1.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
2.
305th Operations Group
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The 305th Operations Group is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the 305th Air Mobility Wing. It is stationed at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey, 1st Lt William R. Lawley, Jr. and 1st Lt Edward S. Michael, pilots in the 364th Bomb Squadron, each received the Medal of Honor. While commanded by Colonel Curtis LeMay the 305th Bomb Group pioneered many bomber flying formations, the group flies the C-17 Globemaster III and KC-10 Extender in support of worldwide operations. 6th Airlift Squadron The 6th Airlift Squadron is the oldest airlift squadron in the Air Force, 305th Operations Support Squadron The mission of the 305th OSS is to provide information, support, and equipment to allow aircrews to accomplish their global mobility mission. The unit trained there before moving to Geiger Field, Washington on 11 June 1942, received intensive training at Muroc Army Air Field, California beginning in July 1942. The ground unit went by train to at Fort Dix Army Air Base, the ground unit sailed on the Queen Mary on 5 September 1942, and disembarked from Greenock on 12 September 1942. The aircraft assembled at Hancock Field, New York, and spent six weeks in advanced flight training. The unit received new Boeing B-17F Flying Fortress bombers, and left for the United Kingdom in October 1942 via Presque Isle Army Air Field and Gander Airport, to Prestwick Airport Scotland. The 305th Bomb Group deployed to England in September 1942 and formed at RAF Grafton Underwood as part of VIII Bomber Commands 40th Bombardment Wing, was assigned group tail code Triangle-G. During December 1942, the group was transferred to RAF Chelveston, on 27 January 1943, the group participated in the Eighth Air Forces first raid on Germany. During the winter of 1942-1943, the 305th was commanded by Colonel Curtis LeMay, the 305th Bomb Group bombed the navy yards at Wilhelmshaven on 27 January 1943 when heavy bombers of Eighth Air Force made their first penetration into Germany. Through mid-1943, the group attacked strategic targets as submarine pens, docks, harbors, shipyards, motor works, and marshaling yards in France, Germany, and the Low Countries. The 305th received the Distinguished Unit Citation for a mission on April 1943 when a target in Paris was bombed with precision in spite of pressing enemy fighter attacks. During the second half of 1943, the unit began deeper penetration into enemy territory to strike heavy industry, a second Distinguished Unit Citation was awarded to the 305th for withstanding severe opposition to bombing aircraft factories in central Germany on 11 January 1944. The unit participated in the campaign of heavy bombers against the German aircraft industry during Big Week. In addition to bombardment of targets, the 305th Bomb Group often flew tactical interdictory missions. Prior to the Normandy invasion in June 1944, it helped to neutralize enemy installations such as V-weapon sites, airfields, on D-Day,6 June, the unit bombed enemy strongholds near the battle area. After Victory in Europe Day, the 305th moved to Saint Trond Airfield, Belgium in July 1945 where it conducted photo-mapping flights which was called Project Casey Jones over Europe and North Africa
3.
Air Mobility Command
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Air Mobility Command is a Major Command of the U. S. Air Force. AMC is headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, east of St. Louis, the Commander of AMC is Gen Carlton D. Everhart II, with Lt Gen Wayne Schatz Jr as Vice Commander and CMSgt Shelina Frey as Command Chief Master Sergeant. Air Mobility Command was established on June 1,1992 and it was formed from elements of the inactivated Military Airlift Command and Strategic Air Command. AMC melded a worldwide system with a tanker force that had been freed from its strategic nuclear strike commitments by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Air Mobility Commands mission is to provide global air mobility, the command also plays a crucial role in providing humanitarian support at home and around the world. Many special duty and operational aircraft and stateside aeromedical evacuation missions are also assigned to AMC. U. S. forces must be able to provide a rapid, tailored response with a capability to intervene against a foe, hit hard. Rapid global mobility lies at the heart of U. S. strategy in this environment, without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As the number of U. S. forces stationed overseas continue to decline, global interests remain, Air Mobility Command also has the mission of establishing bare air bases in contingencies. To accomplish this mission, AMC established two Contingency Response Wings, and operates the Eagle Flag exercise, in addition to its status as a MAJCOM of the Air Force, AMC is also the Air Force component command of the United States Transportation Command. It provides airlift, special missions, aerial refueling, and aeromedical evacuation for the United States armed forces]], AMC also operates VIP flights such as Air Force One, Air Force Two, and other Special Assignment Airlift Missions. Finally, AMC acts as the manager, on behalf of United States Transportation Command. Principal aircraft assets of the include, C-17 Globemaster III, C-5 Galaxy, C-130 Hercules, KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, C-40 Clipper, C-37 Gulfstream V. As of 2015, the command is preparing for the addition of the KC-46 Pegasus. Additional aircraft in support of high-profile VIP airlift include, VC-25, C-32, C-20 and these units train and exercise frequently and routinely provide augmentative operational support to AMCs active duty forces. Instead, they report to AMC via the National Guard Bureau, civil Reserve Air Fleet AMC has undergone considerable change since its establishment. Focusing on the mission of strategic air mobility, the command divested itself of infrastructure. The Air Rescue Service, intratheater aeromedical airlift forces based overseas, as a result of the Global War on Terrorism, on October 1,2003, AMC underwent a major restructuring, bringing a war fighting role to its numbered air force
4.
