signed between China and Japan. The huge indemnity exacted from China is used to establish the Yawata Iron, april 22 – Gongche Shangshu movement,603 candidates sign a 10, 000-word petition against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. April 27 – The historic Spiral Bridge was constructed to carry U. S.61 over the Mississippi River at Hastings, the picturesque Spiral Bridge was a one-of-a-kind and served the citizens of Hastings for 56 years until it was demolished in 1951 Hastings, Minnesota. May 1 – Dundela Football, Sports & Association Club formed in Belfast, may 2 – Gongche Shangshu movement, Thousands of Beijing scholars and citizens protest against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. May 24 – Anti-Japanese officials led by Tang Ching-sung in Taiwan declare independence from the Qing dynasty, may 25 – R. v. June 5 Liberal Revolution begins in Ecuador, being the civil war more intense in this country. June 11 Britain annexes Tongaland, between Zululand and Mozambique, paris–Bordeaux–Paris is sometimes called the first automobile race in history or the first motor race. June 20 The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea to the Baltic across the base of the Jutland peninsula in Germany, is officially opened, Treaty of Amapala establishes union of Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador begins. June 28 – The United States Court of Private Land Claims rules that James Reaviss claim to Barony of Arizona is wholly fictitious, night of July 10–July 11 – The Doukhobors pacifist protests culminate in the Burning of the ass in the South Caucasus
16.
1896
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As of the start of 1896, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War, British redcoats enter the Ashanti capital, Kumasi, January 2 – The Jameson Raid comes to an end, as Jameson surrenders to the Boers. January 4 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U. S. state, January 5 – An Austrian newspaper reports that Wilhelm Röntgen has discovered a type of radiation later known as X-rays. January 6 – Cecil Rhodes is forced to resign as Prime Minister of the Cape of Good Hope for his involvement in the Jameson Raid, January 7 – Fannie Farmer publishes her first cookbook. January 12 – H. L. Smith takes the first X-ray photograph, January 18 – The X-ray machine is exhibited for the first time. January 28 – Walter Arnold, of East Peckham, Kent, England, is fined 1 shilling for speeding at 8 mph, february 1 – Puccinis opera La bohème premieres in Turin, Italy. February 4 – International Association of Bridge and Structural Iron Workers is established in Pittsburgh, february 11 – Oscar Wildes play Salomé premieres in Paris. February 19 – Braamfontein Explosion, A train carrying 56 tons of dynamite explodes at Braamfontein, Johannesburg, march 1 – Battle of Adwa, Ethiopia defends its independence from Italy, ending the First Italo-Ethiopian War. March 3 – Publication begins of the worlds first magazine with an orientation to male homosexuality, Der Eigene, march 9 – Responding to national outrage at the defeat at Adwa, Italian Prime Minister Francesco Crispi resigns. March 23 – The New York State Legislature passes the Raines law, april – The first study of the sensitivity of global climate to atmospheric carbon dioxide is published. April 3 – The first edition of the Italian sports newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport is published, april 4 – The first known womens basketball game between two colleges is played between Stanford and California. April 6 – The opening ceremonies of the 1896 Summer Olympics, april 9 – The National Farm School is chartered in Doylestown, PA. May 8 – Cricket, Against Warwickshire, Yorkshire sets a still-standing County Championship record when they accumulate a total of 887. May 13 – The Franchise Bill is passed by the Colony of Natals Legislative Assembly, may 18 – Plessy v. Ferguson, The U. S. Supreme Court introduces the separate but equal doctrine and upholds racial segregation. May 26 – Eleven years after its foundation, a group of 12 purely industrial stocks were chosen to form the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the index was composed entirely of industrial shares for the first time. June 4 – The Ford Quadricycle, the first Ford vehicle ever developed, is completed, june 7 – Mahdist War, British and Egyptian victory at the Battle of Ferkeh. June 12 – J. T. Hearne sets a record for the earliest date of taking 100 wickets in cricket, june 15 – The 1896 Sanriku earthquake and tsunami in Japan kills 27,000. June 18 – The New York Telephone Company is formed, succeeding the Metropolitan Telephone and Telegraph Company, june 23 – Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier defeats Charles Tupper during Canadian federal elections for the 8th Canadian Parliament to become the first francophone Prime Minister of Canada
17.
1897
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As of the start of 1897, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – The International Alpha Omicron Pi sorority is founded, january 4 – A British force is ambushed by Chief Ologbosere, son-in-law of the Oba of Benin. This leads to an expedition against Benin. January 7 – Cyclone destroys Darwin, Australia, january 22 – In this dates issue of the journal Engineering, the word computer, is first used to refer to a mechanical calculation device, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. January 23 – Elva Zona Heaster is found dead in Greenbrier County, the resulting murder trial of her husband is perhaps the only capital case in United States history where spectral evidence helps secure a conviction. January 31 – Czechoslav Trade Union Association is founded in Prague, February 10 – Freedom of religion is proclaimed in Madagascar. February 16 – The French conquer the island of Raiatea and capture the rebel chief Teraupoo, ending the Leeward Islands War, February 18 – Benin is put to the torch by the British Armys Benin Expedition. February 24 – Foundation of Čekan Mekenroff 1897 association football club in Pozsony in the Kingdom of Hungary, February 26 – The Sigma Pi fraternity is founded. February 27 – The French military governor of Madagascar, Joseph Gallieni, exiles Queen Ranavalona III to Réunion, march 4 – William McKinley is sworn in as President of the United States. March 13 – San Diego State University is founded, march 22 – Emilio Aguinaldo unseats Andrés Bonifacio at the Tejeros Convention, becoming the new head of the Filipino revolutionary group Katipunan. April 15 – Drillers near Bartlesville, Oklahoma, strike oil for the first time in the designated Indian Territory, the gusher, at the Nellie Johnstone Number One well, leads to rapid population growth. April 19 – The first Boston Marathon is held, with fifteen men competing, may 14 The Stars and Stripes Forever, the American patriotic march by John Philip Sousa, is performed for the first time. – The Scientific-Humanitarian Committee is founded in Berlin as an LGBT campaigning organization, may 19 – Oscar Wilde is released from prison in England and goes into exile on the continent. May 26 – Irish-born theatrical manager Bram Stokers contemporary Gothic horror novel Dracula is first published, June 22 – Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria celebrated in the United Kingdom. No other British monarch celebrated such a jubilee until Elizabeth II in 2012, July 11 – S. A. Andrées Arctic Balloon Expedition of 1897 begins. The ill-fated expedition to fly over the Arctic results in the death of the team within months. July 17 – The Klondike Gold Rush begins when the first successful prospectors arrive in Seattle, July 25 – Writer Jack London sails to join the Klondike Gold Rush where he will write his first successful stories. July 26–August 2 – Siege of Malakand, British troops are besieged by Pashtun tribesmen in Malakand on the North-West frontier of the British Raj, July 31 – Mount Saint Elias, the second highest peak in the United States and Canada, is first ascended
18.
