1.
1889 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1889. February 12 – Henrik Ibsens symbolic drama The Lady from the Sea receives its first performances simultaneously in Oslo, april 24 – The Garrick Theatre in London, financed by playwright W. S. Gilbert, opens with a performance of Pineros The Profligate. May 30 – English publisher Henry Vizetelly is prosecuted for obscenity for the time in London. June – Algernon Methuen begins publishing books in England, the origin of Methuen Publishing, september 3 – Jerome K. Jeromes comic fictional English travelogue set on the River Thames, Three Men in a Boat, is published in Bristol. November – Leo Tolstoys novella The Kreutzer Sonata is circulated in clandestine copies, september 14 – The Volkstheater, Vienna opens with a performance of Der Fleck auf der Ehr by its Dramaturg, Ludwig Anzengruber, who dies on December 10 from blood poisoning. December 12 – English poet Robert Browning dies at Ca Rezzonico in Venice on the day his book Asolando, Fancies and facts is published. Anton Manwel Caruanas Ineż Farruġ is the first novel originated in the Maltese language, marcel Proust begins a years service in the French army, stationed at Coligny Barracks in Orléans. Theodore Roosevelt publishes the first of four volumes of The Winning of the West in the United States, with three more by 1896. Rider Haggard – Cleopatra Jerome K. Jerome – Three Men in a Boat John Law – In Darkest London George A. Edgar Wallace – The Dark Eyes of London Oscar Wilde – The Portrait of Mr. W. H. C
2.
1891 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1891. January – The Strand Magazine is first published in London, on June 25 Arthur Conan Doyles private consulting detective Sherlock Holmes appears in it for the first time, in the story A Scandal in Bohemia. January 31 – Henrik Ibsens play Hedda Gabler is first performed, at the Königliches Residenz-Theater in Munich, the first British performance is on April 20 at the recently reopened Vaudeville Theatre, London, with Elizabeth Robins as Hedda and co-directing. March 13 – Henrik Ibsens play Ghosts achieves a single London performance, to evade the Lord Chamberlains Offices censorship it has to be staged privately by the Independent Theatre Society, but still attracts strong criticism on moral grounds. May 21 – Maurice Maeterlincks play Intruder is premièred at Paul Forts Theatre dArt in Paris, late June – In a meeting of decadent poets in London, Oscar Wilde is first introduced to Lord Alfred Douglas by Lionel Johnson at Wildes Tite Street home. July 1 – International Copyright Act of 1891 comes into effect in the United States permitting foreign authors to register their works for copyright, on July 3, the first such work, the play Saints and Sinners by English author Henry Arthur Jones, is registered. August 22 – Israel Zangwills The Big Bow Mystery, the first classic full-length locked room mystery, october 9 – Émile Zolas stage adaptation of his novel Thérèse Raquin achieves a single London performance, its English stage première. To evade the Lord Chamberlains Offices censorship it has to be staged privately by the Independent Theatre Society, september 4 – Ambrose Bierce dates the preface of Tales of Soldiers and Civilians for this day, although it will not actually be issued until 1892. It includes An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge, one of his best known works, december – Thomas Hardy writes The Sons Veto, which he regards as his best short story. December 7 – Maurice Maeterlincks play The Blind is premièred, tristan Bernard has his first work published in La Revue Blanche and adopts his pseudonym. Sophia Alice Callahans Wynema, a Child of the Forest is published, publication of the first complete 1-volume popular German language translation of Shakespeares plays. Approximate date – Edmund Clerihew Bentley, G. K. Chesterton and fellow pupils of St Pauls School, London, grant Allen – The Great Taboo Hall Caine – The Scapegoat J. M. Gardener – Is This Your Son, My Lord. André Gide – Les Cahiers dAndré Walter George Gissing – New Grub Street Thomas Hardy A Group of Noble Dames Tess of the dUrbervilles J. -K
3.
1895 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1895. January–May – Publication of H. G. Wells first scientific romance, the first book editions are published by Henry Holt and Company in New York on May 7 and by Heinemann in London on May 29. January 3 – Première of Oscar Wildes comedy An Ideal Husband at the Haymarket Theatre in London, january 5 Première of Henry Jamess historical drama Guy Domville at St Jamess Theatre in London is booed. A. E. Waite ceases to publish and edit his own occult periodical The Unknown World, january 12 – The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is registered in England and begins acquiring properties and making them accessible to the public. Carlyles House in Chelsea is one of the first to be opened, february 14 – Première of Oscar Wildes last play, the comedy The Importance of Being Earnest, at St. James Theatre, London. In a meeting on March 25 at the Café Royal in London, Frank Harris, april/May – Pan, a German arts and literary magazine, is first published, in Berlin. April 3–5 – Libel case of Wilde v Queensberry at the Old Bailey in London, april 6 – Oscar Wilde is arrested at the Cadogan Hotel, London, for unlawfully committing acts of gross indecency with certain male persons and detained on remand in Holloway Prison. April 29 – Joseph Conrads novel Almayers Folly is published in London by T. Fisher Unwin, Conrads first published work, may 23 – Representatives of the Astor Library and Lenox Library agree to merge and form the New York Public Library. On November 21 he is transferred to Reading Gaol, Henry Irving becomes the first actor invested with a knighthood. October The American Historical Review is published for the first time, stephen Cranes American Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage is first published in book format by D. Appleton & Company in New York. It receives strong criticism on moral grounds, Hardy later claims that Walsham How, Bishop of Wakefield, december 19 – Robert Frost marries Elinor Miriam White at Lawrence, Massachusetts. George du Mauriers novel Trilby, serialized in 1894, is first published in book form. It is also adapted as a play, Trilby, first in the United States with Wilton Lackaye as Svengali and Virginia Harned in the title rôle, then in England with Herbert Beerbohm Tree and Dorothea Baird. The stage version is so successful that Tree is able to use the profits to build Her Majestys Theatre, william Poel establishes the Elizabethan Stage Society to promote productions of plays by Shakespeare and his contemporaries in the performance style of the English Renaissance theatre. Abdallah bin Hemedi bin Ali Ajjemys Habari za Wakilindi is the first Swahili novel, Publication in Boston of Castello Holfords utopian novel Aristopia, A Romance-History of the New World, the first full-length alternate history in English. Ernest Thayer recites Casey at the Bat at a Harvard class reunion, the first edition of the Times Atlas of the World is published at the office of The Times newspaper in London. Hall Caine travels in the United States and Canada, where he represents the British Society of Authors, grant Allen The British Barbarians The Woman Who Did John Kendrick Bangs – A House-Boat on the Styx Rhoda Broughton – Scylla or Charybdis
4.