McGuire Air Force Base
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McGuire is under the jurisdiction of the Air Mobility Command. It was consolidated with two adjoining US Army and Navy facilities to become part of Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst on 1 October 2009, the McGuire Air Force Base census-designated place is located in portions of both New Hanover Township and North Hanover Township. As of the 2010 United States Census, the McGuire Air Force Base CDP had a population of 3,710. The host unit at McGuire AFB is the 87th Air Base Wing, United States Air Force Expeditionary Center, the 87 ABW provides installation management to all of JB MDL. The wing also provides mission-ready, expeditionary Airmen to support Unified Combatant Commanders in ongoing military operations, the wing consists of more than 3,100 officers, enlisted, and civilian personnel from the Air Force, Army and Navy. The 87th Air Base Wing is commanded by Colonel James Hodges and its Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Phillip K. Robinson. McGuire originated in 1941 as Fort Dix Army Air Force Base, closed briefly after World War II, it reopened in 1948 as McGuire Air Force Base. The base was named after Major Thomas B, McGuire, Jr. Medal of Honor recipient, and the second leading ace in American history. S. Air Force hosting three AMC-gained flying wings of the Regular Air Force, Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard, Air Force and civilian AMC-contracted aircraft use McGuires two runways to facilitate this mission. Many hundreds of thousands of Air Force, Army, Navy, airplanes from McGuire have provided the flyovers for Philadelphia Eagles games and Major League Baseball All-Star and World Series games played in Philadelphia at the end of the National Anthem. These same planes were also responsible for the Super Bowl XLVIII flyover, McGuire Air Force Base was established as Fort Dix Airport in 1937 and first opened to military aircraft on 9 January 1941. On 13 January 1948 the United States Air Force renamed the facility McGuire Air Force Base in honor of Major Thomas Buchanan McGuire, flight operations to support Camp Dix at an adjacent airfield took place as early as 1926. Facilities and runways to support an air mission began in 1937 as a Civilian Conservation Corps project and this was on newly acquired land for the great Army Air Forces expansion approved by the Roosevelt Administration. This nascent airfield and wooden structures was named Rudd Field, to meet the requirements for a possible world war, Rudd Field was renamed Fort Dix Army Air Base in 1939, and underwent massive expansion from 1940–1941. Runways constructed consisted of three concrete surfaced, 7100x150, 7100x150, 5400x150, and one macadam surfaced, 8100x150, the base had its first permanent Army Air Force occupant in November 1941 when the 59th Observation Group took up station on 14 November. Initially during 1941–42 the Group operated a range of aircraft, including the BC-1A, L-59, O-46, O-47, O-49 Vigilant. After the United States entry into World War II, Fort Dix Army Air Base was used as a training, the service group also had its own mess section. The service group had approximately 30 officers and 300 to 400 enlisted men, in late 1942, Army Air Forces Antisubmarine Command took up tenant status at Fort Dix AAB
5.
Pacific War
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
6.
South West Pacific theatre of World War II
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The South West Pacific theatre, during World War II, was a major theatre of the war between the Allies and Japan. It included the Philippines, the Dutch East Indies, Borneo, Australia and its mandate Territory of New Guinea and this area was defined by the Allied powers South West Pacific Area command. In the South West Pacific theatre, Japanese forces fought primarily against the forces of the United States, New Zealand, the Netherlands, the Philippines, United Kingdom, and other Allied nations also contributed forces. The South Pacific became a theatre of the war following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Initially, US warplans called for a counteroffensive across the Central Pacific, during the First South Pacific Campaign, US forces sought to establish a defensive perimeter against additional Japanese attacks. This was followed by the Second South Pacific Campaign, which began with the battle of Guadalcanal, shortly after the collapse of ABDACOM, supreme command of the South West Pacific theatre passed to MacArthur who was appointed Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific Area on 30 March 1942. In the other theatre in the Pacific region, known as the Pacific Ocean theatre. Both MacArthur and Nimitz were overseen by the US Joint Chiefs, most Japanese forces in the theatre were part of the Southern Expeditionary Army, which was formed on November 6,1941, under General Hisaichi Terauchi. The Nanpo gun was responsible for Imperial Japanese Army ground and air units in Southeast Asia, the Combined Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy was responsible for all Japanese warships, naval aviation units and marine infantry units. The Official Chronology of the U. S. Navy in World War II, a Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy. The American Heritage Picture History of World War II, in the Service of the Emperor, Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Griffith, Thomas E. Jr. MacArthurs Airman, General George C, kenney and the War in the Southwest Pacific. From Down Under to Nippon, Story of the 6th Army in World War II, United States Army Center of Military History. Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area, Volume II – Part I, - Translation of the official record by the Japanese Demobilization Bureaux detailing the Imperial Japanese Army and Navys participation in the Southwest Pacific area of the Pacific War
7.