1898
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As of the start of 1898, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, the city is geographically divided into five boroughs, Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx and Staten Island. February 15 – Spanish–American War, The USS Maine explodes and sinks in Havana harbor, Cuba, for never fully established. The event precipitates the United States declaration of war on Spain two months later, february 23 – Émile Zola is imprisoned in France after writing Jaccuse. March 24 – Robert Allison of Port Carbon, Pennsylvania, becomes the first person to buy an American-built automobile when he buys a Winton automobile that has advertised in Scientific American. March 26 – The Sabie Game Reserve in South Africa is created, April 5 – Annie Oakley promotes the service of women in combat situations with the United States military. In the history of women in the military, there are records of female U. S, April 22 – Spanish–American War, The United States Navy begins a blockade of Cuban ports and the USS Nashville captures a Spanish merchant ship. April 25 – Spanish–American War, The United States declares war on Spain, April 25 – In Essen, German company Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk RWE is founded. April 26 – An explosion in Santa Cruz, California, kills 13 workers at the California Powder Works, may 1 – Spanish–American War – Battle of Manila Bay, Commodore Dewey destroys the Spanish squadron. The first battle of the war, as well as the first battle in the Philippines Campaign, may 2 – Thousands of Chinese scholars and Beijing citizens seeking reforms protest in front of the capital control yuan. May 7 –May 9 – Bava-Beccaris massacre, Hundreds of demonstrators are killed when General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris orders troops to fire on a rally in Milan, may 8 – The first games of the Italian Football League are played. May 12 – Bombardment of San Juan, the first major battle of the Puerto Rican Campaign during the Spanish–American War. May 27 – The territory of Kwang-Chou-Wan is leased by China to France, according to the Treaty of 12 April 1892, as the Territoire de Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, forming part of French Indochina. May 28 – Secondo Pia takes the first photographs of the Shroud of Turin, june 1 – The Trans-Mississippi Exposition worlds fair opens in Omaha, Nebraska. June 7 – William Ramsay and Morris Travers discover neon at their laboratory at University College London after extracting it from liquid nitrogen, june 9 – The British government makes a 99 year rent of Hong Kong from China. June 12 – Philippine Declaration of Independence, General Emilio Aguinaldo declares the Philippines independence from Spain, june 13 – Yukon Territory is formed, with Dawson chosen as its capital. June 21 – Spanish–American War, The United States captures Guam making it the first U. S. overseas territory, july 3 Spanish–American War, Battle of Santiago de Cuba – The United States Navy destroys the Spanish Navys Caribbean Squadron. Joshua Slocum completes a 3-year solo circumnavigation of the world, july 4 – En route from New York to Le Havre, the ocean liner SS La Bourgogne collides with another ship and sinks off the coast of Sable Island, with the loss of 549 lives
19.
1899
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As of the start of 1899, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Spanish rule ends in Cuba, queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City. January 6 – Lord Curzon becomes Viceroy of India, january 8 – The Association football club SK Rapid Wien is founded in Vienna. January 10 – The Tau Kappa Epsilon Fraternity is founded at Illinois Wesleyan University in Bloomington, january 17 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. January 19 – Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is formed, january 20 – The term wringer was created at chicken factories. January 21 – Opel Motors opens for business, january 22 – The leaders of six Australian colonies meet in Melbourne to discuss the confederation of Australia as a whole. January 23 Emilio Aguinaldo is sworn in as President of the First Philippine Republic, British Southern Cross Expedition crosses the Antarctic Circle. February 2 – The Australian Premiers Conference held in Melbourne agrees that Australias capital should be located between Sydney and Melbourne, february 4 – The Philippine–American War begins as hostilities break out in Manila. February 6 – Spanish–American War, A peace treaty between the United States and Spain is ratified by the United States Senate, february 12–February 14 – Great Blizzard of 1899, Freezing temperatures and snow extend well south into North America, including southern Florida. It is the latest in a series of disasters to Floridas citrus industry, february 14 – Voting machines are approved by the U. S. Congress for use in federal elections. The manifesto is viewed as unconstitutional and a coup détat by many Finns who have come to consider their country a constitutional state in its own right in union with the Russian Empire. This results in Finnish fears that the Diet of Finland may be overruled arbitrarily, february 16 – Knattspyrnufélag Reykjavíkur, the first Association football club in Iceland, is established in the islands capital, Reykjavík. March 2 – In Washington state, USA, Mount Rainier National Park is established, march 4 – Cyclone Mahina strikes Bathurst Bay, Queensland. A12 m wave reaches up to 5 km inland, leaving over 400 dead, march 6 – Felix Hoffmann patents aspirin and Bayer registers its name as a trademark. March 8 – The Frankfurter Fußball-Club Victoria von 1899 is founded, march 20 – At Sing Sing prison in Ossining, New York, Martha M. Place becomes the first woman executed in an electric chair, march 24 – George Dewey is made Admiral of the US Navy. March 27 Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmits a signal across the English Channel. March 30 German Society of Chemistry issued an invitation to other scientific organizations to appoint delegates to the International Committee on Atomic Weights
20.
Umberto I of Italy
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It can also refer to Humbert I, Count of Savoy and to Humbert I of Viennois, Dauphin of the Viennois. Umberto I, nicknamed the Good, was the King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his assassination on 29 July 1900. Umbertos reign saw Italy attempt colonial expansion into the Horn of Africa, successfully gaining Eritrea, in 1882, he approved the Triple Alliance with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. He was deeply loathed in leftist circles because of his conservatism and he was especially hated by anarchists, who attempted an assassination on him during the first year of his reign. He was killed by another anarchist, Gaetano Bresci, two years after the Bava-Beccaris massacre. The son of Victor Emmanuel II and Archduchess Adelaide of Austria, Umberto was born in Turin and his education was entrusted to, amongst others, Massimo Taparelli, marquis dAzeglio and Pasquale Stanislao Mancini. From March 1858 he had a career in the Sardinian army. It proved difficult to find any royal bride for either of the sons of king Victor Emmanuel II and their conflict with the papacy did not help these matters. Not many eligible Catholic royal brides were easily available for young Umberto. At first, Umberto was to marry Archduchess Mathilde of Austria, on 21 April 1868 Umberto married his first cousin, Margherita Teresa Giovanna, Princess of Savoy. Their only son was Victor Emmanuel, prince of Naples, the King warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh. The would-be assassin was condemned to death, even though the law allowed the death penalty if the King was killed. The King commuted the sentence to one of penal servitude for life, passanante would later die in a psychiatric institution. In foreign policy Umberto I approved the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany, repeatedly visiting Vienna, many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with their former Austrian enemies, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy. Umberto was also favorably disposed towards the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of Massawa in Eritrea, Italy expanded into Somalia in the 1880s as well. In the summer of 1900, Italian forces were part of the Eight-Nation Alliance which participated in the Boxer Rebellion in Imperial China, through the Boxer Protocol, signed after Umbertos death, the Kingdom of Italy gained a concession territory in Tientsin. Umbertos attitude towards the Holy See was uncompromising, in an 1886 telegram, he declared Rome untouchable and affirmed the permanence of the Italian possession of the Eternal City. The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, the protesters included the young Benito Mussolini, then a member of the socialist party
21.
Prime Minister of Italy
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The office of Prime Minister is established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the Constitution of Italy. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election, prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic, the position was called President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943, Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946. The Prime Minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds executive power, the position is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems. The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office, as the President of the Council of Ministers the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet. In addition the Prime Minister leads a political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament. Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that the Prime Minister directs, the Prime Ministers activity has often consisted of mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition, rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers. The office was first established in 1848 in Italys predecessor state, the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in its constitution, from 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the Kingdom, most of them being right-wing politicians. After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom, in fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king, and presided over a very unstable political system. The first Prime Minister was Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was appointed on 23 March 1861, from 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country. One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi, a patriot and statesman. He led the country for six years, from 1887 until 1891, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister, ally, and admirer of Bismarck. His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a banking scandal. He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1892 Giovanni Giolitti, a young leftist politician, was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I, but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power. In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed head of the government. Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Mussolini, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party. They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no links to political constituencies
22.
