1.
1887 in science
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The year 1887 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. April – Carte du Ciel project initiated by Paris Observatory director Amédée Mouchez, theodor von Oppolzers Canon der Finsternisse, a compilation of the 8,000 solar and 5,200 lunar eclipses from 1200 BC until 2161 AD, is published posthumously. Jean Pierre Mégnin publishes Faune des Tombeaux, the work of modern forensic entomology. Sergei Winogradsky discovers the first known form of lithotrophy during his research with Beggiatoa, Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection developed by Émile Guyou. January 28 – In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, in the United States and they are 15 inches wide and 8 inches thick. September 28 – Start of the Yellow River floods in China,900,000 dead, june 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nations first national park, Banff National Park. February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, in Hawaii, the Mauna Loa volcano eruptions subside, having begun in 1843. During the 1887 eruption, about 2½ million tons of lava per hour pours out, march 3 – Anne Sullivan begins to teach language to the deaf and blind Helen Keller. July 26 – L. L. Zamenhof publishes Lingvo internacia under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto, Joseph Louis François Bertrand rediscovers Bertrands ballot theorem. Henri Poincaré provides a solution to the three-body problem, january 11 – Louis Pasteurs anti-rabies treatment is defended in the French Academy of Medicine by Dr. Joseph Grancher. August – The U. S. National Institutes of Health is founded at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, NY, october 1 – Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese founded by Patrick Manson. Franz König publishes Über freie Körper in den Gelenken in the journal Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, the Hospitals Association establishes the first register of nurses in the United Kingdom. November – The Michelson-Morley experiment is performed, indicating that the speed of light is independent of motion, heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect on the production and reception of electromagnetic waves in radio, an important step towards the understanding of the quantum nature of light. November – G. Stanley Hall founds The American Journal of Psychology, richard Hodgson and S. J. Davey, in the course of investigations into popular belief in parapsychology, publish one of the first descriptions of eyewitness unreliability. March 8 – Everett Horton of Connecticut patents a fishing rod of telescoping steel tubes, march 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs. June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a U. S. patent for his punched card calculator, july – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk in Scotland. July 19 – Dorr Eugene Felt receives the first U. S. patent for his comptometer, august – Anna Connelly patents the fire escape. November 8 – Emile Berliner is granted a U. S. patent for his Gramophone, adolf Gaston Eugen Fick invents the contact lens, made of a type of brown glass
2.
1903 in science
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The year 1903 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. June 27 – 19-year-old American socialite Aida de Acosta becomes the first woman to fly an aircraft solo when she pilots Santos-Dumonts motorized dirigible. 9, from Paris to Château de Bagatelle in France, december 17 – First documented, successful, controlled, powered flight of a heavier-than-air aircraft with a petrol engine by Orville Wright in the Wright Flyer at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of papers discussing the use of liquid fuel rockets to reach space, space suits. The type specimen of the squid is described by Carl Chun. Fauna and Flora International is founded as the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire by a group of British naturalists, formal opening of the Johnston Laboratories at the University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England. Peter Cooper Hewitt demonstrates the mercury-vapour lamp, mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet invents chromatography, an important analytic technique. The International Committee of Atomic Weights publishes the inaugural atomic weights report, october – Frank Nelson Cole demonstrates that the Mersenne number 267-1, or M67, is composite by factoring it as 193,707,721 *761,838,257,287. Fast Fourier Transform algorithm presented by Carle David Tolmé Runge, edmund Georg Hermann Landau gives considerably simpler proof of the prime number theorem. March–April – David Bruce identifies the parasitic Trypanosoma protist as the source of African trypanosomiasis, may 10 – Antoni Leśniowski publishes the first article implicating what will later be known as Crohns disease, in the Polish weekly medical newspaper Medycyna. Ernest Fourneau synthesizes and patents Amylocaine, the first synthetic local anesthetic, George Darwin and John Joly claim that radioactivity is partially responsible for the Earths heat. Prosper-René Blondlot claims to have detected N rays, norwegian engineer Ægidius Elling builds the first gas turbine to generate power, using a centrifugal compressor. Laminated glass is invented by Edouard Benedictus, baker valve gear for steam locomotives is first patented in the United States. The Lune Valley boiler is patented by John G. A, january 27 – John Eccles, Australian-born psychologist. January 28 – Kathleen Lonsdale, née Yardley, Irish-born crystallographer, february 2 – Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, Dutch mathematician. February 22 – Frank P. Ramsey, English mathematician, april 6 – Doc Harold Eugene Edgerton, American electrical engineer. April 9 – Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist, co-inventor of the oral contraceptive pill. April 25 – Andrey Kolmogorov, Russian mathematician, may 2 – Benjamin Spock, American pediatrician and writer
3.