Sacramento McClellan Airport
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The airport is on the former site of McClellan Air Force Base, which existed as a military base from 1939 to 2000. It was transferred to Sacramento County in 2000, as part of its conversion into McClellan Business Park, the airport is a public-use facility which operates as an uncontrolled airfield in what the FAA designates as Class E Airspace. All ground handling and fueling is completed by McClellan Jet Services, the air force base was established in 1935. It was named after Major Hezekiah McClellan on 1 December 1939, born in 1894, he died on 25 May 1936 when his Consolidated P-30 which he was flight testing, crashed near Centerville, Ohio. Construction of the Pacific Air Depot began in 1935, and the structures, including administrative buildings, barracks, warehouses. In 1938 the base was renamed Sacramento Air Depot and underwent an expansion as a repair and overhaul facility for P-38. In March 1942 Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittles B-25s arrived at McClellan for arming in preparation for their famous Tokyo raid. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, McClellan functioned as the depot for overhauling the Air Forces F-111, FB-111 and EF-111 aircraft. A small contingent of F-111D and F-111F aircraft of the 431st Test and Evaluation Squadron, 57th Fighter Weapons Wing, Nellis AFB, McClellan Airfield has one concrete paved runway measuring 10,599 x 150 ft. It also has four concrete helipads, all measuring 57 x 57 ft, for the 12-month period ending April 10,2004, the airport had 10,000 aircraft operations, an average of 27 per day, 40% military, 40% air taxi and 20% general aviation. There are 84 aircraft based at airport, 4% single-engine, 64% multi-engine, 23% jet and 5% helicopter. The Aerospace Museum of California occupies a site at the north of the airfield
8.
Hawaiian Islands
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Formerly the group was known to Europeans and Americans as the Sandwich Islands, a name chosen by James Cook in honor of the then First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. The contemporary name is derived from the name of the largest island, the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown in 1893 and the United States annexed the islands in 1898. The Hawaiian Islands are the peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The islands are about 1,860 miles from the nearest continent and this name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name Hawaii gradually began to take precedence. The Hawaiian Islands have a land area of 6,423.4 square miles. Except for Midway, which is a territory of the United States. The eight main islands of Hawaii are listed here and this number includes all minor islands and islets, or very small island, offshore of the main islands and individual islets in each atoll. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, the age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods.4 Ma. The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the island, Hawaiʻi. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images, almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt, and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained gabbro and diabase, nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. Hawaiʻi island is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, mauna Loa, taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than 2.5 miles, the Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes, generally caused by volcanic activity. Most of the earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo, by missionaries Titus Coan, Sarah J. Lyman. From 1833 to 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year, Hawaii accounted for 7. 3% of the United States reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this period, after Alaska. On October 15,2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, the initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock. Minor-to-moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island, several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu, Oahu, nearly 150 miles from the epicenter
9.
Christmas Island
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Christmas Island, officially the Territory of Christmas Island, is an Australian external territory comprising the island of the same name. Christmas Island is located in the Indian Ocean, around 350 kilometres south of Java and Sumatra and it has an area of 135 square kilometres. Christmas Island has a population of just over 2,000 residents, the main settlement is Flying Fish Cove. Around two-thirds of the population are Malaysian Chinese, with significant numbers of Malays. Several languages are in use, including English, Malay, and various Chinese dialects, while Buddhism is the primary religion, the first European to sight the island was Richard Rowe of the Thomas in 1615. The island was named on Christmas Day 1643 by Captain William Mynors. Its geographic isolation and history of human disturbance has led to a high level of endemism among its flora and fauna. The majority of the island is included in the Christmas Island National Park, Phosphate, deposited originally as guano, has been mined on the island since 1899. Located at 10°30′S 105°40′E, the island is about 19 kilometres in greatest length and 14.5 km in breadth, the total land area is 135 square kilometres, with 138.9 km of coastline. The island is the summit of an underwater mountain more than 4,500 metres high. The mountain was originally a volcano, and some basalt is exposed in places such as The Dales and Dolly Beach, the karst terrain supports numerous anchialine caves. Steep cliffs along much of the coast rise abruptly to a central plateau, elevation ranges from sea level to 361 m at Murray Hill. The island is tropical rainforest, 63% of which is national park land. The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island poses a maritime hazard, Christmas Island lies 2,600 kilometres northwest of Perth, Western Australia,500 km south of Indonesia,975 km ENE of the Cocos Islands, and 2,748 km west of Darwin, Northern Territory. Its closest point to the Australian mainland is 1,560 km from the town of Exmouth, Christmas Island has 80 kilometres of shoreline but only small parts of the shoreline are easily accessible. The islands perimeter is embodied by sharp cliff faces, making many of the beaches difficult to get to. As Christmas Island is located towards the edge of the equatorial region, climate is tropical. The highest temperature is usually around 29 °C in March and April, while the lowest temperature is 23 °C, there is a dry season from July to November with only occasional showers
10.
Canton Island
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It is an atoll located in the South Pacific Ocean roughly halfway between Hawaii and Fiji at 2°50′S 171°40′W. The island is a ribbon of land enclosing a lagoon with an area of 40 square kilometers. Kantons closest neighbor is the island of Enderbury,63 km to the south. The capital of Kiribati, South Tarawa, lies 1,765 km to the west, as of 2005, the population was 41, down from 61 in 2000. In May 2010 the population was reportedly 24, with 14 adults and 10 children, the islands sole village is called Tebaronga. Kiribati declared the Phoenix Islands Protected Area in 2006, with the park being expanded in 2008, the 164, 200-square-mile marine reserve contains eight coral atolls including Kanton. The first recorded sighting by Europeans was in September 1595 by the second Spanish expedition of Álvaro de Mendaña. More precisely it was sighted by Lorenzo Barreto while in command of one of the vessels on a local voyage round the then called Santa Cruz. Visits were again reported on 5 August 1824, by two London whaling ships, the Phoenix, Capt, john Palmer, and the Mary, Capt. Edward Reed. The atoll was initially named Mary Ballcouts Island after the shipowners wife, Kanton got its permanent name from the New Bedford whaler Canton, which ran aground on the atoll on 4 March 1854, while under the command of Capt. Andrew Wing. The crew managed to escape on whaleboats and after a voyage of 49 days, reached Tinian Island in the Marianas. Three of the survivors, including Capt, Wing and Thomas E. Braley settled in Acushnet, Massachusetts. Kanton has been described as being shaped like a pork chop. From its northwest to southeast points is a distance of 14.5 km, the southeast corner of the island is known as Pyramid Point. The sole entrances to the lagoon are on the west side, the lagoon itself is filled with marine life, holding 153 different species of fish, including tuna, sharks, stingrays and eels. An unpaved road runs around the island, though its current state of repair is uncertain, Canton Island Airport lies at the northwest corner of the island, but it currently lacks any commercial scheduled service. The World Port Index number of Kanton Island is 56025, much of Kantons land surface is bare coral, sparsely covered with herbs and low bunch grass, trees and bushes are found near the village site. In 1937, the New Zealand eclipse expedition reported 23 bird species on Kanton, together with Polynesian Rats, lizards, hermit crabs, Two species of spiders were found on the island
11.