Francesco Crispi
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Francesco Crispi was an Italian patriot and statesman. Crispi served as Italys Prime Minister for six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister and ally, due to his authoritarian policies and style, Crispi is often regarded as a strongman and seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. Crispi’s paternal family originally from the small agricultural community of Palazzo Adriano. It had been founded in later fifteenth century by Orthodox Albanians and his grandfather was an Arbëreshë Orthodox priest, the parish priests were married men, and Arbëreshë was the family language down to the lifetime of the young Crispi. Crispi himself was born in Ribera, Sicily, to Tommaso Crispi, belonging to a family of Arbëreshë descent, he spoke Italian as his third or fourth language. His uncle Giuseppe wrote the first monograph on the Albanian language, at the age of 5 years old he was sent to a family in Villafranca, where he could receive an education. In 1829, at 11 years old, he attended a seminary in Palermo, the rector of the institute was Giuseppe Crispi, his uncle. Crispi attended the seminary until 1834 or 1835, when his father, after becoming mayor of Ribera, encountered difficulties in health. In the same period Crispi became a friend of the poet and doctor Vincenzo Navarro. In 1835 he studied law and literature at the University of Palermo receiving a law degree in 1837, in the year he fell in love with Rosina DAngelo. Despite his fathers ban, Crispi married Rosina in 1837, when she was already pregnant, in May Crispi became father of his first daughter, Giuseppa, who was named after his grandmother. Anyway it was a marriage, in fact Rosina died on 29 July 1839, the day after giving birth to her second son, Tommaso. Between 1838 and 1839, Crispi founded his own newspaper, LOreteo and this experience brought him into contact with a number of political figures including the Neapolitan liberal activist and poet, Carlo Poerio. In 1845 Crispi took up a judgeship in Naples, where he distinguished himself for his liberal, the revolution started on 12 January 1848, and therefore was the very first of the numerous revolutions to occur that year. Three revolutions had previously occurred on the island of Sicily starting from 1800 against Bourbon rule, the uprising was substantially organized from, and centered in, Palermo. The popular nature of the revolt is evident in the fact that posters, the timing was deliberately planned, by Crispi and the other revolutionaries, to coincide with the birthday of Ferdinand II. Vincenzo Fardella was elected president of Sicilian Parliament, the idea was also put forward for a confederation of all the states of Italy
23.
Menelik II
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Emperor Menelik II GCB, GCMG, baptized as Sahle Maryam, was Negus of Shewa, then Emperor of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death. Ethiopia was transformed under Emperor Menelik, the major signposts of modernization were put in place, Menelik expanded his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms. He is widely called Emiye Menelik in Ethiopia for his forgiving nature, Abeto Menelik was born in Angolalla, near Debre Birhan, in the Amhara Region. He was the son of Negus Haile Melekot of Shewa and Woizero Ijigayehu, Woizero Ijigayehu was a lady in the household of Haile Melekots grandmother, the formidable Woizero Zenebework, widow of Merid Azmatch Wossen Seged, and mother of King Sahle Selassie of Showa. Most sources indicate that no marriage took place between Haile Melekot and Woizero Ijigayehu, Sahle Selassie ordered his grandson legitimized. Menelik II had been born at Angolala in the Amhara region, prior to his death in 1855, Negus Haile Melekot named Menelik as successor to the throne of Shewa. Shortly after Haile Melekot died, Menelik was taken prisoner by Emperor Tewodros II, following Emperor Tewodros IIs conquest of Shewa, he had young Sahle Maryam transferred to his mountain stronghold of Magdala. Still, Tewodros treated the young prince well and he even offered him the hand of his daughter Altash Tewodros in marriage, which Menelik accepted. Upon Meneliks imprisonment, his uncle, Haile Mikael, was appointed as Shum of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros II with the title of Meridazmach, however, Meridazmach Haile Mikael rebelled against Tewodros, resulting in his being replaced by the non-royal Ato Bezabeh as Shum. However, Ato Bezabeh in turn then rebelled against the Emperor, although the Shewan royals imprisoned at Magdala had been largely complacent as long as a member of their family ruled over Shewa, this usurpation by a commoner was not palatable to them. Enraged, Emperor Tewodros slaughtered 29 Oromo hostages then had 12 Amhara notables beaten to death with bamboo rods, Abeto Menelik entered Ankober and proclaimed himself Negus. While Negus Menelik reclaimed his ancestral Shewan crown, he laid claim to the Imperial throne. Not wishing to take part in the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia, he allowed his rival Kassai to benefit with gifts of modern weapons, when Tewodros committed suicide, Menelik II arranged for an official rejoicing and celebration of his death even though he was personally saddened by the loss. When the British asked him why he did this, he replied to satisfy the passions of the people, as for me, I should have gone into a forest to weep over. I have now lost the one who educated me, and toward whom I had always cherished filial, Menelik II was cunning and strategic in building his power base. Another Italian writes of Menelik II, had the curiosity of a boy, great intelligence and great mechanical ability. Menelik II spoke with great economy and rapidity and he never became upset, Chiarini adds, listening calmly, judiciously with good sense. He is fatalistic and a soldier, he loves weapons above all else
24.
Banco Ambrosiano
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Banco Ambrosiano was an Italian bank that collapsed in 1982. At the centre of the failure was its chairman, Roberto Calvi. Vatican Bank was Banco Ambrosianos main shareholder, and the death of Pope John Paul I in 1978 is rumored to be linked to the Ambrosiano scandal, Vatican Bank was also accused of funneling covert United States funds to Solidarity and the Contras through Banco Ambrosiano. Carlo Canesi, senior manager then chairman of Banco Ambrosiano Holding starting from 1965, Roberto Calvi, general manager of Banco Ambrosiano since 1971, appointed chairman from 1975 to his death in June 1982. He was often referred to as Gods Banker because of his financial ties with the Vatican. Paul Marcinkus, president of Vatican Bank, had been a director of Ambrosiano Overseas, based in Nassau, Carlo De Benedetti became deputy-chairman for less than two months, after Roberto Calvis trial. Nuovo Banco Ambrosiano is under Giovanni Bazoli, carlos Guido Natal Coda, head of the Argentine branch of Banco Ambrosiano. The Banco Ambrosiano was founded in Milan in 1896 by Giuseppe Tovini, a Catholic advocate in Valle Camonica, and was named after Saint Ambrose, the fourth century archbishop of the city. Tovinis purpose was to create a Catholic bank as a counterbalance to Italys lay banks, and its goals were serving moral organisations, pious works, the bank came to be known as the priests bank, one chairman was Franco Ratti, nephew to Pope Pius XI. In the 1960s, the bank began to expand its business and this was under the direction of Carlo Canesi, then a senior manager, and from 1965 chairman. In 1967, Canesi brought Roberto Calvi into Ambrosiano, in 1971, Calvi became general manager, and in 1975 he was appointed chairman. Calvi also involved the Vatican Bank, Istituto per le Opere di Religione, in his dealings, and was close to Bishop Paul Marcinkus, Ambrosiano also provided funds for political parties in Italy, and for both the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua and its Sandinista opposition. There are also rumours that it provided money for Solidarity in Poland, Calvi used his complex network of overseas banks and companies to move money out of Italy, to inflate share prices, and to secure massive unsecured loans. In 1978, the Bank of Italy produced a report on Ambrosiano that predicted future disaster, in 1981, police raided the office of Propaganda Due Masonic lodge to apprehend the Worshipful Master Licio Gelli and uncover further evidence against Roberto Calvi. Calvi was arrested, put on trial, and sentenced to four years in prison, however, he was released pending an appeal and retained his position at the bank. His replacement, an employee named Roberto Rosone, was wounded in a Mafia shooting incident. In 1982, it was discovered that the bank was unable to account for $1.287 billion, Calvi fled the country on a false passport, and Rosone arranged for the Bank of Italy to take over. Calvis personal secretary, Graziella Corrocher, left a note denouncing Calvi before leaping to her death from her office window, Calvis body was found hanging from Blackfriars Bridge in London on June 18
25.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
26.