1905 in science
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The year 1905 in science and technology involved some significant events, particularly in physics, listed below. January 2 – Charles Dillon Perrine at Lick Observatory discovers Elara, the Dominion Observatory opens in Ottawa. Various astronomers discover the minor planets 554 Peraga through 583 Klotilde, the nova V604 Aquilae appears in the constellation Aquila. The Umov effect is noted by Nikolay Umov, april 18 – William Bateson coins the term genetics in a letter to Adam Sedgwick. Reginald Punnetts Mendelism is published in Cambridge, probably the first popular book on genetics. Frederick Blackman proposes his law of limiting factors in relation to photosynthesis, nettie Stevens and Edmund Beecher Wilson independently describe the XY sex-determination system. Stamen Grigorov identifies the bacterium Lactobacillus bulgaricus, an agent in the creation of yogurt. Maltese doctor and archaeologist Themistocles Zammit identifies unpasteurized milk as the source of the pathogen causing Brucellosis. National Association of Audubon Societies for the Protection of Wild Birds, Carl von Linde obtains pure liquid oxygen and nitrogen by cooling air. Alfred Einhorn synthesises the local anesthetic novocaine, the first commercial use of the Frank–Caro process for the nitrogen fixation reaction of calcium carbide and atmospheric nitrogen to produce calcium nitrate as a fertilizer. Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch develop the Haber process for making ammonia from its elements, pierre Fatou defines the Mandelbrot set. Oswald Veblen proves the Jordan curve theorem, martin Kutta describes the popular fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. James Cullen, S. J. begins the study of Cullen numbers, emanuel Lasker proves the Lasker–Noether theorem for the special case of polynomial rings. The Saurian Expedition led by John C, merriam recovers many specimens of ichthyosaur. Tyrannosaurus rex is described and named by Henry Fairfield Osborn, albert Einstein publishes his four Annus Mirabilis papers. In particular, he formulates the theory of relativity and states the law of mass-energy conservation. He also explains the effect by quantization and mathematically analyzes Brownian motion. Because of this,1905 is said to be the year for physics
4.
1897 in art
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April 3 – Vienna Secession founded by artists including Gustav Klimt, Koloman Moser, Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Max Kurzweil. May 1 – Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum opened in Copenhagen, may 27 – A Separate Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture is staged at Sukiennice Museum in Main Square, Kraków. August 4 – The Lady of Elche Iberian sculpture is found at LAlcúdia near Elche in Spain, september – Edvard Munch stages a major retrospective in Christiania. October 27 – First meeting of the Society of Polish Artists Sztuka in Kraków, at Giverny, Claude Monet begins painting his Water Lilies series, which will continue until the end of his life. Elbridge Ayer Burbank begins painting portraits of Native Americans in the United States from life, women photographers Zaida Ben-Yusuf and Gertrude Käsebier open portrait studios in New York City. A Book of Fifty Drawings by Aubrey Beardsley is published, bernard Berenson publishes Central Italian Painters of the Renaissance. Ogata Gekkō – Ryu sho ten J. W. and Mrs. I
5.
1897 in architecture
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The year 1897 in architecture involved some significant events. May 1 Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum, designed by Wilhelm Dahlerup, tennessee Centennial Exposition opens in Nashville, with a temporary pyramid for Memphis, TN and a copy of the Parthenon, which will be rebuilt of permanent materials in the 1920s. May 12 - The new Oxford Town Hall, designed by Henry Hare, is opened in England. May 16 - The Teatro Massimo is inaugurated in Palermo, it is the largest opera theatre in Italy, november 1 - The Library of Congress Building in Washington, D. C. designed by Paul J. Pelz, is opened. Christmas - The Cathedral of St. Vincent de Paul, Tunis, is completed, the Secession Building, Vienna, designed by Joseph Maria Olbrich is completed in Austria. Glasgow School of Art, designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, is begun in Scotland, the Arts and Crafts movement house Munstead Wood, designed by Edwin Lutyens for Gertrude Jekyll, is begun in England. The Flatiron Building of Atlanta, Georgia, United States is completed, the Battenberg Mausoleum, Sofia, designed by Hermann Mayer, is completed. The Weaver building, a mill at Swansea in Wales, becomes the first building in the United Kingdom to be constructed from reinforced concrete, dresden Hauptbahnhof railway station in Germany, designed by Ernst Giese and Paul Weidner, is completed. Restoration and remodelling of Castelldefels Castle in Spain by Enric Sagnier is completed, april 3 - Vienna Secession group founded by Otto Wagner, Joseph Maria Olbrich and Josef Hoffmann among others. David Ewart succeeds Thomas Fuller as Chief Dominion Architect of the Government of Canada, james Knox Taylor becomes Supervising Architect of the United States Department of the Treasury. RIBA Royal Gold Medal - Pierre Cuypers, english architect June 22 - William Mason, New Zealand architect William Lang, American architect
6.
1897 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1897. January–March – Oscar Wilde, imprisoned in Reading Gaol in England, writes his letter to his lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, january 2 – Newspapers in London, England erroneously report the death of Mark Twain. It is believed that the rumors began when Twains cousin had become ill, Twain makes his famous statement the report of my death was an exaggeration. April–December – H. G. Wells science fiction novel The War of the Worlds is serialised in Pearsons Magazine, april 13 – The Grand Guignol is opened in Paris by Oscar Méténier. May 19 – Oscar Wilde is released early this morning from Pentonville Prison in London and this afternoon he visits Hatchards bookshop briefly before catching an evening train to Newhaven en route to exile on the continent under the name Sebastian Melmoth. On May 18 he had staged a reading of a version at the Lyceum Theatre. July 2 – Yorkshire Dialect Society founded, the oldest such society in England, july 25 – Writer Jack London sails to join the Klondike Gold Rush where he will write his first successful stories. October – First issue Albina, the Romanian literary and agriculturalist magazine aimed at a peasant readership, put out in Bucharest by Ioan Kalinderu, George Coșbuc, november 1 – The Library of Congress Building in Washington, D. C. is opened. December 30 – The comedy The White Horse Inn, by Oscar Blumenthal and Gustav Kadelburg, opens in Berlin, decades later it will be turned into a popular, hall Caines novel The Christian is published, becoming the first in Britain to sell a million copies. Anna Katharine Greens That Affair Next Door introduces the first female fictional character in a novel, Amelia Butterworth. Benito Pérez Galdós is elected to the Real Academia Española, the publisher Doubleday is founded as the Doubleday & McClure Company by Frank Nelson Doubleday in partnership with magazine publisher Samuel McClure in New York City. The publisher Commercial Press is founded as the first modern publishing organisation in China by 26-year-old Xia Ruifang and three friends in Shanghai
7.