New Caledonia
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New Caledonia is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean,1,210 km east of Australia and 16,136 km east of Metropolitan France. The Chesterfield Islands are in the Coral Sea, locals refer to Grande Terre as Le Caillou. New Caledonia has an area of 18,576 km2. Its population of 268,767 consists of a mix of Kanak people, people of European descent, Polynesian people, the capital of the territory is Nouméa. The earliest traces of human presence in New Caledonia date back to the Lapita period, the Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific. British explorer Captain James Cook was the first European to sight New Caledonia, on 4 September 1774 and he named it New Caledonia, as the northeast of the island reminded him of Scotland. The west coast of Grande Terre was approached by Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse in 1788, shortly before his disappearance, from then until 1840, only a few sporadic contacts with the archipelago were recorded. Contacts became more frequent after 1840, because of the interest in sandalwood from New Caledonia, the trade ceased at the start of the 20th century. The victims of this trade were called Kanakas, like all the Oceanian people, the first missionaries from the London Missionary Society and the Marist Brothers arrived in the 1840s. In 1849, the crew of the American ship Cutter was killed, cannibalism was widespread throughout New Caledonia. On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia, a few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years. New Caledonia became a colony, and from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals. Among the convicts were many Communards arrested after the failed Paris Commune, including Henri de Rochefort, between 1873 and 1876,4,200 political prisoners were relegated in New Caledonia. Only 40 of them settled in the colony, the rest returned to France after being granted amnesty in 1879 and 1880. In 1864, nickel was discovered on the banks of the Diahot River and with the establishment of the Société Le Nickel in 1876, mining began in earnest. The French imported labourers to work in the mines, first from neighbouring islands, then from Japan, the Dutch East Indies, the French government also attempted to encourage European immigration, without much success. The indigenous population was excluded from the French economy, even as workers in the mines, and they were ultimately confined to reservations. This sparked a violent reaction in 1878 as High Chief Atal of La Foa managed to unite many of the central tribes, the Europeans brought new diseases such as smallpox and measles
12.
Military Air Transport Service
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The Military Air Transport Service is an inactive Department of Defense Unified Command. Activated on 1 June 1948, MATS was a consolidation of the United States Navy Naval Air Transport Service and it was inactivated and discontinued on 8 January 1966 when the Air Force and Navy set up separate strategic airlift commands. In 1982, the World War II Air Transport Command and the Military Air Transport Service were consolidated with Military Airlift Command, the Military Air Transport Service was activated under United States Air Force Major General Laurence S. Kuter, in order to harness interservice efforts more efficiently. It was an amalgamation of Navy and Army air transport commands, MATS was the first Joint-Service command and Naval aircrews participated in every major MATS airlift operation. During the Berlin Airlift, Naval aviators flew transport aircraft from the United States to European supply depots, in the Korean War, in its original organization, a Rear Admiral commanded the MATS Pacific Division and another rear admiral served as MATS vice-commander. During the 1958 reorganization, senior Naval officers were on the staffs of the commanders of both EASTAF and WESTAF, and at MATS Headquarters. In 1965 conflicting views of the Air Force and Navy triggered by the demands of the Vietnam War led to the returning to separate airlift commands. In turn, MATS was disbanded and superseded in the Air Force by the Military Airlift Command, with the end of World War II, the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command found itself in limbo. Senior ATC officers, on the hand, thought that ATC should be developed into a national government operated airline. While the war had firmly established the necessity of a troop carrier mission, when the United States Air Force was established as a separate service in 1947, the Air Transport Command was not established as one of its major commands. The ATC commander and his staff took it upon themselves to convince the new leadership of the newly created Department of Defense that ATC had a mission. Williams had been pressing for the development of a troop carrier airplane when he made his statement. Also, as a measure, MATS would combine the resources of Air Transport Command with those of the Naval Air Transport Service. This way the command would be sanctioned by the Department of Defense, although MATS was under the operational control of the United States Air Force, the United States Navy was a full partner in the command and operational components of the organization. Major naval components of MATS were naval air transport squadrons, vR-3 and VR-6 were assigned to McGuire AFB and VR-22 was assigned to the Naval Air Transport Station at Naval Station Norfolk/Chambers Field, Virginia. Together they constituted MATS EASTAFs Naval Air Transport Wing, Atlantic, on the Pacific Coast, Naval Air Transport Wing, Pacific, consisted of Air Transport Squadron VR-7 and Maintenance Squadron VR-8, both at Naval Air Station Moffett Field, California. A detachment of VR-7 was also stationed at Tachikawa Air Base, Naval aviators flew scheduled MATS routes to Newfoundland, Iceland, Scotland, West Germany, Italy, Puerto Rico and Africa. In the Pacific, MATS naval aviators flew to all MATS stations from Hawaii to Japan to South Vietnam, Bangkok, India, Air Force pilots flew Navy MATS planes, just as naval aviators could be found piloting Air Force MATS transport aircraft
13.