Ambrose
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Aurelius Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose, was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was the Roman governor of Liguria and Emilia, headquartered in Milan, Ambrose was a staunch opponent of Arianism, and has been accused of fostering persecutions of Arians, Jews, and pagans. Ambrose was one of the four original Doctors of the Church and he is notable for his influence on Augustine of Hippo. Ambrose was born into a Roman Christian family about 340 and was raised in Gallia Belgica and his mother was a woman of intellect and piety. Ambroses siblings, Satyrus and Marcellina, are venerated as saints. There is a legend that as an infant, a swarm of bees settled on his face while he lay in his cradle and his father considered this a sign of his future eloquence and honeyed tongue. For this reason, bees and beehives often appear in the saints symbology, after the early death of his father, Ambrose followed his fathers career. He was educated in Rome, studying literature, law, Ambrose was the Governor of Aemilia-Liguria in northern Italy until 374, when he became the Bishop of Milan. He was a popular political figure, and since he was the Governor in the effective capital in the Roman West. In the late 4th century there was a conflict in the diocese of Milan between the Nicene Church and Arians. In 374 the bishop of Milan, Auxentius, an Arian, died, Ambrose went to the church where the election was to take place, to prevent an uproar, which was probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call Ambrose, bishop, which was taken up by the whole assembly. Ambrose was known to be Nicene Christian in belief, but also acceptable to Arians due to the charity shown in matters in this regard. At first he refused the office, for which he was in no way prepared. Upon his appointment, Ambrose fled to a colleagues home seeking to hide, upon receiving a letter from the Emperor Gratian praising the appropriateness of Rome appointing individuals evidently worthy of holy positions, Ambroses host gave him up. Within a week, he was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated bishop of Milan and this raised his popularity even further, giving him considerable political leverage over even the emperor. Ambrose also wrote a treatise by the name of The Goodness of Death, according to legend, Ambrose immediately and forcefully stopped Arianism in Milan. He studied theology with Simplician, a presbyter of Rome, in the confrontation with Arians, Ambrose sought to theologically refute their propositions, which were contrary to the Nicene creed and thus to the officially defined orthodoxy
27.
Archbishop
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In Christianity, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In some cases, like the Lutheran Church of Sweden, it is the denomination leader title, an archbishop may be granted the title, or ordained as chief pastor of a metropolitan see or another episcopal see to which the title of archbishop is attached. Episcopal sees are generally arranged in groups in which the bishop who is the ordinary of one of them has certain powers and he is known as the metropolitan archbishop of that see. As well as the more numerous metropolitan sees, there are 77 Roman Catholic sees that have archiepiscopal rank. In some cases, such a see is the one in a country, such as Luxembourg or Monaco. In others, the title of archdiocese is for reasons attributed to a see that was once of greater importance. Some of these archdioceses are suffragans of a metropolitan archdiocese, an example is the Archdiocese of Avignon, which is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Marseille, Another such example is the Archdiocese of Trnava, Slovakia. Others are immediately subject to the Holy See and not to any metropolitan archdiocese and these are usually aggregated to an ecclesiastical province. An example is the Archdiocese of Hobart in Australia, associated with the Metropolitan ecclesiastical province of Melbourne, the ordinary of such an archdiocese is an archbishop, however, especially in the Anglican Communion, not all archbishops dioceses are called archdioceses. Since then, the title of Coadjutor Archbishop of the see is considered sufficient, the rank of archbishop is conferred on some bishops who are not ordinaries of an archdiocese. They hold the rank not because of the see that they head, the bishop transferred is then known as the Archbishop-Bishop of his new see. An example is Gianfranco Gardin, appointed Archbishop-Bishop of Treviso on 21 December 2009, the title borne by the successor of such an archbishop-bishop is merely that of Bishop of the see, unless he also is granted the personal title of Archbishop. The distinction between metropolitan sees and non-metropolitan archiepiscopal sees exists for titular sees as well as for residential ones, the Annuario Pontificio marks titular sees of the former class with the abbreviation Metr. and the others with Arciv. Many of the sees to which nuncios and heads of departments of the Roman Curia who are not cardinals are assigned are not of archiepiscopal rank. In that case the person who is appointed to such a position is given the title of archbishop. They are usually referred to as Archbishop of the see, not as its Archbishop-Bishop, until 1970, such archbishops were transferred to a titular see. There can be several Archbishops Emeriti of the see, the 2008 Annuario Pontificio listed three living Archbishops Emeriti of Taipei. There is no Archbishop Emeritus of a see, an archbishop who holds a titular see keeps it until death or until transferred to another see
28.
Giacomo Puccini
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Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini was an Italian opera composer who has been called the greatest composer of Italian opera after Verdi. Puccinis early work was rooted in traditional late-19th-century romantic Italian opera, later, he successfully developed his work in the realistic verismo style, of which he became one of the leading exponents. Puccinis most renowned works are La bohème, Tosca, and Madama Butterfly, Puccini was born Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini in Lucca in Tuscany, in 1858. He was one of nine children of Michele Puccini and Albina Magi, the Puccini family was established in Lucca as a local musical dynasty by Puccinis great-great grandfather – also named Giacomo. This first Giacomo Puccini was maestro di cappella of the Cattedrale di San Martino in Lucca and he was succeeded in this position by his son, Antonio Puccini, and then by Antonios son Domenico, and Domenicos son Michele. Each of these men studied music at Bologna, and some additional musical studies elsewhere. Domenico Puccini studied for a time under Giovanni Paisiello, each composed music for the church. In addition, Domenico composed several operas, and Michele composed one opera, Puccinis father Michele enjoyed a reputation throughout northern Italy, and his funeral was an occasion of public mourning, at which the then-famed composer Giovanni Pacini conducted a Requiem. However, when Michele Puccini died in 1864, his son Giacomo was only six years old, as a child, he nevertheless participated in the musical life of the Cattedrale di San Martino, as a member of the boys choir and later as a substitute organist. Puccini was given an education at the seminary of San Michele in Lucca. One of Puccinis uncles, Fortunato Magi, supervised his musical education, Puccini got a diploma from the Pacini School of Music in Lucca in 1880, having studied there with his uncle Fortunato, and later with Carlo Angeloni, who had also instructed Alfredo Catalani. Puccini studied at the conservatory for three years, sharing a room with Pietro Mascagni, in 1880, at the age of 21, Puccini composed his Mass, which marks the culmination of his familys long association with church music in his native Lucca. Puccini wrote a piece called the Capriccio sinfonica as a thesis composition for the Milan Conservatory. Puccinis teachers Ponchielli and Bazzini were impressed by the work, and it was performed at a student concert at the conservatory on 14 July 1883, conducted by Franco Faccio. Puccinis work was reviewed in the Milanese publication Perseveranza. After the premiere of the Capriccio sinfonica, Ponchielli and Puccini discussed the possibility that Puccinis next work might be an opera, Ponchielli invited Puccini to stay at his villa, where Puccini was introduced to another young man named Fernando Fontana. Puccini and Fontana agreed to collaborate on an opera, for which Fontana would provide the libretto, the work, Le Villi, was entered into a competition sponsored by the Sozogno music publishing company in 1883. Although it did not win, Le Villi was later staged at the Teatro Dal Verme, G. Ricordi & Co. music publishers assisted with the premier by printing the libretto without charge
29.
Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
30.
Teatro Regio (Turin)
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The Teatro Regio is a prominent opera house and opera company in Turin, Italy. Its season runs from October to June with the presentation of eight or nine operas given from five to twelve performances of each, however, the cornerstone was not laid until the reign of Charles Emmanuel III in 1738 after Juvarras death. The work was supervised by Benedetto Alfieri until the theatre was completed, the Teatro Regio was inaugurated on 26 December 1740 with Francesco Feos Arsace. It was a sumptuously built facility, seating 1,500, however, the theatre was closed on royal order in 1792 and it became a warehouse. With the French occupation of Turin during the Napoleonic War the theatre was renamed the Teatro Nazionale and finally, after Napoleons ascent to Emperor, Napoleons fall in 1814 saw the theatre returned to its original name, the Regio. In the following years the house went through several periods of financial crisis. Other theatres were built and presented seasons of opera in Turin, among them was the restored Teatro Carignano in 1824. Even before it burnt down, discussions about whether to rebuild the Regio or create a new theatre preoccupied Turin in the early twentieth century. Two plans were presented and the one selected expanded the capacity to 2,415 by removing the fourth and fifth levels of boxes. Work was completed in 1905 but the theatre closed during the First World War, until February 1936, seasons of opera were presented until fire destroyed all but the facade of the Teatro Regio. It remained closed for thirty-seven years, arturo Toscanini was the conductor of the Turin Opera from 1895 to 1898, during which time several productions of the works of Wagner were given Italian premieres. Following the fire, a competition was launched to find an architect. However, due to the war and the financial situation. Even then, work did not start until September 1967 under architect Carlo Mollino, the new house seats 1,750 and is elliptical in shape with a large orchestra level and 37 boxes around its perimeter. An acoustic shell was added to improve its sound, lynn, Karyl Charna, Italian Opera Houses and Festivals, Lanham, Maryland, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.2005. ISBN 0-8108-5359-0 Plantamura, Carol, The Opera Lovers Guide to Europe, New York, ISBN 0-8065-1842-1 Teatro Regio Torino website Category, Opera world premieres at the Teatro Regio
31.
Arturo Toscanini
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Arturo Toscanini was an Italian conductor. He was one of the most acclaimed musicians of the late 19th and of the 20th century, renowned for his intensity, his perfectionism, his ear for detail and sonority. He was at times the music director of La Scala in Milan, the Metropolitan Opera in New York. Toscanini was born in Parma, Emilia-Romagna, and won a scholarship to the music conservatory. Living conditions at the conservatory were harsh, for example, his diet consisted almost completely of fish. When he became successful, he never ate anything that came from the sea and he joined the orchestra of an opera company, with which he toured South America in 1886. Carlo Superti and Aristide Venturi tried unsuccessfully to finish the work, in desperation, the singers suggested the name of their assistant Chorus Master, who knew the whole opera from memory. The public was taken by surprise, at first by the youth and sheer aplomb of this unknown conductor, for the rest of that season, Toscanini conducted eighteen operas, all with absolute success. Thus began his career as a conductor, at age 19, upon returning to Italy, Toscanini set out on a dual path for some time. He continued to conduct, his first appearance in Italy being at the Teatro Carignano in Turin, on November 4,1886, in the world premiere of the revised version of Alfredo Catalanis Edmea. This was the beginning of Toscaninis lifelong friendship and championing of Catalani, however, he also returned to his chair in the cello section, and participated as cellist in the world premiere of Verdis Otello under the composers supervision. The composer was impressed when Toscanini consulted him personally about Verdis Te Deum. Verdi said that he had left it out for fear that certain interpreters would have exaggerated the marking, gradually, Toscaninis reputation as an operatic conductor of unusual authority and skill supplanted his cello career. In the following decade, he consolidated his career in Italy, entrusted with the premieres of Puccinis La bohème. In 1896, Toscanini conducted his first symphonic concert and he exhibited a considerable capacity for hard work, conducting 43 concerts in Turin in 1898. By 1898, Toscanini was Principal Conductor at La Scala, where he remained until 1908, returning as Music Director and he brought the La Scala Orchestra to the United States on a concert tour in 1920/21, during which he made his first recordings. Outside Europe, Toscanini conducted at the Metropolitan Opera in New York as well as the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and he toured Europe with the New York Philharmonic in 1930. At each performance, he and the orchestra were acclaimed by critics, Toscanini was the first non-German conductor to appear at Bayreuth, and the New York Philharmonic was the first non-German orchestra to play there
32.
Battle of Adwa
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The Battle of Adwa was fought on 2 March 1896/Yekatit 23,1889 according to Ethiopian calendar between the Ethiopian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy near the town of Adwa, Ethiopia, in Tigray. This climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War, was a defeat for Italy. As the 20th century approached, Africa had been carved up among the European powers at the Berlin Conference, the two independent exceptions were the Republic of Liberia on the west coast and Ethiopia, or then still commonly known as Abyssinia, in the eastern Horn of Africa region. The newly unified Kingdom of Italy was a newcomer to the imperialist scramble for Africa. Italy had two recently obtained African territories, Eritrea and Italian Somalia, both were near Ethiopia on the Horn of Africa and both were impoverished. Italy sought to improve its position in Africa by conquering Ethiopia, Menelik II was the Ethiopian leader who pitted Italy against its European rivals while stockpiling weapons to defend Ethiopia against the Italians. In 1889, the Italians signed the Treaty of Wuchale with then Negus Menelik of Shewa, the treaty ceded territories previously part of Ethiopia, namely the provinces of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, Serae, and parts of Tigray. In return, Italy promised Menelik the seconds rule, financial assistance, a dispute later arose over the interpretation of the two versions of the document. The Italian-language version of the disputed Article 17 of the treaty stated that the Emperor of Ethiopia was obliged to conduct all foreign affairs through Italian authorities and this would in effect make Ethiopia a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy. The Amharic version of the article stated that the Emperor could use the good offices of the Kingdom of Italy in his relations with foreign nations if he wished. However, the Italian diplomats claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause, the Italian government decided on a military solution to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty. As a result, Italy and Ethiopia faced off in what was later to be known as the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in December 1894, Bahta Hagos led a rebellion against the Italians in Akkele Guzay, in what was then Italian controlled Eritrea. Units of General Oreste Baratieris army under Major Pietro Toselli crushed the rebellion, the Italian army then occupied the Tigrayan capital, Adwa. In January 1895, Baratieris army went on to defeat Ras Mengesha Yohannes in the Battle of Coatit, by late 1895, Italian forces had advanced deep into Ethiopian territory. On 7 December 1895, Ras Makonnen, Ras Welle Betul, the Italians were then forced to withdraw to more defensible positions in Tigray, where the two main armies faced each other. By late February 1896, supplies on both sides were running low, however, the Italian government insisted that General Baratieri act. He opened the meeting on a note, revealing to his brigadiers that provisions would be exhausted in less than five days. His subordinates argued forcefully for an attack, insisting that to retreat at this point would only worsen the poor morale, Dabormida exclaiming, Italy would prefer the loss of two or three thousand men to a dishonorable retreat
33.