1897 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1897. January–March – Oscar Wilde, imprisoned in Reading Gaol in England, writes his letter to his lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, january 2 – Newspapers in London, England erroneously report the death of Mark Twain. It is believed that the rumors began when Twains cousin had become ill, Twain makes his famous statement the report of my death was an exaggeration. April–December – H. G. Wells science fiction novel The War of the Worlds is serialised in Pearsons Magazine, april 13 – The Grand Guignol is opened in Paris by Oscar Méténier. May 19 – Oscar Wilde is released early this morning from Pentonville Prison in London and this afternoon he visits Hatchards bookshop briefly before catching an evening train to Newhaven en route to exile on the continent under the name Sebastian Melmoth. On May 18 he had staged a reading of a version at the Lyceum Theatre. July 2 – Yorkshire Dialect Society founded, the oldest such society in England, july 25 – Writer Jack London sails to join the Klondike Gold Rush where he will write his first successful stories. October – First issue Albina, the Romanian literary and agriculturalist magazine aimed at a peasant readership, put out in Bucharest by Ioan Kalinderu, George Coșbuc, november 1 – The Library of Congress Building in Washington, D. C. is opened. December 30 – The comedy The White Horse Inn, by Oscar Blumenthal and Gustav Kadelburg, opens in Berlin, decades later it will be turned into a popular, hall Caines novel The Christian is published, becoming the first in Britain to sell a million copies. Anna Katharine Greens That Affair Next Door introduces the first female fictional character in a novel, Amelia Butterworth. Benito Pérez Galdós is elected to the Real Academia Española, the publisher Doubleday is founded as the Doubleday & McClure Company by Frank Nelson Doubleday in partnership with magazine publisher Samuel McClure in New York City. The publisher Commercial Press is founded as the first modern publishing organisation in China by 26-year-old Xia Ruifang and three friends in Shanghai
5.
1899 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1899. January 21 – French actress Sarah Bernhardt, having taken over management of the Paris theatre which she renames the Théâtre Sarah-Bernhardt, opens in the title rôle of Victorien Sardous La Tosca. On May 20 she premières an adaptation of Shakespeares Hamlet with herself in the title rôle March 20 – W. H. Davies, tramp-poet, loses his foot trying to jump a freight train at Renfrew, april – Karl Kraus establishes the radical periodical Die Fackel in Vienna. April–June – Rainer Maria Rilke travels to Moscow to meet Leo Tolstoy, may–December – Winston Churchills only work of fiction, Savrola, A Tale of the Revolution in Laurania, is serialized in Macmillans Magazine. May 8 – The Irish Literary Theatre, founded by W. B, Yeats, Augusta, Lady Gregory, George Moore and Edward Martyn, stages its first performance in Dublin, a version of Yeats verse drama The Countess Cathleen. June 20 – English writer Edward Thomas marries Helen Noble at Fulham register office, september 1 – The National Theatre in Norway opens with performances of pieces by Holberg. September – The British Mutoscope and Biograph Companys King John becomes the first known film based on a Shakespeare play, november 6 – William Gillettes play Sherlock Holmes, based on the writings of Arthur Conan Doyle, opens in New York City with himself in the title rôle. November 7 – Anton Chekhovs Uncle Vanya receives its metropolitan première at the Moscow Art Theatre with Konstantin Stanislavski directing and playing the rôle of Astrov and Olga Knipper as Yeléna. December 12 – Herbert Putnam is appointed Librarian of Congress in the United States, december – The imprisoned William Sydney Porters pseudonym O. Henry first appears over the short story Whistling Dicks Christmas Stocking in this months McClures Magazine. Curtis Brown established in London by American Albert Curtis Brown, edgar Rice Burroughs begins working in his fathers business. Simon Pokagons O-gi-maw-kwe Mit-I-gwa-ki is published, the first novel both by and about Native Americans in the United States, Arthur Machens wife Amy dies after a long illness, an event that has a devastating effect on him. Lin Shus first translation into Chinese from a Western text, The Lady of the Camellias as 巴黎茶花女遺事, is published, Leo Tolstoys last novel, Resurrection, is published serially in Niva. First series of the Arden Shakespeare under the editorship of W. J. Craig begins publication by Methuen in London with an edition of Hamlet edited by Edward Dowden. A. Henty – The Golden Canon E. W. Hornung – The Amateur Cracksman Henry James – The Awkward Age Selma Lagerlöf – The Tale of a Manor Octave Mirbeau – The Torture Garden A. E. W. M. Edwards, Guernsey-born writer July 11 – E. B
6.