C-118 Liftmaster
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The Douglas DC-6 is a piston-powered airliner and transport aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company from 1946 to 1958. Originally intended as a military transport near the end of World War II, more than 700 were built and many still fly today in cargo, military, and wildfire control roles. The United States Army Air Forces commissioned the DC-6 project as the XC-112 in 1944, the Army Air Forces wanted a lengthened, pressurized version of the DC-4-based C-54 Skymaster transport with more powerful engines. By the time the prototype XC-112A flew on 15 February 1946 the war was over, the USAAF had rescinded its requirement, Douglas Aircraft modified the design into a civil transport 80 in longer than the DC-4. The civil DC-6 first flew on 29 June 1946, being retained by Douglas for testing, the first airline deliveries were to American Airlines and United Airlines on 24 November 1946. A series of inflight fires grounded the DC-6 fleet in 1947, the cause was found to be a fuel vent next to the cabin cooling turbine intake, all DC-6s were modified and the fleet was flying again after four months on the ground. In April 1949, United, American, Delta, National, United flew them to Hawaii, Braniff flew them to Rio de Janeiro, and Panagra flew Miami-Buenos Aires, KLM, SAS, and Sabena flew DC-6s across the Atlantic. BCPA DC-6s flew Sydney to Vancouver, and Philippine flew Manila to London, pan Am used DC-6Bs to start transatlantic tourist-class flights in 1952. These were the first DC-6Bs that could gross 107,000 lb, several European airlines followed with their own transatlantic services. The DC-6A/B/C subtypes could perhaps fly nonstop from the eastern US to Europe, the military version, similar to the DC-6A, was the USAF C-118 Liftmaster, the USN R6D version used the more powerful R-2800-CB-17 engines. These were later used on the commercial DC-6B to allow international flights, the R6D Navy version had Curtiss Electric constant-speed reversing propellers. The USAF and USN renewed their interest in the DC-6 during the Korean War, Harry Trumans first presidential aircraft was an Air Force short-fuselage DC-6 which was designated VC-118, and named The Independence. It is preserved in the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Dayton, total production of the DC-6 series was 704, including military versions. In the 1960s two DC-6s were used as platforms for educational television, based at Purdue University, in a program called the Midwest Program on Airborne Television Instruction. DC-6/7s surviving into the jet age were replaced in frontline intercontinental passenger service by the Boeing 707, basic prices of a new DC-6 in 1946–47 were around £210, 000–£230,000 and had risen to £310,000 by 1951. By 1960, used prices were around £175,000 per aircraft, prices for the DC-6A in 1957–58 were £460, 000–£480,000. By 1960, used prices were around £296,000, equivalent prices for the DC-6B in 1958 were around £500,000. Used prices in 1960 were around £227,000, from 1977 to 1990 five yellow-painted Douglas DC-6Bs were used as water bombers in France by the Sécurité Civile
14.
Rhein-Main Air Base
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Rhein-Main Air Base was a United States Air Force air base near the city of Frankfurt am Main, Germany. It was a United States Air Forces in Europe installation, occupying the side of Frankfurt Airport. Its military airport codes are discontinued, established in 1945, Rhein-Main Air Base was the primary airlift and passenger hub for United States forces in Europe. It was billed as the Gateway to Europe, after the U. S. 7th Army moved through the Frankfurt area, the 826th Engineer Aviation Battalion, a unit of the IX Engineer Command, arrived at Frankfurt/Rhein-Main Airfield on 26 April 1945. It was classified as Advanced Landing Ground Y-73, on 11 May 1945, the engineers began the task of clearing rubble and reconstructing major buildings. The Army engineers also built new runways and extended and widened the runway, constructed aprons. Initially Frankfurt/Rhein-Main Airfield was used by the Ninth Air Force as a fighter base. The 466th operated the port, with a mixture of C-47 Skytrain, C-46 Commando. Troop Carrier Squadrons of the 61st TCG were the 14th, 15th, the ongoing dispute over Berlin strained relations between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies. The commander of the American occupation zone in Germany, General Lucius D. Clay, USA, Rhein-Main Air Base became the main American terminal in western Germany for the airlift. The aircraft of the 61st TCG participated using C-54 Skymasters to ferry coal, flour, additional Troop Carrier Squadrons were assigned to the 61st group, these being the 20th, 48th, and 54th. On 19 November 1948, the 513th Troop Carrier Group was activated at Rhein-Main Air Base to assist in the airlift, Squadrons of the 513th were the 313th, 330th, 331st, 332d, and 333d. The Soviet Union lifted its blockade at 00,01, on 12 May 1949, however, the airlift did not end until 30 September, as the Western nations wanted to build up sufficient amounts of supplies in West Berlin in case the Soviets blockaded it again. Although originally envisioned as a base by USAFE, as a result of the Berlin Airlift. With the end of the blockade, the 513th TCG was inactivated on 16 October 1949, the 61st TCG returned to routine transport operations until the outbreak of the Korean War. The 61st was reassigned to McChord Air Force Base, Washington on 21 July 1950, the 61st was replaced by the 60th Troop Carrier Wing, which transferred from Wiesbaden Air Base, West Germany on 2 June 1950. The 60th was equipped with the heavier C-82 Packet cargo aircraft, in 1953, the C-119 Flying Boxcar arrived, bringing an increased cargo capability to the wing. The 60th Troop Carrier Wing relocated to Dreux-Louvillier Air Base, France on 15 October 1955, Rhein-Main was placed under the 7310th Air Base Wing, and for over a decade provided ground service as well as cargo and passenger loading and unloading for USAFE and MATS transports
15.