1897 in music
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January 13 – At a memorial concert in Paris for composer Emmanuel Chabrier, the first act of his uncompleted work, Briséïs, is performed for the first time. It would be years before Rachmaninoff would compose a piece of music again. September 8-October 8 - Gustav Mahler becomes director of the Vienna Court Opera, the Cakewalk matures into Ragtime music. John Philip Sousas band makes phonograph recordings of Cakewalks and early Ragtime, andré Messager becomes musical director of the Opéra-Comique. Ralph Vaughan Williams studies with Max Bruch in Berlin, Teatro Nuovo in Bergamo changes its name to Teatro Donizetti. Composer Alexander Scriabin marries pianist Vera Ivanovna, Ben Harney – Ben Harneys Rag Time Instructor Asleep In The Deep w. Arthur J. Lamb m. Henry W. Petrie At A Georgia Camp Meeting w. m. Victor Herbert Beautiful Isle of Somewhere w. Mrs Jessie Brown Pounds m, john S. Fearis Break The News To Mother w. m. Charles K. Harris Danny Deever w. Rudyard Kipling m. Walter Damrosch Harlem Rag m, tom Turpin Let em All Come w. m. T. W. Connor Louisiana Rag m. Theodore H. Northrup On The Banks Of The Wabash Far Away w. m, Paul Dresser Our Lodgers Such A Nice Young Man w. m. Fred Murray & Laurence Barclay Roustabout Rag m. Paul Sarebresole The Shuffling Coon by J. R. Todd Song Of India m, nikolai Rimsky Korsakov The Stars and Stripes Forever m. John Philip Sousa Syncopated Sandy by Wayburn & Whiting Take Back Your Gold w. m. Monroe H. Rosenfeld Theres A Little Star Shining For You w. m
8.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
9.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
10.
J. J. Thomson
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He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London and appointed to the Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics at the Cambridge Universitys Cavendish Laboratory in 1884. Thomson is also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of an element in 1913. His experiments to determine the nature of positively charged particles, with Francis William Aston, were the first use of mass spectrometry, Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. Seven of his students, including his son George Paget Thomson and his record is comparable only to that of the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Joseph John Thomson was born 18 December 1856 in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, Lancashire and his mother, Emma Swindells, came from a local textile family. His father, Joseph James Thomson, ran a bookshop founded by a great-grandfather. He had a two years younger than he was, Frederick Vernon Thomson. J. J. Thomson was a devout Anglican and his early education was in small private schools where he demonstrated outstanding talent and interest in science. In 1870 he was admitted to Owens College at the young age of 14. His parents planned to enroll him as an engineer to Sharp-Stewart & Co, a locomotive manufacturer. He moved on to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1876, in 1880 he obtained his BA in mathematics. He applied for and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1881, Thomson received his MA in 1883. Thomson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1884, on 22 December 1884 Thomson was chosen to become Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge. The appointment caused considerable surprise, given that such as Richard Glazebrook were older. Thomson was known for his work as a mathematician, where he was recognized as an exceptional talent. In 1890, Thomson married Rose Elisabeth Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, KCB and they had one son, George Paget Thomson, and one daughter, Joan Paget Thomson. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1906, in recognition of the merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases. He was knighted in 1908 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1912, in 1914 he gave the Romanes Lecture in Oxford on The atomic theory
11.
Electron
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The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e− or β−, with a negative elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, the electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the include a intrinsic angular momentum of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant. As it is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of particles and waves, they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. Since an electron has charge, it has an electric field. Electromagnetic fields produced from other sources will affect the motion of an electron according to the Lorentz force law, electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when they are accelerated. Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping individual electrons as well as electron plasma by the use of electromagnetic fields, special telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space. Electrons are involved in applications such as electronics, welding, cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization detectors. Interactions involving electrons with other particles are of interest in fields such as chemistry. The Coulomb force interaction between the positive protons within atomic nuclei and the negative electrons without, allows the composition of the two known as atoms, ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the binding energy of an atomic system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the cause of chemical bonding. In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of a quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms. Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this charge electron in 1891, electrons can also participate in nuclear reactions, such as nucleosynthesis in stars, where they are known as beta particles. Electrons can be created through beta decay of isotopes and in high-energy collisions. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, it is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical, when an electron collides with a positron, both particles can be totally annihilated, producing gamma ray photons. The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur, along with lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanitys earliest recorded experiences with electricity. In his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electricus, both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum, which came from the Greek word for amber, ἤλεκτρον
12.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
13.