1900 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1900. May Rainer Maria Rilke makes his visit to Russia in the company of Lou Andreas-Salomé. Release of the first film to feature the detective character Sherlock Holmes, Sherlock Holmes Baffled, by the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company. May 17 – L. Frank Baums The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is published in Chicago, june 24 – During the Boxer Rebellion, the Hanlin Academy in Peking, housing the oldest and richest library in the world, catches fire and is destroyed. July 1 – Net Book Agreement comes into force in the U. K, november 19 – August Strindbergs To Damascus receives its première at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm with August Palme and Harriet Bosse, Strindbergs future wife, in the leading rôles. Ermete Novelli establishes the Casa di Goldoni, a new theatre, at Rome, S. Pritchett, English short story writer January 19 – William Larminie, Irish poet and folklorist January 20 – Richard Doddridge Blackmore, English novelist January 25 – Frederick H
7.
1902 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1902. January 5 The political drama Dantons Death by Georg Büchner, receives its première, first performance of George Bernard Shaws controversial 1893 play Mrs. Warrens Profession at a private club in London. April – Mark Twain purchases a home in Tarrytown, New York, june 4 – Mark Twain receives an honorary doctorate of literature degree from the University of Missouri. June 16 – Bertrand Russell writes to Gottlob Frege informing him of the problem that will become known as Russells paradox. July 1 – The Romanian language literary review Luceafărul begins publication in Budapest, september 9 – P. G. Wodehouse leaves his job at the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Company in London to become a freelance writer. Early October – Beatrix Potters self-illustrated childrens book The Tale of Peter Rabbit is first published in an edition by Frederick Warne & Co in London. By the end of the year it sells 28,000 copies, October 5 – Thousands attend the funeral of French novelist Émile Zola at the Cimetière de Montmartre, Paris, they include Alfred Dreyfus, given special permission by Mme Zola to attend. November 4 – J. M. Barries comedy The Admirable Crichton is premièred at the Duke of Yorks Theatre in London, irving, Henry Kemble and Irene Vanbrugh and running for an extremely successful 828 performances. December 5 – Leo Tolstoys drama The Power of Darkness is premièred at the Moscow Art Theatre by Konstantin Stanislavski with some success, although he is self-critical. December 18 – Maxim Gorkys drama The Lower Depths – Scenes from Russian Life is premièred at the Moscow Art Theatre with Stanislavski directing and starring, the Irish Literary Theatre project ends. Poet Ștefan Petică publishes the cycle Fecioara în alb, which marks a maturing of Romanian Symbolism, crevedia, Romanian poet, novelist and journalist. A. Henty, English historical novelist Nobel Prize for Literature, Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen
8.
1904 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1904. January Mark Twain begins dictating his Autobiography, first issue of Süddeutsche Monatshefte, published in Munich by Paul Nikolaus Cossmann. January 17 – Anton Chekhovs last play, The Cherry Orchard, February 25 – J. M. Synges tragedy Riders to the Sea is first performed at the Molesworth Hall, Dublin, by the Irish National Theatre Society. April 24 – Lithuanian press ban in the Russian Empire lifted, may 10 – Following the death on 22 February of her father, Sir Leslie Stephen, Virginia Woolf suffers a mental breakdown. June 16 – The original Bloomsday, the day James Joyce first walks out with Nora Barnacle, to the Dublin suburb of Ringsend, june 28 – Anton Chekhov, dying of tuberculosis at Badenweiler, writes to his sister Masha, saying his health is improving. He dies just over two weeks later, september – Mark Twain purchases a home at 21 Fifth Avenue, New York City. November 1 George Bernard Shaws comedy about Ireland, John Bulls Other Island, opens at the Royal Court Theatre, London, Yeats rejects it for Dublins Abbey Theatre. The Stephen family have moved to a home at 46 Gordon Square, Bloomsbury, London, here the Bloomsbury Group will form. December 24 – The Coliseum Theatre in London opens, december 27 The Irish National Theatre Society opens to the public in Dublin for the first time. The bill consists of three plays, On Bailes Strand and Cathleen Ní Houlihan by Yeats and Spreading the News by Lady Gregory. Alexander Bloks poetry cycle Stikhi o prekrasnoi Dame, written to his new wife, a seven-year-old Wasif Jawhariyyeh begins keeping his diaries, later acclaimed as masterpieces of modern Arabic and Jerusalemite literature. Herbert Beerbohm Tree establishes what will become the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, 1889–1903» Giovanni Pascoli – Primi poemetti and Primi conviviali A. C
9.