Boeing C-135 Stratolifter
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The Boeing C-135 Stratolifter is a transport aircraft derived from the prototype Boeing 367-80 jet airliner in the early 1950s. It has a fuselage and is shorter than the 707. Boeing gave the aircraft the designation of Model 717. Since the first one was built in August 1956, the C-135, a large majority of the 820 units were developed as KC-135A Stratotankers for mid-air refueling. However, they have performed numerous transport and special-duty functions. Forty-five base-model aircraft were built as C-135A or C-135B transports with the tanking equipment excluded, as is the case with the KC-135, the C-135 is also recognized as the Model 717 by Boeing. Fifteen C-135As, powered by Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojets, were built, in later years, almost all were upgraded with Pratt & Whitney TF33 turbofan engines and wide-span tail planes, and were re-designated C-135E. Most were converted to special roles, including airborne command posts, missile-tracking platforms, and VIP transports. Thirty C-135Bs were built with the TF33 turbofans and wide-span tail planes from the start, ten were modified for a weather reconnaissance role and designated WC-135B Stratolifter. Additional airframes were converted to RC-135s from the 1970s to 2006, the C-135C designation applies to three WC-135B weather reconnaissance aircraft, which reverted to transport status. Most of the other C-135Bs were converted to various special mission variants following their service with the Military Airlift Command, developmental tests using this aircraft have demonstrated the capability to fly precision approaches using a local area differential GPS system. This modified C-135 has been fitted with a millimeter wave camera, Speckled Trout is the official name of a combined SAF/CSAF support mission and concurrent test mission. It was also the nickname given to a modified C-135C, serial number 61-2669, that was used by the Secretary. The 412th Flight Test Squadron of the Air Force Material Command at Edwards AFB, California operated the C-135 Speckled Trout airframe, the name Speckled Trout applies to both the organization and the aircraft. The name was chosen in honor of a program monitor, Faye Trout. The word speckled was added because Trout apparently had a lot of freckles, Speckled Trout acquired the C-135C, serial number 61-2669, in 1974 and retired the aircraft on 13 January 2006. The current KC-135R Speckled Trout also supports additional tests and air refueling requirements that the C-135C could not, the C-135F were new-built aircraft used by France as dual-role tanker/cargo and troop carrier aircraft. C-135A Cargo/passenger variant of the KC-135A with seating for 126 passengers and it is given the Boeing model number 717-157
16.
Arctic
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The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear
17.
Antarctic
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The Antarctic is a polar region, specifically the region around the Earths South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises in the sense the continent of Antarctica. The region covers some 20% of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5. 5% is the area of the Antarctic continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System, in a biogeographic sense, the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earths land surface. Most of the Antarctic region is situated south of 60°S latitude parallel, there are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, the first human born in the Antarctic was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000 tourists annually, the definitive results of the conference was presented at the Antarctic Treaty states meeting in Uruguay in May 2010. The Antarctic hosts the worlds largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km2, the South Georgia, because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are based on territorial claims or the time zone of a stations owner country or supply base. Antarctic Circle History of Antarctica Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, smithsonian at the Poles, Contributions to International Polar Year Science
18.
South Vietnam
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South Vietnam, officially the Republic of Vietnam, was a state governing the southern half of Vietnam from 1955 to 1975. It received international recognition in 1949 as the State of Vietnam, the term South Vietnam became common usage in 1954, when the Geneva Conference provisionally partitioned Vietnam into communist and non-communist parts. The Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed on 26 October 1955, with Ngô Đình Diệm as its first president and its sovereignty was recognized by the United States and eighty-seven other nations. It had membership in several committees of the United Nations. After the Second World War, the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, in 1949, anti-communist Vietnamese politicians formed a rival government in Saigon led by former emperor Bảo Đại. Bảo Đại was deposed by Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm in 1955, after Diệm was killed in a military coup led by general Dương Văn Minh in 1963, there was a series of short-lived military governments. General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu led the country from 1967 until 1975, the Vietnam War began in 1959 with an uprising by Viet Cong forces armed and controlled by Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Fighting reached a climax during the Tet Offensive of 1968, when there were over 1.5 million South Vietnamese soldiers and 500,000 U. S. soldiers in South Vietnam. Despite a peace treaty concluded in January 1973, fighting continued until the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong armies overran Saigon on 30 April 1975, the creation of this republic, during the Indochina War, allowed France to evade a promise to recognise Vietnam as independent. This pre-Vietnam government prepared for a unified Vietnamese state, but the countrys full reunification was delayed for a year because of the problems posed by Cochinchinas legal status, Nguyễn Văn Xuân 1949–55 State of Vietnam. Roughly 60% of Vietnamese territory was controlled by the communist Việt Minh. Vietnam was partitioned at the 17th parallel in 1954, once highly lauded by America, he was ousted and assassinated in a U. S. -backed coup. In 1963–65, there were numerous coups and short-lived governments, several of which were headed by Dương Văn Minh or Nguyễn Khánh, Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ was the top leader in 1965–67. Surrendered to Communists when others abandoned their posts, 1975–76 Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. Huỳnh Tấn Phát Before World War II, the third of Vietnam was the concession of Cochinchina. Between Tonkin in the north and Cochinchina in the south was the protectorate of Annam, Cochinchina had been annexed by France in 1862 and even elected a deputy to the French National Assembly. It was more evolved, and French interests were stronger than in parts of Indochina. During World War II, Indochina was administered by Vichy France, japanese troops overthrew the French administration on 9 March 1945, Emperor Bảo Đại proclaimed Vietnam independent
19.