Boulton and Watt
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Boulton & Watt was an early British engineering and manufacturing firm in the business of designing and making marine and stationary steam engines. The partnership was formed in 1775 to exploit Watts patent for an engine with a separate condenser. This made much more efficient use of its fuel than the older Newcomen engine, initially the business was based at the Soho Manufactory near Boultons Soho House on the southern edge of the then-rural parish of Handsworth. However most of the components for their engines were made by others, in 1795, they began to make steam engines themselves at their Soho Foundry in Smethwick, near Birmingham, England. The partnership was passed to two of their sons in 1800, William Murdoch was made a partner of the firm in 1810, where he remained until his retirement 20 years later at the age of 76. The firm lasted over 120 years, albeit renamed James Watt & Co. in 1849, and was making steam engines in 1895. The business was a hotbed for the nurturing of emerging engineering talent, among the names which were employed there in the eighteenth century were James Law, Peter Ewart, William Brunton, Isaac Perrins, William Murdoch, and John Southern. The firm left an extremely detailed archive of its activities, which was given to the city of Birmingham in 1911 and is kept at the Library of Birmingham, the library has since obtained various other related archives. An additional archive was donated to the Boulton and Watt collection in 2015 and it represents the research carried out by John Richardson The archive includes, A copy of his completed P. h. D. thesis submitted to the University of Reading in 1989. The original thesis remains the property of the University of Reading and this information includes portfolio number, dates of drawings and comments on techniques used. Where applicable, the cross reference with letters, books and other related literature on the firm of Boulton. A selection of DVDs containing all text and the many drawings studied are also included in the archive and this research is primarily concerned with the contribution of the firm of Boulton and Watt to engineering drawing used in design and manufacture. Reports from Australia confirmed that the engine was erected in the Power House Museum, Ultimo and this engine was originally designed and built for Samuel Whitbread in 1784 and the job portfolio contains forty four drawings that relate to it. Copies of the different types of drawings were made and sent out, they provided all the information required to re assemble. Smethwick Engine, Thinktank science museum, Birmingham, manufactured 1779, Whitbread Engine, Powerhouse Museum, Sydney, manufactured 1785,25 inch bore,72 inch stroke. Crofton Pumping Station manufactured 1812,42.25 inch bore,84 inch stroke, kew Bridge Steam Museum manufactured 1820,64 inch bore,96 inch stroke. Samuel Clegg Steam engine Watt steam engine William Murdoch Hills, Richard L. James Watt, the Non-Rotative Beam Engine Chapter 3, The Boulton and Watt Engine Maurice Kelly ISBN 0-9536523-3-5 Archives of Soho at Birmingham Central Library. Revolutionary Players website Cornwall Record Office Boulton & Watt letters
14.
Smethwick Engine
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The Smethwick Engine is a Watt steam engine made by Boulton and Watt, which was installed near Birmingham, England, and was brought into service in May 1779. Now at Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, it is the oldest working steam engine and the oldest working engine in the world. Originally, it was one of two engines used to pump water back up to the 491 foot summit level of the BCN Old Main Line canal at Smethwick. The other engine, also built by Boulton and Watt, was at the end of the summit level at Spon Lane. In 1804 a second Boulton and Watt engine was added alongside the 1779 engine, the engines were needed because local water sources were insufficient to supply water to operate the six locks either side of the canals original summit. The locks could have been avoided if a tunnel had been built, in the 1780s, a cutting was constructed by John Smeaton, enabling three of the six locks on each side to be removed. In the 1820s, Thomas Telford constructed a new parallel to the old in a deeper cutting, at the 453 ft Birmingham Level. It was spanned by the Galton Bridge, in 1892, a replacement engine was built in a new pumping house, now Grade II listed, next to Brasshouse Lane, as the original Smethwick Engine was considered uneconomic to repair. The original Smethwick Engine was then removed to British Waterways Ocker Hill depot where it remained until acquired by Birmingham City Council and it is now part of the collection of Birmingham Museums and is on display at Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum at Millennium Point. It is the oldest working engine in the world, the engine house was demolished in 1897. Its original site and foundations can still be seen on Bridge Street North in Smethwick, the pumping station was featured in an episode of The Water Boatman presented by Alan Herd on the Discovery Shed TV channel in November 2011
15.
Birmingham Canal Navigations
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Birmingham Canal Navigations is a network of canals connecting Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and the eastern part of the Black Country. The BCN is connected to the rest of the English canal system at several junctions, at its working peak, the BCN contained about 160 miles of canals, today just over 100 miles are navigable, and the majority of traffic is from tourist and residential narrowboats. This cumbersome name was short-lived, and the company became known as the Birmingham Canal Navigations from 1794. The BCN is built on three levels, each with its own reservoirs. 453 feet O. D. the Birmingham Level,473 feet O. D. the Wolverhampton Level,408 feet O. D. the Walsall Level These levels are linked by locks at various places on the network, there are also stretches on their own levels. The Titford Canal and its branches were built at 511 feet O. D. linked to the Titford Reservoir, a feeder supplies water to the Edgbaston Reservoir. A short section of the BCN Old Main Line, at Smethwick Summit, was built at 491 feet O. D. Pumps at either end were built to water used by the locks back to the summit - one at Spon Lane locks, and one at Smethwick locks. It also linked to the general Wolverhampton Level supply of water, BCN Main Line from Aldersley Junction to Gas Street Basin, using some of the Old Main Line canal. Old Main Line, originally terminating in Birmingham at two wharfs now built upon, Old Wharf and Newhall Wharf, new Main Line, a revised route for the Birmingham Canal, double towpathed, largely progressing in straight lines using cuttings and tunnels. From 1983, it erected signposts at most of the junctions on the BCN. The Smethwick Engine Transport in Birmingham Stourport Ring Waterscape Broadbridge, S. R, the Birmingham Canal Navigations, Vol.11768 -1846. The Story of a Great Station Including Curzon Street, the Canals of the West Midlands. Canal Companion - Birmingham Canal Navigations, - canal maps and text Perrott, David, Mosse, Jonathan. Nicholson Waterways Guide 3 - Birmingham & the Heart of England, - Highly detailed printed 1,30,000 sheet map BCN Society Jim Sheads website 1973 photographs
16.