1906 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1906. February 8 – Writer Hilaire Belloc becomes a Liberal Member of Parliament of the United Kingdom, february 15 – J. M. Dent and Company commence publication in the United Kingdom of the Everymans Library series with Boswells Life of Johnson. March 13 – Romanian nationalist historian Nicolae Iorga instigates a boycott of the National Theater Bucharest over its staging of French-language plays, april 10–October 13 – Maxim Gorky visits the United States with his mistress, the actress Maria Andreyeva, to raise funds for the Bolsheviks. In the Adirondack Mountains he writes his novel of revolutionary conversion and struggle, the couple then retreat to Capri. April 18 – The 1906 San Francisco earthquake destroys the new building for Stanford University Library before it can be completed. Many of the leading poets and writers retreat to join the arts colony at Carmel-by-the-Sea. May–October – Jack Londons novel White Fang is serialized in the American magazine Outing, june – Virginia Stephen, the future Virginia Woolf, writes her first work of fiction, the short story which becomes known as Phyllis and Rosamond when first, posthumously, published. July 11 – Murder of Grace Brown in the Herkimer County, New York, pre-September – Last full-scale court performance of gambuh dance-drama in Bali. September 1 – Annie Carroll Moore begins work as Superintendent of the Department of Work with Children at the New York Public Library and it is first staged in Stockholm on December 13 at the Folkan. November 8 – Max Reinhardt inaugurates the Kammerspiele at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin with a production of Ghosts by Henrik Ibsen designed by Edvard Munch. December 24 – Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio program, a reading, a violin solo. Livraria Lello & Irmão opens a new bookstore in Porto, the magazine Eesti Kirjandus is founded in the Governorate of Estonia as part of the Estonian national awakening
10.
1908 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1908. March – Ezra Pound leaves America for Europe, in April, he moves to Venice, where in July he self-publishes his first collection of poems, A Lume Spento. In August he settles in London, where he will remain until 1920, june 18 – Mark Twain purchases a house in Redding, Connecticut. Summer – The Marlowe Society stages a production at the New Theatre, Cambridge, July – Katherine Mansfield moves to London, she will never return to her native New Zealand. September 30 – Maurice Maeterlincks The Blue Bird is premièred at Konstantin Stanislavskys Moscow Art Theatre, october 3 – The Avenida Theatre opens on Buenos Aires Avenida de Mayo with a production of Lope de Vegas El castigo sin venganza directed by María Guerrero. December – Ford Madox Hueffer begins publication of the literary magazine The English Review in London, yeats, produces its first publication, Poetry and Ireland, essays by W. B. Ethiopian linguist Afevork Ghevre Jesuss ልብ ፡ ወለድ ፡ ታሪክ ።, malay tale Hikayat Hang Tuah is first published, edited by Sulaiman bin Muhammed Nur and William Shellabear. Romanian writer Urmuz is known to be working on his manuscript stories, K. M. Forster – A Room with a View John Fox, Jr. Madero – La sucesión presidencial en 1910 Friedrich Nietzsche – Ecce homo, Wie man wird, was man ist Alfred R. M
11.
1896 in poetry
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— closing lines of Rudyard Kiplings If—, first published this year Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. July 7 – Charles Thomas Wooldridge is hanged at Reading Gaol in England for uxoricide, oscar Wildes The Ballad of Reading Gaol. D. Roberts, The Book of the Native Charles Sangster, toronto, Copp Clark, n. d. Duncan Campbell Scott, In the Village of Viger, Canada Francis Sherman In Memorabilia Mortis. E. Johns Gazette John Cowper Powys, Odes, and Other Poems Arthur Quiller-Couch, Poems and Ballads Christina Rossetti, New Poems, edited by W. M
12.
1898 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. The Generation of 98 was a group of novelists, poets, essayists, jose Martínez Ruiz, commonly known as Azorín, comes up with the name in 1913 to allude to the moral, political, and social crisis produced by Spains defeat. Writing mostly after 1910, the group reinvigorates Spanish letters, revives literary myths, in politics, members of the movement often justify radicalism and rebellion. Bliss Carman, By the Aurelian Wall William Henry Drummond, Phil-o-rum’s Canoe and Madeleine Vercheres, Two Poems, New York, G. P
13.
1899 in poetry
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— Opening lines of Rudyard Kiplings White Mans Burden, first published this year Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. March 20 – Welsh tramp-poet W. H. Davies loses his foot trying to jump a freight train at Renfrew, William Hughes Mearns writes Antigonish this year, it wont be published until 1922. Romesh Chunder Dutts translation of the Ramayana into English verse is first published, shinshisha founded by Yosano Tekkan in Japan. William Wilfred Campbell, Beyond the Hills of Dream, fidelis, Lays of the True North, and Other Canadian Poems. John Frederic Herbin, The Marshlands Archibald Lampman, Alcyone, including City of the End of Things, thomas OHagan, Songs of the Settlement Frederick George Scott, Poems Old and New. Francis Sherman, The Deserted City, Stray Sonnets, arthur Stringer, The Loom of Destiny. Anthologies Northland Lyrics, William Carman Roberts, Theodore Roberts & Elizabeth Roberts Macdonald, selected and arranged with a prologue by Charles G. D. Roberts, boston, Small, Maynard & Co. B. B. V. de L. R
14.
1898 in architecture
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The year 1898 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. St. Paul Building in New York City is completed as one of the tallest buildings in the world, compton Hill Water Tower in St. Louis, Missouri, designed by Harvey Ellis, is built. San Francisco Ferry Building, designed by A, the Queen Victoria Building, Sydney, Australia is completed. The British Columbia Parliament Buildings in Victoria, designed by Francis Rattenbury, are opened, the Lubyanka Building in Moscow is built. Arts and Crafts movement architect Charles Voysey designs the country houses Broadleys, edwin Lutyens designs Goddards rest home in Abinger, England. Construction of Cathedral of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Zamora, Michoacán, Mexico, to-Morrow, A Peaceful Path to Real Reform is published by Ebenezer Howard, calling for the creation of garden cities. Royal Gold Medal - George Aitchison, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Léon Chifflot
15.