Ethiopian Empire
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The Ethiopian Empire, also known as Abyssinia, was a kingdom that spanned a geographical area covered by the northern half of the current state of Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 1137 until 1974, when the Solomonic dynasty was overthrown in a coup détat, the country was one of the founding members of the United Nations in 1945. It was the second-to-last country in Africa to use the title of Emperor, the one later was the Central African Empire. Ethiopias human occupation began early, as evidenced by the findings and it is believed that the ancient Egyptians claimed that Punt, known as gold country, was in Ethiopia in 980 BC, according to the report of the Kebra Nagast Menelik I founded the Ethiopian empire. In the 1st century BC. settled the Axumite empire that existed from the 7th century and this kingdom was founded in the 4th century with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church as the state religion and was thus one of the first Christian states. After the conquest of Aksum by Queen Gudit or Yodit, a period began which some refer to as the Ethiopian Dark Ages. According to Ethiopian tradition, she ruled over the remains of the Aksumite Empire for 40 years before transmitting the crown to her descendants, very little is known about the queen or the state, if indeed there even was one she set up. What is evident, however, is that her reign marked the end of Aksumite control in Ethiopia, the last of Queen Yodits successors were overthrown by Mara Takla Haymanot. He founded the Zagwe dynasty in 1137, and married a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor to stake his claim as the legitimate heir to the long dead empire. The kingdoms capital was at Adafa, not far from modern day Lalibela in the Lasta mountains, the Zagwe continued the Christianity of Aksum and constructed many rock-hewn churches such as those at Lalibela. The dynasty would last until its overthrow by a new regime claiming descent from the old Aksumite kings, in 1270 the Zagwe dynasty was overthrown by a king claiming lineage from the Aksumite kings and, hence, Solomon. The thus-named Solomonic dynasty was founded and ruled by the Habesha, the Habesha reigned with only a few interruptions from 1270 until the late 20th century. It was under this dynasty that most of Ethiopias modern history occurred, during this time, the empire conquered and incorporated virtually all the peoples within modern Ethiopia. They successfully fought off Italian, Arab and Turkish armies and made contacts with some European powers. In 1529 Adal forces, led by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, during the conflict, Adal employed cannons provided by the Ottoman Empire. In the aftermath of the war, Adal annexed Ethiopia, uniting it with territories in what is now Somalia, in 1543, with the help of the Portuguese Empire, the Solomonic dynasty was restored. From 1769 to 1855 the Ethiopian empire was passed through the period of Princes Era and this was a period of Ethiopian history with numerous conflicts between the ras the emperor had a limited power, only dominated the area around the former capital of Gondar. Both the development of society and culture stagnated in this period, religious conflicts, both within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Muslims were often used as a pretext for mutual strife
34.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
35.
Adwa
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Adwa is a market town and separate woreda in northern Ethiopia. It is best known as the community closest to the decisive Battle of Adowa fought in 1896 with Italian troops, notably, Ethiopian soldiers won the battle, thus being the only African nation to thwart European colonialism. Located in the Mehakelegnaw Zone of the Tigray Region, Adwa has a longitude and latitude of 14°10′N 38°54′E, Adwa is surrounded by Adwa woreda. Adwa is home to several churches, Adwa Gebriel Bet, Adwa Maryam Bet, Adwa Medhane Alem Bete, Adwa Nigiste Saba Huletenya Dereja Timhirt Bet. Near Adwa is Abba Garima Monastery, founded in the century by one of the Nine Saints. Also nearby is the village of Fremona, which had been the base of the 16th century Jesuits sent to convert Ethiopia to Catholicism. According to Richard Pankhurst, Adwa derives its name from Adi Awa, Village of the Awa, francisco Alvares records that the Portuguese diplomatic mission passed Adwa, which he called Houses of St. Michael, in August 1520. Despite this claim of antiquity, Adwa only acquired major importance following the establishment of a permanent capital at Gondar. By 1700, it had become the residence for the governor of Tigray province, and grew to overshadow Debarwa, the traditional seat of the Bahr negus, as the most important town in northern Ethiopia. Its market was important enough to need a nagadras, the earliest known person to hold office was the Greek emigre Janni of Adwa. Adwa was home for a colony of Greek merchants into the 19th century. Because of its location on major trade route, it is mentioned in the memoirs of numerous 19th-century Europeans visiting Ethiopia. These include Henry Salt, Samuel Gobat, Mansfield Parkyns, Arnaud and Antoine dAbbadie, after the defeat and death of Ras Sabagadis in the Battle of Debre Abbay, its inhabitants fled Adwa for safety. The town was held by Emperor Tewodros II in January 1860, who had marched from the south in response to the rebellion of Agew Neguse. Giacomo Naretti passed through Adwa in March 1879, after it had been devastated by a typhus epidemic and it had been reduced to a shadow of itself, having about 200 inhabitants. Menelik led the Ethiopian Army to a victory against the Italians. A large tree at the edge of town was pointed out to visitors in the years as where Emperor Menelik passed judgement on the Eritreans captured in the battle. Writing in the 1890s, Augustus B, wylde described the Adwa market, held on Saturdays, as a large one with cattle of all sorts available for purchase
36.