David Hilbert
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David Hilbert was a German mathematician. He is recognized as one of the most influential and universal mathematicians of the 19th, Hilbert discovered and developed a broad range of fundamental ideas in many areas, including invariant theory and the axiomatization of geometry. He also formulated the theory of Hilbert spaces, one of the foundations of functional analysis, Hilbert adopted and warmly defended Georg Cantors set theory and transfinite numbers. A famous example of his leadership in mathematics is his 1900 presentation of a collection of problems set the course for much of the mathematical research of the 20th century. Hilbert and his students contributed significantly to establishing rigor and developed important tools used in mathematical physics. Hilbert is known as one of the founders of theory and mathematical logic. In late 1872, Hilbert entered the Friedrichskolleg Gymnasium, but, after a period, he transferred to. Upon graduation, in autumn 1880, Hilbert enrolled at the University of Königsberg, in early 1882, Hermann Minkowski, returned to Königsberg and entered the university. Hilbert knew his luck when he saw it, in spite of his fathers disapproval, he soon became friends with the shy, gifted Minkowski. In 1884, Adolf Hurwitz arrived from Göttingen as an Extraordinarius, Hilbert obtained his doctorate in 1885, with a dissertation, written under Ferdinand von Lindemann, titled Über invariante Eigenschaften spezieller binärer Formen, insbesondere der Kugelfunktionen. Hilbert remained at the University of Königsberg as a Privatdozent from 1886 to 1895, in 1895, as a result of intervention on his behalf by Felix Klein, he obtained the position of Professor of Mathematics at the University of Göttingen. During the Klein and Hilbert years, Göttingen became the preeminent institution in the mathematical world and he remained there for the rest of his life. Among Hilberts students were Hermann Weyl, chess champion Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, john von Neumann was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether. Between 1902 and 1939 Hilbert was editor of the Mathematische Annalen, good, he did not have enough imagination to become a mathematician. Hilbert lived to see the Nazis purge many of the prominent faculty members at University of Göttingen in 1933 and those forced out included Hermann Weyl, Emmy Noether and Edmund Landau. One who had to leave Germany, Paul Bernays, had collaborated with Hilbert in mathematical logic and this was a sequel to the Hilbert-Ackermann book Principles of Mathematical Logic from 1928. Hermann Weyls successor was Helmut Hasse, about a year later, Hilbert attended a banquet and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust
17.
Algebraic number theory
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Algebraic number theory is a branch of number theory that uses the techniques of abstract algebra to study the integers, rational numbers, and their generalizations. Number-theoretic questions are expressed in terms of properties of objects such as algebraic number fields and their rings of integers, finite fields. Diophantine equations have been studied for thousands of years, for example, the solutions to the quadratic Diophantine equation x2 + y2 = z2 are given by the Pythagorean triples, originally solved by the Babylonians. Solutions to linear Diophantine equations, such as 26x + 65y =13, diophantus major work was the Arithmetica, of which only a portion has survived. Fermats last theorem was first conjectured by Pierre de Fermat in 1637, no successful proof was published until 1995 despite the efforts of countless mathematicians during the 358 intervening years. The unsolved problem stimulated the development of number theory in the 19th century. In this book Gauss brings together results in number theory obtained by such as Fermat, Euler, Lagrange and Legendre. Before the Disquisitiones was published, number theory consisted of a collection of isolated theorems, Gauss brought the work of his predecessors together with his own original work into a systematic framework, filled in gaps, corrected unsound proofs, and extended the subject in numerous ways. The Disquisitiones was the point for the work of other nineteenth century European mathematicians including Ernst Kummer, Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet. Many of the annotations given by Gauss are in effect announcements of further research of his own and they must have appeared particularly cryptic to his contemporaries, we can now read them as containing the germs of the theories of L-functions and complex multiplication, in particular. In a couple of papers in 1838 and 1839 Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet proved the first class number formula, the formula, which Jacobi called a result touching the utmost of human acumen, opened the way for similar results regarding more general number fields. Based on his research of the structure of the group of quadratic fields, he proved the Dirichlet unit theorem. He first used the principle, a basic counting argument, in the proof of a theorem in diophantine approximation. He published important contributions to Fermats last theorem, for which he proved the cases n =5 and n =14, the Dirichlet divisor problem, for which he found the first results, is still an unsolved problem in number theory despite later contributions by other researchers. Richard Dedekinds study of Lejeune Dirichlets work was what led him to his study of algebraic number fields. 1879 and 1894 editions of the Vorlesungen included supplements introducing the notion of an ideal, fundamental to ring theory, Dedekind defined an ideal as a subset of a set of numbers, composed of algebraic integers that satisfy polynomial equations with integer coefficients. The concept underwent further development in the hands of Hilbert and, especially, ideals generalize Ernst Eduard Kummers ideal numbers, devised as part of Kummers 1843 attempt to prove Fermats Last Theorem. David Hilbert unified the field of number theory with his 1897 treatise Zahlbericht
18.