1898 in music
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January 7 - Sadko is premiered at the Solodovnikov Theatre in Moscow. Otilie Dvořáková, daughter of Antonín Dvořák, marries her fathers pupil, because w. Charles Horwitz m. Frederick V. Bowers The Boy Guessed Right w. m. Lionel Monckton Ciribiribin w. Carlo Tiochet m, alberto Pestalozza Gold Will Buy Most Anything But A True Girls Heart w. Charles E. Foreman m. Monroe H. Rosenfeld Good-bye Dolly Gray w. Will D. Cobb m. Paul Barnes Goodnight, Little Girl, victor Herbert from the musical The Fortune Teller Honey on my Lips Charles E. Trevathan I Guess Ill Have To Telegraph My Baby w. m. George M. Cohan Just As The Sun Went Down w. Karl Kennett m, lyn Udall Just One Girl w. Karl Kennett m. Lyn Udall Kiss Me Honey Do w. Edgar Smith m, john Stromberg The Lily Of Laguna w. m. Leslie Stuart Mid The Green Fields Of Virginia w. m, Charles K. Harris Mister Johnson Dont Get Gay w. m. Dave Reed Jr The Moth And The Flame w. George Taggart m, max S. Witt My Old New Hampshire Home w. Andrew B. Sterling m. Harry Von Tilzer Recessional w. Rudyard Kipling m, reginald De Koven Romany Life w. Harry B. Smith m. Victor Herbert The Rosary w. Robert Cameron Rogers m, ethelbert Nevin Salome m. William Lorraine She is the Belle of New York w. Hugh Morton m. Gustave Kerker She Was Bred In Old Kentucky w. Harry Braisted m. Stanley Carter When You Were Sweet Sixteen w. m, james Thornton Who Dat Say Chicken In Dis Crowd w. Paul Lawrence Dunbar m
16.
Dreyfus affair
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The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice, the major role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the lasting social conflict. The scandal began in December 1894, with the conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. After high-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, a military court unanimously acquitted Esterházy after a trial lasting two days. The Army then accused Dreyfus with additional charges based on falsified documents, activists put pressure on the government to reopen the case. In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial, the new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was given a pardon and set free. Eventually all the accusations against Dreyfus were demonstrated to be baseless, in 1906 Dreyfus was exonerated and reinstated as a major in the French Army. He served during the whole of World War I, ending his service with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, the affair from 1894 to 1906 divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps, the pro-Army, mostly Catholic anti-Dreyfusards and the anticlerical, pro-republican Dreyfusards. It embittered French politics and encouraged radicalization, the museum created an online platform in 2006 dedicated to the Dreyfus Affair, giving the public access to these documents. After a closed trial, he was guilty of treason. He was deported to Devils Island, at that time, the opinion of the French political class was unanimously unfavourable towards Dreyfus. Certain of the injustice of the sentence, the family of the Captain, through his brother Mathieu, meanwhile Colonel Georges Picquart, head of counter-espionage, found evidence in March 1896 indicating that the real traitor was Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterházy. The General Staff, however, refused to reconsider its judgment, in July 1897 his family contacted the President of the Senate Auguste Scheurer-Kestner to draw attention to the tenuousness of the evidence against Dreyfus. Scheurer-Kestner reported three months later that he was convinced of the innocence of Dreyfus and also persuaded Georges Clemenceau, in the same month, Mathieu Dreyfus complained to the Ministry of War against Walsin-Esterházy. A Dreyfusard declaration that rallied many intellectuals to Dreyfus cause, France became increasingly divided over the case, and the issue continued to be hotly debated until the end of the century. Antisemitic riots erupted in more than twenty French cities, There were several deaths in Algiers. The Republic was shaken, which prompted a sense that the Dreyfus Affair had to be resolved to restore calm, despite increasingly robust evidence to the contrary, Dreyfus was convicted again and sentenced to ten years of hard labour, though the sentence was commuted due to extenuating circumstances. Exhausted by his deportation for four years, Dreyfus accepted the presidential pardon granted by President Émile Loubet
17.