Lockheed C-141 Starlifter
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Introduced to replace slower propeller driven cargo planes such as the C-124 Globemaster II and C-133 Cargomaster, the C-141 was designed to requirements set in 1960 and first flew in 1963. Production deliveries of an eventual 285 planes began in 1965,284 for the Air Force, the aircraft remained in service for over 40 years until the USAF withdrew the last C-141s from service in 2006, after replacing the airlifter with the C-17 Globemaster III. In the early 1960s, the United States Air Forces Military Air Transport Service relied on a number of propeller-driven aircraft for strategic airlift. As these aircraft were mostly obsolescent designs and the Air Force needed the benefits of jet power, the C-135 was a useful stop-gap, but only had side-loading doors and most bulky and oversize equipment would not fit, especially that employed by the U. S. Army. In the spring of 1960 the Air Force released Specific Operational Requirement 182, the strategic role demanded that the aircraft be capable of missions with a radius of at least 3,500 nautical miles with a 60,000 pounds load. The tactical role required it to be able to perform low-altitude air drops of supplies, as well as carry, several companies responded to SOR182, including Boeing, Lockheed, and General Dynamics. Lockheed responded to the requirement with a design, the Lockheed Model 300. The Model 300 had a swept high-mounted wing with four 21,000 pounds-force thrust TF33 turbofan engines pod-mounted below the wings, an important aspect was the cabins floor height of only 50 inches above the ground, allowing easy access to the cabin through the rear doors. The two rear doors were designed to allow the aircraft to drop paratroops. The rear cargo doors could be opened in flight for airborne cargo drops, the high-mounted wings gave internal clearance in the cargo compartment of 10 feet wide,9 ft high and 70 ft long. The size enabled the Starlifter to carry, for example, a complete LGM-30 Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile in its container. The aircraft was capable of carrying a maximum of 70,847 pounds over short distances, and up to 92,000 pounds in the version configured to carry the Minuteman, the aircraft could also carry up to 154 troops,123 paratroops or 80 litter patients. One unusual aspect of the aircraft was that it was designed to both military and civil airworthiness standards. The prototype C-141A serial number 61-2775 was manufactured and assembled in record time, the prototype was rolled out of the Lockheed factory at Marietta, Georgia on 22 August 1963 and first flew on 17 December, the 60th anniversary of the Wright brothers first flight. The company and the Air Force then started a testing program. An effort to sell the aircraft on the market resulted in provisional orders from Flying Tiger Line. These were to be a version,37 feet longer than the C-141A. Other changes were incorporated to make it more commercial, including a different yoke
20.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
21.
Operation Deep Freeze
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The U. S. Navy already had a record of earlier exploration in Antarctica. As early as 1839, Captain Charles Wilkes led the first U. S. Naval expedition into Antarctic waters. In 1929, Admiral Richard E. Byrd established a base at Little America I, led an expedition to explore further inland. From 1934–35, the second Byrd Expedition explored much further inland, the third Byrd Expedition in 1940 charted the Ross Sea. Byrd was instrumental in the Navys Operation Highjump after World War II from 1946–47, in 1948, Commander Finn Ronne led an expedition that photographed over 450,000 square miles by air. Then in 1954–55, the icebreaker USS Atka made an expedition for future landing sites. The impetus behind Operation Deep Freeze I was the International Geophysical Year 1957–58, IGY as it was known was a collaborative effort among forty nations to carry out earth science studies from the North Pole to the South Pole and at points in between. The United States along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Norway, Chile, Argentina, and the U. S. S. R. agreed to go to the South Pole, the least explored area on Earth. Their goal was to advance knowledge of Antarctic hydrography and weather systems, glacial movements. The U. S. Navy was charged with supporting the U. S. scientists for their portion of the IGY studies, in 1955, Task Force 43 was formed to carry out this work. Operation Deep Freeze I prepared a permanent research station and paved the way for more research in later Deep Freeze operations. The expedition transpired over the Antarctic summer of November 1955 to April 1956, Dufek and others successfully landed an R4D Skytrain aircraft at the South Pole, as part of the expeditions mounted for the IGY. This was the first aircraft to land at the South Pole, the aircraft was named Que Sera, Sera after a popular song and is now on display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. This marked the beginning of the establishment of the first permanent base, by airlift, the Operation Deep Freeze activities were succeeded by Operation Deep Freeze II, and so on, continuing a constant US presence in Antarctica since that date. The Navys Antarctic Development Squadron Six had been flying the missions, the 109th operated ski-equipped LC-130s and had been flying some National Science Foundation support missions to Antarctica since 1988. It had flown scientific and military missions to Greenland and the Arctic since 1975, the Antarctic operation would be fully funded by the National Science Foundation. The 109th expected to add approximately 235 full-time personnel to support that operation, the possibility of the Air National Guard assuming operational control of the mission had first emerged in 1988. The 109th Airlift Wing had been notified that, almost overnight, the other sites would soon follow, and the 109th would be largely out of business because its primary mission had ended
22.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
23.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
24.