John Edward Campbell
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John Edward Campbell was a mathematician, best known for his contribution to the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula. Campbell was born in a family of a doctor, also named John Campbell and he studied first at the Methodist College in Belfast and then at Queens University Belfast, graduating in 1884. He then won a scholarship to study at the Oxford University, there he won the Junior Mathematical University Scholarship in 1885, became a College Fellow in 1887, obtained a Senior Scholarship in 1888, and eventually became a tutor. Campbell was noted as a charming and highly devoted teacher and a proponent of womens education, Campbell made his most notable contribution to mathematics in 1897 by introducing a formula for multiplication of exponentials in Lie algebras. This formula was later elaborated by Henri Poincaré and Henry Frederick Baker and it was later systematized geometrically by Felix Hausdorff and became known as Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula. In 1903, Campbell published a book on Introductory Treatise on Lies Theory of Finite Continuous Transformation Groups where he popularized the ideas of Sophus Lie. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1905 and he was tutor to the future literary scholar C. S. Lewis in 1917, assisting Lewis with Responsions in mathematics as part of the entrance requirements for Oxford University/. Campbell was the first mathematician from Oxford who was invited, shortly before his death, Campbell married Sarah Hardman in the Ashton Registration District in the late 1889. They had three sons and one daughter, all born in Oxford, John Maurice Hardman Campbell William Percy Campbell Patrick James Campbell Dorothea Mary Hardman Campbell, William enrolled into the Oxford College in October 1913 but went to the World War I fronts the next year. He fought with the Wiltshire Regiment as a Second Lieutenant in the 3rd Battalion starting from October 1914 and was killed in action only a few weeks later and he was the uncle of Air Chief Marshal Sir Donald Hardman. Introductory treatise on Lies theory of transformation groups
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Henri Brocard
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Pierre René Jean Baptiste Henri Brocard was a French meteorologist and mathematician, in particular a geometer. His best-known achievement is the invention and discovery of the properties of the Brocard points, the Brocard circle, contemporary mathematician Nathan Court wrote that he, along with Émile Lemoine and Joseph Neuberg, was one of the three co-founders of modern triangle geometry. He is listed as an Emeritus at the International Academy of Science, was awarded the Ordre des Palmes Académiques and he spent most of his life studying meteorology as an officer in the French Navy, but seems to have made no notable original contributions to the subject. Pierre René Jean Baptiste Henri Brocard was born on 12 May 1845, in Vignot, Meuse to Elizabeth Auguste Liouville and he attended the Lycée in Marseilles as a young child, and then the Lycée in Strasbourg. Brocard attended the École Polytechnique from 1865 to 1867, as was the norm at the time, he, after graduation, became a technical officer in the French military, which had been reorganized in 1866. He acted as a meteorologist in the French navy, and general technician as well, Brocard soon saw active service, as Napoleon III declared war upon Prussia. Brocard was one of the 120,000 men under Marshal MacMahon led to Metz to free the French army of the Rhine. The French army, however, was defeated on 31 August at the Battle of Sedan and he joined the Société Mathématique de France in 1873, just a year after its founding. In 1875 he was inducted into the French Association for the Advancement of Science as well as the French Meteorological Society and he was shortly after sent to northern Africa, where he served as a military technician for the French forces stationed in Algiers, the seat of French Africa. While in Algiers, Brocard founded the Meteorological Institute of Algiers, Brocard also visited Oran while in northern Africa, which was occupied by the French in 1831. In 1884 Brocard returned to France and he served with the Meteorological Commission in Montpellier before moving to Grenoble and lastly Bar-le-duc. He honorably retired from the French military in 1910 as a lieutenant colonel and his remaining two major publications were Notes de bibliographie des courbes géométriques and the Courbes géométriques remarquables which was written in collaboration with T. Lemoyne. Brocard attended the International Congress of Mathematicians at Zurich in 1897, Paris in 1900, Heidelberg in 1904, Rome in 1908, Cambridge, England in 1912, Brocard spent the last years of his life in Bar-le-Duc. He was offered the presidency of Bar-le-Ducs Letters, Sciences, and Arts Society, of which he had been a member and correspondent for several foreign academies of. He died on 16 January 1922 while on a trip to Kensington, London, Brocards most well-known contributions to mathematics are the Brocard points, the Brocard circle, and the Brocard triangle. The positive Brocard point of a Euclidean plane triangle is the point of the triangle for which the three angles formed by two of the vertices and the point are equal. Their common value is the Brocard angle of the triangle, the Brocard circle of the triangle is a circle having a diameter of the line segment between the circumcenter and symmedian. The Brocard triangle is inscribed in the Brocard circle, Brocard published various other papers on mathematics during his time at Bar-le-duc, none of which became as well known as Etudes dun nouveau cercle du plan du triangle
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Curve
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In mathematics, a curve is, generally speaking, an object similar to a line but that need not be straight. Thus, a curve is a generalization of a line, in that curvature is not necessarily zero, various disciplines within mathematics have given the term different meanings depending on the area of study, so the precise meaning depends on context. However, many of these meanings are special instances of the definition which follows, a curve is a topological space which is locally homeomorphic to a line. In everyday language, this means that a curve is a set of points which, near each of its points, looks like a line, a simple example of a curve is the parabola, shown to the right. A large number of curves have been studied in multiple mathematical fields. A closed curve is a curve that forms a path whose starting point is also its ending point—that is, closely related meanings include the graph of a function and a two-dimensional graph. Interest in curves began long before they were the subject of mathematical study and this can be seen in numerous examples of their decorative use in art and on everyday objects dating back to prehistoric times. Curves, or at least their graphical representations, are simple to create, historically, the term line was used in place of the more modern term curve. Hence the phrases straight line and right line were used to distinguish what are called lines from curved lines. For example, in Book I of Euclids Elements, a line is defined as a breadthless length, Euclids idea of a line is perhaps clarified by the statement The extremities of a line are points. Later commentators further classified according to various schemes. For example, Composite lines Incomposite lines Determinate Indeterminate The Greek geometers had studied many kinds of curves. One reason was their interest in solving problems that could not be solved using standard compass. These curves include, The conic sections, deeply studied by Apollonius of Perga The cissoid of Diocles, studied by Diocles, the conchoid of Nicomedes, studied by Nicomedes as a method to both double the cube and to trisect an angle. The Archimedean spiral, studied by Archimedes as a method to trisect an angle, the spiric sections, sections of tori studied by Perseus as sections of cones had been studied by Apollonius. A fundamental advance in the theory of curves was the advent of analytic geometry in the seventeenth century and this enabled a curve to be described using an equation rather than an elaborate geometrical construction. Previously, curves had been described as geometrical or mechanical according to how they were, or supposedly could be, conic sections were applied in astronomy by Kepler. Newton also worked on an example in the calculus of variations
21.