Open letter
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An open letter is a letter that is intended to be read by a wide audience, or a letter intended for an individual, but that is nonetheless widely distributed intentionally. Open letters usually take the form of a letter addressed to an individual but provided to the public newspapers and other media. Especially common are critical open letters addressed to political leaders, currently there are very few sites solely specialising in publishing open letters. However, there are community sites where visitors can publish their own letters, sociological or historical research on open letters are also not found, although sociologists and historians have written open letters. Recently, a professor of anthropology at Vidyasagar University in India has written an article on open letter. Letters patent are another form of letter in which a legal document is both mailed to a person by the government, and publicized so that all are made aware of it. Open letters can also be addressed directly to a rather than any individual. Encyclicals are by definition open letters sent by the Pope or a primate to the bishops of the church community, most papal bulls are letters patent and therefore open letters. Martin Luther published many letters, including his Open Letter on the Harsh Book Against the Peasants Farmers letters by Samuel Seabury against the American Revolution. Ralph Waldo Emersons letter to Martin Van Buren against the Cherokee removal order, professor James Symes calls for medical reform in 1854 and 1857, addressed to British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston. Robert Louis Stevensons open letter to Rev. Dr. Hyde in defense of Father Damien, jaccuse by Émile Zola over the Dreyfus Affair. Martin Luther Kings Letter from Birmingham Jail, Bill Gatess Open Letter to Hobbyists attacking copyright infringement in software development, audre Lordes open letter about racism to Mary Daly. Gennady Zyuganovs open letter to Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev criticizing perestroika and glasnost, david Crosss open letter to Larry the Cable Guy. Bobby Hendersons Open Letter to the Kansas School Board, googles Open Letter to the net on net neutrality. Steve Jobss Thoughts on Music concerning the past and future of DRM, siegfried Sassoons A Soldier’s Declaration, questioning the judgment of Britains leadership in World War I. Sam Harris book Letter to a Christian Nation is written as a letter in response to criticism he received after his previous book. Scholars for Peaces open letter sanctioning a historic truce and the subsequent peace talks between the Turkish state and the Kurdistan Workers Party, rob Lewis Entrepreneurs letter to The Times warning of the dangers of a Lib-Lab coalition ahead of the 2010 UK general election. Tom Wrigglesworths Open Letters, a BBC Radio 4 stand-up comedy series taking the form of an open letter, based on Wrigglesworths 2009 Edinburgh Comedy Award nominated show Tom Wrigglesworths Open Return Letter to Richard Branson
18.
M. P. Shiel
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Matthew Phipps Shiell – known as M. P. Shiel – was a prolific British writer of West Indian descent. His legal surname remained Shiell though he adopted the version as a de facto pen name. He is remembered mostly for supernatural horror and scientific romances and his work was published as serials, novels, and as short stories. The Purple Cloud remains his most famous and often reprinted novel, Shiell was educated at Harrison College, Barbados. Shiell moved to England in 1885, eventually adopting Shiel as his pen name, after working as a teacher and translator he broke into the fiction market with a series of short stories published in The Strand and other magazines. His first novel was The Rajahs Sapphire, based on a plot by William Thomas Stead, Shiels popular reputation was made by another work for hire. The early chapters incorporated actual headline events as the crisis unfolded, and proved wildly popular with the public. Pearson responded by ordering Shiel to double the length of the serial to 150,000 words, but Shiel cut it back by a third for the book version, some contemporary critics described this novel as a fictionalisation of Charles Henry Pearsons National Life and Character, A Forecast. Shiels Asian villain, Dr. Yen How, has cited as a possible basis for Sax Rohmers much better-known Dr. Fu Manchu. Similar kidnapping incidents occurred in several of Shiels subsequent novels, Shiel himself considered the novel hackwork, and seemed embarrassed by its success. It was an influence on H. G. Wells in The War in the Air, Jack London in The Unparalleled Invasion. His next novel was another serial contracted by Pearson to tie into the Spanish–American War, contraband of War ran in Pearsons Weekly 7 May –9 July 1898, again incorporating headline events into the serial as the war progressed. It was published as a book the following year, each was linked by similar introductory frame purporting to show that the novels were visions of progressively more distant futures glimpsed by a clairvoyant in a trance. Notebook I of the series had been plotted at least by 1898, Notebook II became The Lord of the Sea, which was recognised by contemporary readers as a critique of private ownership of land based on the theories of Henry George. Shiels lasting literary reputation is based on Notebook III of the series which was serialised in The Royal Magazine in abridged form before book publication that autumn as The Purple Cloud. Shiel had married a young Parisian-Spaniard, Carolina Garcia Gomez in 1898 and they separated around 1903 and his daughter was taken to Spain after Linas death around 1904. Shiel blamed the failure of the marriage on the interference of his mother-in-law, Shiel was caught between his desire to write high art and his need to produce more commercial fare. The last of their known collaborations appeared in 1911, the most interesting was the first, serialised as In Loves Whirlpool in Cassells Saturday Journal,14 May –3 September 1902, and published in book form as The Weird oIt
19.