Tigray Region
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Tigray Region is the northernmost of the nine regions of Ethiopia. Tigray is the homeland of the Tigray, Irob and Kunama people, Tigray is also known as Region 1 according to the federal constitution. Tigray is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Sudan to the west, the Afar Region to the east, and the Amhara Region to the south and southwest. Besides Mekele, major cities include Hawzen, Abiy Addi, Alamata, Mekoni, Adigrat, Adwa, Axum, Humera, Korem, Maychew, Qwiha, Shire, Wukro, there is also the historically significant town of Yeha. For the history of the Tigray area prior to 1991, see Tigray Province, at the same time, a growing urban middle class of traders, businessmen and government officials emerged which was both suspicious and distant from the victorious EPRDF. In 1998, war erupted between Eritrea and Ethiopia over a portion of territory that had been administered at part of Tigray, with an estimated area of 41,409.95 square kilometers, this region has an estimated density of 100 people per square kilometer. In the previous census, conducted in 1994, the Regions population was 3,136,267, of whom 1,542,165 were men and 1,594,102 women, urban inhabitants numbered 621,210 or 14% of the population. According to the CSA, as of 2004,53. 99% of the population had access to safe drinking water. At 96. 55% of the population, the region is predominantly inhabited by the Tigrinya speaking Tigray people. The Tigrinya language is classified as belonging to the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family of languages, most other residents hail from other Afro-Asiatic speaking communities, including the Amhara, Irob, Afar, Agaw and Oromo. There are also a minority of Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kunama Nilotes, the working language is Tigrinya, although most urban people are also able to speak Amharic, which was taught in schools. A distinctive feature of Tigray are its rock-hewn churches, similar in design to those of Lalibela in the Amhara Region, these churches are found in four or five clusters – Gheralta, Teka-Tesfay, Atsbi and Tembien – with Wukro sometimes included. Some of the churches are considered earlier than those of Lalibela, mostly monolithic, with designs partly inspired by classical architecture, they are often located at the top of cliffs or steep hills, for security. For example, Tigrays ancient Debre Damo monastery is only by climbing a rope 25 meters up a sheer cliff. Looting has become an issue in the Tigray Region, as archaeological sites have become sources for construction materials. The area is famous for a single rock sculptured 23 meter long obelisk in Axum as well as for other fallen obelisks, the Axum treasure site of ancient Tigrayan history is a major landmark. Yeha is another important local landmark that is little-known outside the region
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First Italo-Ethiopian War
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The First Italo-Ethiopian War was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from 1895 to 1896. It originated from a treaty which, the Italians claimed, turned the country into an Italian protectorate. Full-scale war broke out in 1895, with Italian troops having initial success until Ethiopian troops counterattacked Italian positions and besieged the Italian fort of Meqele, forcing its surrender. Italian defeat came about after the Battle of Adwa, where the Ethiopian army dealt the heavily outnumbered Italians a decisive loss and forced their retreat back into Eritrea. This was not the first African victory over Western colonizers, according to one historian, In an age of relentless European expansion, Ethiopia alone had successfully defended its independence. The Khedive of Egypt Ismail Pasha, Ismail the Magnificent had conquered Eritrea as part of his efforts to give Egypt an African empire, Ismail had tried to follow that conquest with Ethiopia, but the Egyptian attempts to conquer that realm ended in humiliating defeat. Egypt had very much in the French sphere of influence until 1882 when Britain occupied Egypt. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 had turned the Horn of Africa into a strategic region as a navy based in the Horn could interdict any shipping going up. By building naval bases on the Red Sea that could intercept British shipping in the Red Sea, the French hoped to reduce the value of the Suez Canal for the British, and thus lever them out of Egypt. On 3 June 1884, a treaty was signed between Britain, Egypt and Ethiopia that allowed the Ethiopians to occupy parts of Eritrea and allowed the Ethiopian goods to pass in and out of Massawa duty-free. After initially encouraging the Emperor Yohannes IV to move into Eritrea to replace the Egyptians, in 1882, Italy had joined the Triple Alliance, allying herself with Austria and Germany against France. On 5 February 1885 Italian troops landed at Massawa to replace the Egyptians, the Italian government for its part was more than happy to embark upon an imperialist policy to distract its people from the failings in post Risorgimento Italy. To compensate, a chauvinist mood was rampant in Italy with the newspaper Il Diritto writing in an editorial, the year 1885 will decide her fate as a great power. It is necessary to feel the responsibility of the new era, to become again strong men afraid of nothing, with the love of the fatherland, of all Italy. On March 25,1889, the Shewa ruler Menelik II, having conquered Tigray and Amhara, Menelik II continued the policy of Tewodros II of integrating Ethiopia. However, the treaty did not say the same thing in Italian and Amharic. Italian diplomats, however, claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause, moreover, Menelik did not know Italian and only signed the Amharic text of the treaty, being assured that there were no differences between the Italian and Amharic texts before he signed. Francesco Crispi, the Italian Prime Minister was an ultra-imperialist who believed the newly unified Italian state required the grandeur of a second Roman empire, Crispi believed that the Horn of Africa was the best place for the Italians to start building the new Roman empire
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Fasci Siciliani
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The Fasci Siciliani, short for Fasci Siciliani dei Lavoratori, were a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration, which arose in Sicily in the years between 1889 and 1894. The Fasci gained the support of the poorest and most exploited classes of the island by channeling their frustration, the leaders of the movement were not able to keep the situation from getting out of control. Some reforms followed, including compensation and pension schemes. The suppression of the strikes led to an increase in emigration. The immediate demands of the movement were fair land rents, higher wages, lower local taxes, between 1889 and 1893 some 170 Fasci were established in Sicily. According to some sources the movement reached a membership of more than 300,000 by the end of 1893, the Fasci constituted autonomous organizations with their own insignia, uniforms and sometimes even musical bands, and their own local halls for reunions and congresses. They were called Fasci because everyone can break a single stick, while many of the leaders were of socialist or anarchist leanings, few of their supporters were true revolutionaries. Nevertheless, the peasants who assembled into the Fasci were eager for social justice, a crucifix hung beside the red flag in many of their meeting-places, and portraits of the King beside those of the revolutionaries Garibaldi, Mazzini and Marx. Cheers for the King were often heard in their marches that almost resembled quasi-religious processions, many of the Fasci were part of the Italian Workers Party that had been founded at a conference in Genoa on August 14,1892. The rural Fasci in particular were a phenomenon, both ancient and modern. They combined millenarian aspirations with urban intellectual leadership often in contact with workers’ organizations, the Fasci, which included many women, were encouraged by the messianic belief that the start of a new reign of justice was looming and the movement spread like an epidemic. The agrarian crisis between 1888 and 1892 led to a decrease in wheat prices. The island’s main sources of wealth – wine, fruit and sulphur – suffered a heavy blow, the dominant landowning class channeled most of the economic burden on to the peasantry, in the form of higher rents and discriminatory local taxation. As social tension rose, a handful of young and hitherto quite unknown socialist intellectuals – many of them recent graduates of Palermo University – seized their opportunity. The movement grew under the first government of Prime minister Francesco Crispi and coincided with unpopular tax increases, the Italian economy had been sliding into a deep recession since the late 1880s. The first official Fascio was founded on May 1,1891, other leaders included Rosario Garibaldi Bosco in Palermo, Nicola Barbato in Piana dei Greci, Bernardino Verro in Corleone, and Lorenzo Panepinto in Santo Stefano Quisquina. While the ruling elite depicted the men of the Fasci as treasonous socialists, communists and anarchists seeking to overthrow the monarchy, in fact many were devout Catholics and monarchists. The movement sometimes had a nature, characterised by statements as Jesus was a true socialist
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Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida
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Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida was a Sicilian socialist politician and journalist. He is considered to be one of the founders of the Fasci Siciliani a popular movement of democratic, as the first socialist mayor of Catania in Sicily, from 1902 until 1914, he became the protagonist of a kind of municipal socialism. Born in a family in Catania, he spent his childhood years in a children’s home. His father had killed in 1868 by the Carabinieri during a robbery, while his mother, according to a report by the authorities. Released from the home, he found employment as an archivist clerk in the prefecture in 1878 and his combative temperament was played out in journalism. A little over twenty years, in 1880, he founded the political weekly Lo staffile, due to his continuous attacks against local authorities he soon had to leave his job at the prefecture. To feed the family and attend school, he practiced many trades, wine seller, salesman of sewing machines, a printer and he graduated in Law, passed the examinations of attorney, but did not exercise the legal profession ever. A few years later, he was involved with the weekly Lunione, which had emerged as the organ of the Republican Club, De Felice was very active in organizing workers. In 1890 he convened the first congress of associations in Sicily. However, the congress was prohibited by the superintendent of Catania. He married at the age seventeen and had four daughters in a few years, but his turbulent life led his wife, Giuseppa De Simone, to break off the relationship. After the break-up, De Felice would have a busy, on May 1,1891, he founded the first Fascio dei lavoratori in his hometown Catania. The Fascio’s rapid success as a combination of union and mutual benefit society led to the foundation of similar leagues in Palermo. Meanwhile, in November 1892, he was elected a Member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, De Felice was actively engaged in setting up Fasci in the interior of Sicily and travelled extensively over the island. He was often accompanied by his daughter Marietta De Felice Giuffrida, although a socialist by inspiration, he remained independent of the official party. At the Congress of the Fasci in Palermo on May 21–22,1893, De Felice successfully represented the tendency for autonomy within the movement, and was elected a member of the new Central Committee. De Felice, counting on the anarchists, urged immediate insurrection if the government tried to dissolve the Fasci, in 1893 the upheaval of the Fasci turned into strikes which were violently repressed in January 1894, after Francesco Crispi had taken over government from Giovanni Giolitti. After the declaration of a state of siege on Sicily, De Felice Giuffrida left from Rome for Catania, the Fasci are perfectly organized, and will resist the military
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Rosario Garibaldi Bosco
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Rosario Garibaldi Bosco was an Italian Republican-inspired socialist, politician and writer. He was one of the leaders of the Fasci Siciliani, a movement of democratic. Born in Palermo, the son of Nicola and Teresa Patorno and he married Concetta Seminara and became a political activist in radical and socialist circles inspired by Napoleone Colajanni, known as the father of Sicilian socialism. As the secretary of worker associations, he collaborated with La Lega sociale in 1882, at the end of 1883, he founded a local radical association and its radical organ LItalia del popolo, of which he became the responsible editor. After being employed as an accountant at a company, at the end of 1884 the association moved toward anarchist ideas. After the dissolution of the Worker League in 1889 and judicial proceedings against him, he reconciled with Colajanni, in 1891, he became the director of his newspaper LIsola. After a trip to Milan and Paris, he abandoned anarchism while studying the model of the Bourse du travail. He founded the Fasci dei lavoratori in Palermo and was part of the committee of the Fasci Siciliani. He was the keenest socialist among the Fasci leaders, in August 1892 he attended the Italian Socialist Party congress at Genoa and on his return obediently purged his fascio of its anarchist and other non-socialist members. His ideal of a democratic front was shared by the Colajanni. Following the repression by the government of Francesco Crispi, he was arrested on January 16,1894 and was brought to trial, acquitted on charges of armed conspiracy, he was nevertheless sentenced to 12 years for incitement to civil war. After two years he was released in March 1896 as the result of a pardon recognizing the excessive brutality of the repression. On May 26,1895, while still in prison for the Fasci revolt and he was a candidate in protest against the repression of the Fasci Siciliani in many national electoral districts. His appointment was canceled because his age was less than required by law. In 1896 he founded the Socialist Federation of Palermo, initially he joined the revolutionary current but passed over to more moderate positions. He wrote regularly for the outlet of the organisation, Il Giornale dei lavoratori. As a result of his more moderate politics that advocated alliances with bourgeois parties, in July 1900,18 socialist deputies were elected in the Palermo city council. He became a councilor and vice-mayor in consecutive city administrations, as a result, he founded the Camera del Lavoro in Palermo in September 1901
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Nicola Barbato
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Nicola Barbato was a Sicilian medical doctor, socialist and politician. Born in Piana dei Greci, descendant from Arbëreshë, he graduated in medicine at the University of Palermo and he joined the socialist movement around 1878 and in the then prevailing positivist climate he devoted himself to study psychiatry. His work on the psychology of paranoia in the journal of the hospital of Palermo in 1890, was judged positively by Cesare Lombroso. He also was politically, working for the newspaper Lisola. Back in Piana, he witnessed the intense misery on the countryside as a medical officer, in March 1893, he founded and became the leader of the Fasci dei lavoratori of Piana degli Albanesi, and was known as the workers apostle. Other leaders included Rosario Garibaldi Bosco in Palermo, Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida in Catania, the Fascio of Piana was one of the more numerous and better organized, there were more than 2,800 members and included many women. Famous are his Labour Day speeches on May 1 at Portella della Ginestra, the first meeting took place in 1893 and the place became a historic meeting place of local peasantry from the neighbouring towns of Piana degli Albanesi, San Giuseppe Jato and San Cipirello. The tradition was interrupted during the fascist period and resumed after the fall of the Fascist regime, in 1947, Portella della Ginestra was the scene of a massacre that killed 11 people and wounded 33, perpetuated by the bandit Salvatore Giuliano. Barbato was arrested on May 12,1893, for inciting hatred between classes and criminal conspiracy, following the repression of the Fasci Siciliani by the government of Francesco Crispi, he was arrested in January 1894 and was brought to trial. In spite of an eloquent defence, which turned the Court into a platform and thrilled every socialist in the country. “In front of you, ” he said to the judges, “we provided the documents and my friends thought it necessary to support their defence legally, I will not do so. Not because I have no confidence in you, but it is the law that does not concern me, so I do not defend myself. You have to sentence, we are the elements that destroy your sacred institutions and you have to sentence, it is logical, human. I will always pay tribute to your loyalty, but we say to our friends outside, do not ask for pardon, do not ask for amnesty. Socialist civilization should not begin with an act of cowardice and we demand a condemnation, we do not ask for mercy. Martyrs are more useful to the cause than any propaganda. His famous self-defence in the Court has entered the socialist historiography, the heavy sentence aroused strong reactions in Italy and even in the United States. In Palermo a group of students went to the Teatro Bellini, in the elections in May 1895, he was elected for the Italian Socialist Party while he was still in prison
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Bernardino Verro
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Bernardino Verro was a Sicilian syndicalist and politician. He was involved in the Fasci Siciliani a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration in 1891-1894 and he was killed by the Mafia. Verro was involved in the foundation of the Fascio dei lavoratori of Corleone on September 8,1892, at the age of 26, Verro became its president. Our Fascio has about six members, he told the journalist Adolfo Rossi. Our women have understood the advantages of union among the poor, verro’s influence was not limited to Corleone. He was involved in setting up Fasci in neighbouring towns and mediated conflicts, travelling by mule, he spread the message also in nearby towns. At the Congress of the Fasci in Palermo on May 21–22,1893, in July 1893, he hosted a conference at Corleone that drafted model agrarian contracts for labourers, sharecroppers and tenants and presented them to the landowners. When those refused to negotiate a strike against landowners and against state taxes broke out over a part of western Sicily. The so-called Patti di Corleone, are considered by historians to be the first trade union collective contract in capitalist Italy, the Mafiosi were sometimes needed to enforce flying pickets with credible threats of violence and to make the strike costly to landowners by destroying their property. In order to give the strike teeth and to himself from harm, Verro became a member of a Mafia group in Corleone. In a memoir written many years later, he described the ritual he underwent in the spring of 1893, was invited to take part in a secret meeting of the Fratuzzi. I entered a room where there were many men armed with guns sitting around a table. In the center of the table there was a skull drawn on a piece of paper and a knife. However, during the strike of the Fasci in September 1893. After that, Verro broke away from the mafiosi, and – according to police reports – became their most bitter enemy, Verro was arrested on January 16,1894, after Prime Minister Francesco Crispi had ordered a crackdown on the Fasci. Together with other leaders of the Fasci Rosario Garibaldi Bosco, Nicola Barbato he tried to board the steamship Bagnara that was about to leave for Tunis. On May 30,1894, the leaders of the movement were convicted, Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida was sentenced to 18 years in jail and Garibaldi Bosco, Barbato and Verro to 12 years. After two years, in March 1896, he was released as the result of a pardon recognizing the excessive brutality of the repression