Bar-le-Duc
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Bar-le-Duc, formerly known as Bar, is a commune in the Meuse département, of which it is the capital. The department is in Grand Est in northeastern France and it is limited towards the north-east by the Marne-Rhine Canal, on the south-west by a small arm of the Ornain, called the Canal des Usines, on the left bank of which the upper town is situated. Bar-le-Duc was at one time the seat of the countship, later Duchy of Bar, though probably of ancient origin, the town was unimportant until the 10th century when it became the residence of the counts. Originally part of the medieval duchy of Upper Lorraine, at some stage in the early modern period it was acquired by the neighbouring dukes of Lorraine. The Ville Haute, which is reached by staircases and steep narrow thoroughfares, is intersected by a long, quiet street, bordered by houses of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. In this quarter are the remains of the château of the dukes of Bar, dismantled in 1670, the old clock-tower, and the college, built in the latter half of the 16th century. The lower town contains the buildings and the churches of Notre-Dame, the most ancient in the town. Among the statues of distinguished natives of the town is one to Nicolas Oudinot, other sights include the Notre-Dame Bridge, with five arches surmounted by a chapel in the middle. The highly rarefied Bar-le-duc jelly, also known as Lorraine Jelly, is a preparation of white currant or red currant fruit preserves. First referenced in the record in 1344, it is also colloquially referred to as Bar Caviar. Bar-le-Duc was the birthplace of, Jean de Lorraine, Cardinal de Lorraine, Bishop of Metz, Archbishop of Narbonne. net, photos of Bar-le-Duc
22.
Turbinia
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Turbinia was the first steam turbine-powered steamship. The vessel can still be seen at the Discovery Museum in Newcastle upon Tyne, North East England, while her original powerplant can be found at the London Science Museum. Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine in 1884, and, having foreseen its potential to power ships. To develop this he had the experimental vessel Turbinia built in a design of steel by the firm of Brown and Hood. The Admiralty was kept informed of developments, and Turbinia was launched on 2 August 1894, despite the success of the turbine engine, initial trials with one propeller were disappointing. In trials this achieved a top speed of over 34 knots, the turbines were directly driven, as geared turbines were not introduced until 1910. Even after the introduction of geared turbines, efficiency of even the largest axial steam turbines was still below 12 percent, Turbinia was even less efficient, with its direct drive turbine moving with a tip speed of just 30 meters per second. Despite this, it was an improvement over predecessors. Photographer and cinematographer Alfred J. West took several photographs of Turbinia traveling at speed at the Review. Both vessels were later lost but although the loss of these trials ships slowed the introduction of turbines, in 1900 Turbinia steamed to Paris and was shown to French officials and then displayed at the Paris Exhibition. The first turbine-powered merchant vessel, the Clyde steamer TS King Edward, the Admiralty confirmed in 1905 that all future Royal Navy vessels were to be turbine-powered, and in 1906 the first turbine-powered battleship, the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought, was launched. On 11 January 1907, Turbinia was struck and nearly cut in two by Crosby – a ship being launched across-river from the bank of the Tyne. She was repaired and steamed alongside RMS Mauretania after the launch of the ocean liner. However, mechanical problems prevented Turbinia from accompanying Mauretania down the River Tyne to the sea, the fore section was presented in 1944 to Newcastle Corporation and placed on display in the citys Exhibition Park. In 1983 a complete reconstruction was undertaken, on 30 October 1994,100 years after her launch, Turbinia was moved to Newcastles Museum of Science and Engineering and put on display to the public in March 1996. Listed as part of the National Historic Fleet, in 2000, the gallery around Turbinia was the first area to be refurbished, with the main part of the work involving raising the roof by one storey to create viewing galleries on three levels. A detailed Museum originated blog entry by Ian Whitehead, the Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums curator charged with Turbinas care in 2013
23.