Yellow Peril
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The Yellow Peril is a racist color-metaphor that is integral to the xenophobic theory of colonialism, that the peoples of East Asia are a danger to the Western world. As a form of xenophobia, the Yellow Terror is the white races fear of the tide of colored people from the Orient. In central Europe, the Orientalist and diplomat Max von Brandt advised Kaiser Wilhelm II that Imperial Germany had colonial interests to pursue in China, hence, the Kaiser used the phrase die Gelbe Gefahr to specifically encourage Imperial German interests and justify European colonialism in China. The Kasier justified the Triple Intervention to the Japanese empire with racialist calls-to-arms against non-existent geopolitical dangers of the race against the white race of Western Europe. Politically, the Knackfuss lithograph allowed Kaiser Wilhelm II to believe he prophesied the imminent race war that would decide global hegemony in the 20th century. Hence, by 1882, the pressure of white xenophobia compelled the U. S. government to legislate the Chinese Exclusion Act. In 1900, the anti-colonial Boxer Rebellion reinforced the racist stereotypes of Asian people as a Yellow Peril to white people, the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists was a xenophobic martial-arts organization who blamed the problems of China on the presence of Western colonies in China proper. The Boxers sought to save China by killing every Western colonist, in early summer of 1900, Prince Zaiyi allowed the Boxers into Beijing, to kill Western colonists and Chinese Christians, in siege to the foreign legations. Afterwards, Ronglu, Qing Commander-in-Chief, and Yikuang, Prince Qing, in response, Great Britain, the U. S. In the Russian press, Yellow Peril ideology misrepresented anti-colonial revolt in racialist and religious terms, the press further supported the Yellow Peril apocalypse with quotations from the Sinophobic poems of the philosopher Vladimir Solovyov. Historically, Yellow Peril ideology recycles Boxer-Rebellion atrocities as false-proof that Boxerism is a Chinese cultural trait, whoever falls into your hands will fall to your sword. Fearful of harm to the image of Imperial Germany, the Auswärtiges Amt published a redacted version of the Hun Speech. Yet that elaborate accompanying music, and the new ideology of the Yellow Peril stood in no relation to the actual possibilities and results of geopolitical policy based upon racist misperception. Barbaric policy The Kaiser ordered the expedition-commander, Field Marshal Alfred von Waldersee, to behave barbarously, because the Chinese were, by nature, cowardly, like a dog, but also deceitful. Only the Eight-Nation Alliances refusal of barbarism to resolve the siege of the legations, in August 1900, an international military-force of Russian, Japanese, British, French, and American soldiers captured Beijing, before the German force arrived to the city. About the sacking of the city, an Australian colonist said, look at the frightful sights one sees in the streets of Peking. See the filthy, tattered rags they wrap around them, witness their shameless indecency, and picture them among your own people – Ugh. British admiral Roger Keyes recalled that, Every Chinaman. was treated as a Boxer, by the Russian and French troops, and the slaughter of men, women, and children in retaliation was revolting
20.
Pearson PLC
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Pearson PLC is a British multinational publishing and education company headquartered in London. It was founded as a business in the 1840s. It shut down its activities in the 1920s and switched to publishing. It is the largest education company and the largest book publisher in the world, Pearson has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange in the form of American Depository Receipts. The company was founded by Samuel Pearson in 1844 as a building and engineering concern operating in Yorkshire under the name S. Pearson & Son. In 1880, control passed to his grandson Weetman Dickinson Pearson, an engineer, in November 1915, the firm began construction of HM Factory, Gretna, the largest cordite factory in the UK during World War I. The construction business was shut down in the 1920s, among its final projects was completion of the Sennar Dam, in Sudan, in 1925. In 1919, the firm acquired a 45% stake in the London branch of merchant bankers Lazard Brothers, Pearson continued to hold a 50% stake until 1999. In 1921, Pearson purchased a number of daily and weekly newspapers in the United Kingdom. In 1957, it bought the Financial Times and acquired a 50% stake in The Economist and it purchased the publisher Longman in 1968. The company was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1969 and it went on to buy paperback publisher Penguin in 1970, and in 1972, childrens imprint Ladybird Books. In 1986, Pearson invested in the British Satellite Broadcasting consortium, which, during the 1990s, Pearson acquired a number of TV production and broadcasting assets and sold most of its non-media assets, under the leadership of future U. S. Westminster Press was sold to Newsquest in 1996, Pearson acquired the education division of HarperCollins in 1996 from News Corporation and acquired book publishers Scott Foresman & Co. in 1996. In 1998 Pearson acquired Prentice Hall Textbooks/Simon & Schuster Trade Books from Viacom and merged it with its own education unit, Addison-Wesley Longman to form Pearson Education. In 2002, Pearson sold its 22% stake in RTL Group for 1.5 billion Euros, and then purchased Rough Guides, the travel publisher, and brought it under Penguin. Pearson acquired Edexcel, a provider of qualifications in the UK, in 2003, Pearson purchased a series of other testing and assessment businesses, including Knowledge Technologies in 2004, AGS in 2005, and National Evaluation Systems and Promissor in 2006. Pearson then completed the acquisition of Harcourt Assessment, merging the businesses into Pearson Assessment & Information
21.
Frank Wedekind
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Benjamin Franklin Wedekind, usually known as Frank Wedekind, was a German playwright. His work, which often criticizes bourgeois attitudes, is considered to anticipate expressionism and was influential in the development of epic theatre, benjamin Franklin Wedekind was born on July 24,1864 in Hannover, Germany. His mother was Swiss and became pregnant with him in San Francisco and his father, a German, had a Swiss castle in which Wedekind grew up. Until World War I, when he was forced to obtain a German passport, he was an American citizen and he lived most of his adult life in Munich, though he had a brief period working in advertising, for the Maggi soup firm, in Switzerland in 1886. His sex life was prodigious and he frequented prostitutes, contracting syphilis and he also enjoyed the pleasure of platonic female company and kept his tendencies toward homosexuality and sadism in check. He had an affair with Frida Uhl who bore him a child, having worked in business and the circus, Wedekind went on to become an actor and singer. In this capacity he received acclaim as the principal star of the satirical cabaret Die elf Scharfrichter. At the age of 34, after serving a prison sentence for lèse-majesté. In 1906, he married the Austrian actress Tilly Newes,22 years his junior and his relationship with his wife was turbulent, with Wedekind prone to jealousy and he felt pressure to maintain strenuous creative and sexual activity in order to please her. They had two daughters, Pamela and Kadidja, but his led his wife to attempt both separation and suicide. Near the end of his life, Wedekind underwent an appendectomy and immediately began acting again and his doctor refused to operate immediately but Wedekind insisted and complications from the surgery led to his death at the age of 53 on March 9,1918. Tilly Wedekind went on to appear in films as Travelling People and was romantically linked to the author Gottfried Benn. In 1969, at age 83, she published an autobiography in German, Lulu, the Lulu plays Erdgeist and Die Büchse der Pandora were probably his best known works until the 2006 adaptation of Spring Awakening. Karl Kraus also helped Wedekind stage it in Vienna, der Kammersänger is a one-act character study of a famous opera singer who receives a series of unwelcome guests at his hotel suite. In Franziska, the character, a young girl, initiates a Faustian pact with the Devil. Walerian Borowczyk based his 1980 film Lulu on these plays, currently the plays are being adapted into comics by John Linton Roberson. They also form the basis for the 2011 album Lulu, a collaboration between the rock musician Lou Reed and the metal band Metallica. Der Kammersänger was adapted by composer Hugo Weisgall for his English-language opera The Tenor, Wedekinds symbolist novella Mine-Haha, or On the Bodily Education of Young Girls was the basis for the films Innocence by Lucile Hadžihalilović and The Fine Art of Love by John Irvin
22.
Leipzig
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Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways
23.
O. Henry
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William Sydney Porter, known by his pen name O. Henry, was an American short story writer. His stories are known for their surprise endings, William Sidney Porter was born on September 11,1862, in Greensboro, North Carolina. He changed the spelling of his name to Sydney in 1898. His parents were Dr. Algernon Sidney Porter, a physician, williams parents had married on April 20,1858. When William was three, his mother died from tuberculosis, and he and his father moved into the home of his paternal grandmother. As a child, Porter was always reading, everything from classics to dime novels, his works were Lanes translation of One Thousand and One Nights. Porter graduated from his aunt Evelina Maria Porters elementary school in 1876 and he then enrolled at the Lindsey Street High School. His aunt continued to him until he was fifteen. In 1879, he started working in his uncles drugstore and in 1881, at the age of nineteen, at the drugstore, he also showed off his natural artistic talents by sketching the townsfolk. Porter traveled with Dr. James K. Hall to Texas in March 1882 and he took up residence on the sheep ranch of Richard Hall, James son, in La Salle County and helped out as a shepherd, ranch hand, cook and baby-sitter. While on the ranch, he learned bits of Spanish and German from the mix of immigrant ranch hands and he also spent time reading classic literature. Porters health did improve and he traveled with Richard to Austin in 1884, where he decided to remain and was welcomed into the home of the Harrells, who were friends of Richards. Porter took a number of different jobs over the several years, first as pharmacist then as a draftsman, bank teller. He also began writing as a sideline, Porter led an active social life in Austin, including membership in singing and drama groups. He was a singer and musician. He played both the guitar and mandolin and he became a member of the Hill City Quartet, a group of young men who sang at gatherings and serenaded young women of the town. Porter met and began courting Athol Estes, then seventeen years old and her mother objected to the match because Athol was ill, suffering from tuberculosis. On July 1,1887, Porter eloped with Athol to the home of Reverend R. K. Smoot, the couple continued to participate in musical and theater groups, and Athol encouraged her husband to pursue his writing
24.
Ohio Penitentiary
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The Ohio Penitentiary, also known as the Ohio State Penitentiary, was a prison operated from 1834 to 1984 in downtown Columbus, Ohio, in what is now known as the Arena District. The prison housed 5,235 prisoners at its peak in 1955, conditions in the prison have been described as primitive, and the facility was eventually replaced by the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility, a maximum security facility in Lucasville. A separate facility for prisoners was completed within the walls of the Ohio Penitentiary in 1837. The buildings were demolished in 1998, on April 21,1930, a major fire killed 322 inmates and seriously injured 150. The fire was the deadliest prison fire in United States history, the fire broke out on scaffolding erected for the construction of an extension. Reports say that many refused to unlock cells when smoke entered the cell block and left the prisoners in their cells. Some inmates overpowered a guard and took his keys, which used to rescue other prisoners. However, a developed and firefighters arriving to fight the blaze were attacked with rocks. A cordon of guards was deployed about the towering prison walls. Other squads took up vantage points in guard towers and by this time 500 soldiers from Fort Hayes, machine guns were placed at the gates and on the walls. Bayonets were fixed and the troopers were ordered to shoot to kill, a troop of National Guardsmen soon augmented the regulars, and 30 minutes after the fire started the prison was completely surrounded. In 1885, the became the site for executions, which had been carried out by local law enforcement officials up to that time. At first, prisoners condemned to death were executed by hanging, a total of 315 prisoners, both men and women, were electrocuted between 1897 and 1963, when the death penalty was halted in Ohio. This case raised many concerns, as many believe that it violated the bioethical principles of informed consent, non-maleficence. The building also served as the setting for the 1985 made-for-TV movie Love on the Run, starring Stephanie Zimbalist, the state eventually sold it to the city of Columbus in 1995. The Burnham Square Condominiums, named after urban planner and architect Daniel Burnham—who designed the Columbus Union Station—and Nationwide Arena now stand on the site of the former penitentiary, among the wardens of the penitentiary was Charles C. Walcutt, a general in the Union Army during the Civil War. The last Warden was T. D. Taylor