Alfred John West
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Alfred John West was a British award-winning marine photographer in the Gosport firm of G. West and Sons from 1881 and from 1897 at the age of 40, a pioneer cinematographer. West tells us in his unpublished autobiography Sea Salts and Celluloid that he, kept the negatives but the bulk of the film stock cannot now be traced. A few tantalising clips remain as does a full descriptive catalogue in the British Library of all the film he created under the Our Navy brand. The stock of AJ Wests negative plates is professionally conserved and currently held as an archive for the production. Wests plates are numbered from 500 to 10250 in the Beken archive, Alfred West died in 1937 and is buried at Highland Road Cemetery Portsmouth in Hampshire. He became a nationally and internationally famous marine photographer, winning national and international medals for his studies of yachts in full sail. His portrait of the Mohawk racing at the Royal Southampton Yacht Club Regatta in 1884 was awarded the medal at the St. Louis Convention USA for which 9 other countries competed. In 1902 he formally registered the name Our Navy under Limited Company number 72532, Alfred Wests cinematographic activity from 1897 was in exhibiting films related to Naval, and later Military, Empire and Yachting subjects under the general title of Our Navy. The shows were presented in halls and later in purpose-built cinemas across the UK, the London home of Our Navy was the Regent Street Polytechnic, which still houses one of Londons first purpose-built cinema halls, the Regent Street Cinema. The Lumiere Brothers gave the first ever public film show of moving pictures in the United Kingdom on 21 February 1896 in the hall and our Navy also exhibited at The Crystal Palace and the Peoples Palace in the Mile End Road. Alfred J West invented his own shutter and stabilising devices and mounted his heavy dry plate camera in the well of a sailing yawl and this was manoeuvred by his boatman under the lee of large racing yachts to obtain the best shots of these heavily-canvassed vessels at full speed. In 1897, Alfred J West obtained photographs of the Turbinia steam yacht travelling at speed at the Royal Fleet Review. He was subsequently invited by Charles Algernon Parsons to film and photograph the vessel in the Tyne, sir Charles Parsons is believed to the person standing in the Conning Tower in this picture. Whilst she was at anchor in Portsmouth Harbour, I went aboard, no one has succeeded yet, although many have tried, replied Mr. Parsons. I should like to have a shot at her, I persisted and he said with a smile, I will make another run through the fleet tomorrow, look out for me between lines A. and B. at noon. That should give you an opportunity, ill be there, opposite the Flagship, I told him. Punctually at l2 oclock there appeared between the leaders of the lines a smother of foam – it was the Turbinia, as she raced past the Flagship, I was waiting in my launch and took a flying shot of her. Showing the effects of foam etc, in 1898, Alfred J West embarked with his staff member Chief Petty Office McGregor as ships photographer and cinematographer on the three-month cruise of HMS Crescent, commanded by The Duke of York
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History of aspirin
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The history of aspirin and the medical use of it and related substances stretches back to antiquity, though pure ASA has only been manufactured and marketed since 1899. Medicines made from willow and other salicylate-rich plants appear in clay tablets from ancient Sumer as well as the Ebers Papyrus from ancient Egypt. Hippocrates referred to their use of tea to reduce fevers around 400 BC, and were part of the pharmacopoeia of Western medicine in classical antiquity. Willow bark extract became recognized for its effects on fever, pain. By the nineteenth century pharmacists were experimenting with and prescribing a variety of related to salicylic acid. By 1899, Bayer had dubbed this drug Aspirin and was selling it around the world, the word Aspirin was Bayers brand name, rather than the generic name of the drug, however, Bayers rights to the trademark were lost or sold in many countries. Aspirins popularity grew over the first half of the century leading to fierce competition with the proliferation of aspirin brands. Aspirins popularity declined after the development of acetaminophen/paracetamol in 1956 and ibuprofen in 1962, Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the twentieth century, and remain strong in the twenty-first with widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes. Medicines derived from trees and other salicylate-rich plants have been part of pharmacopoeias at least dating back to ancient Sumer. The Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian medical text from ca.1543 BC, mentions use of willow and myrtle to treat fever and pain. The Roman encyclopedist Celsus, in his De Medicina of ca.30 AD, suggested willow leaf extract to treat the four signs of inflammation, redness, heat, swelling, willow treatments also appeared in Dioscoridess De Materia Medica, and Pliny the Elders Natural History. By the time of Galen, willow was used throughout the Roman and Arab worlds, as a small part of a large. He collected, dried, and powdered a substantial amount of willow bark, in his letter, Stone reported consistent success, describing willow extracts effects as identical to Peruvian bark, though a little less potent. Stones letter was printed in Philosophical Transactions, and by the end of the 18th century willow was gaining popularity as a substitute for Peruvian bark. In the 19th century, as the discipline of organic chemistry began to grow in Europe, scientists attempted to isolate and purify the active components of many medicines. In 1834, Swiss pharmacist Johann Pagenstecher discovered what he thought was a new pain-reducing substance, by 1838, Italian chemist Raffaele Piria found a method of obtaining a more potent acid form of willow extract, which he named salicylic acid. The German chemist who had been working to identify the Spiraea extract, Karl Jacob Löwig, throughout the late 1800s use of salicylates grew considerably, and physicians increasingly knew what to expect from these medicines, reduction of pain, fever, and inflammation. However, the unpleasant side effects, particularly gastric irritation, limited their usefulness, by the 1880s, the German chemical industry, jump-started by the lucrative development of dyes from coal tar, was branching out to investigate the potential of new tar-derived medicines