Managua
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Managua is the capital city of Nicaragua as well as of the department of the same name. The city was declared the capital in 1852. Prior, the capital alternated between the cities of León and Granada, the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake and years of civil war in the 1980s severely disrupted and stunted Managuas growth. It was not until the mid-1990s that Managua began to see a resurgence, the name Managua originates from the term Mana-ahuac, which in the indigenous Nahuatl language translates to adjacent to the water or site surrounded by water. Residents of the city are called managüenses or capitalinos, Nicaragua was inhabited by Paleo-Americans as far back as 6,000 years ago. The ancient footprints of Acahualinca are 2, 100-year-old fossils discovered along the shores of Lake Managua, founded by a pre-Columbian fishing town, the city was incorporated in 1819 and given the name Leal Villa de Santiago de Managua. Efforts to make Managua the capital of Nicaragua began in 1824, Managuas location between the rival cities of León and Granada made it a logical compromise site. After Granada was destroyed by an army led by William Walker in 1857. Between 1852 and 1930, Managua underwent extensive urbanization, becoming a base of governance, infrastructure, the city was hampered by major floods in 1876 and 1885. A disastrous earthquake in 1931 and large fire in 1936 destroyed much of the city, under the rule of dictator Anastasio Somoza García and his family, the city was rebuilt and began to grow rapidly. New government buildings were erected, industry developed, and universities were established, Managua had become Central Americas most developed city. Todays references differentiate the pre-1970s Managua by labeling it as La Antigua Ciudad, Managuas progress came to a sudden halt after it suffered a second major earthquake on December 23,1972, which destroyed 90% of the citys downtown and killed more than 19,120 people. Infrastructure was severely damaged and rehabilitation or restoration of buildings was nearly impossible, at the time, Managuas limited resources had to be directed to other disaster relief purposes. Managuas ability to cope with the disaster was also limited, surviving fire squadrons and ambulance companies were not able to handle the skyrocketing demand for their services. Some buildings burned to the ground, while the foundations of others simply gave way, not able to rebuild quickly, the city directed emergency workers to clear away much of the citys ruins quickly while burying the deceased in mass graves. Residences, government buildings and entire avenues were demolished, escaping the city center, earthquake victims found refuge in the outskirts of the city. The Nicaraguan Civil War of 1979 to overthrow the Somoza regime, to make matters worse, a series of natural disasters, including Hurricane Mitch in 1998, made economic recovery more difficult. After winning the elections of 1990, UNO the reconstruction of Managua began in earnest, in 2006, after the FSLN came back into power, literacy, health and reconstruction programs were expanded
25.
Zaire
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Zaire, officially the Republic of Zaire is the name for the Democratic Republic of the Congo that existed between 1971 and 1997 in Central Africa. The country was a one-party state and dictatorship, run by Mobutu Sese Seko and it was established following Mobutus seizure of power in a military coup in 1965, following five years of political upheaval following independence known as the Congo Crisis. Zaire had a strongly centralist constitution and foreign assets were nationalized, a wider campaign of Authenticité, ridding the country of the influences from the colonial era of the Belgian Congo, was also launched under Mobutus direction. Weakened by the end of American support after the end of the Cold War, by the time of its disestablishment, Mobutus rule was characterized by widespread cronyism, corruption and economic mismanagement. The Republic started to collapsed in 1996, amid the destabilization of eastern parts of the state in the aftermath of the Rwandan Genocide and growing ethnic violence. The following year, Laurent-Désiré Kabila, at the head of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo militia, with rebel forces making gains in the east, Mobutu fled the country, leaving Kabilas forces in charge. Mobutu died within four months after he was forced into exile in Morocco, the states name, Zaire was derived from the name of the Congo River, sometimes called Zaire in Portuguese, adapted from the Kongo word nzere or nzadi. In 1965, as in 1960, the division of power in Congo-Léopoldville between President and Parliament led to a stalemate and threatened the countrys stability, unlike the first time, however, Mobutu assumed the presidency, rather than remaining behind the scenes. From 1965, Mobutu dominated the life of the country, restructuring the state on more than one occasion. In retrospective justification of his 1965 seizure of power, Mobutu later summed up the record of the First Republic as one of chaos, disorder, negligence, rejection of the legacy of the First Republic went far beyond rhetoric. In the first two years of its existence, the new regime turned to the urgent tasks of political reconstruction and consolidation, creating a new basis of legitimacy for the state, in the form of a single party, came next in Mobutus order of priority. A third imperative was to expand the reach of the state in the social and political realms, by 1976, however, this effort had begun to generate its own inner contradictions, thus paving the way for the resurrection of a Bula Matari system. By 1967, Mobutu had consolidated his rule and proceeded to give the country a new constitution, the new constitution was submitted to popular referendum in June 1967 and approved by 98 percent of those voting. The president was to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and determine their areas of responsibility, the ministers, as heads of their respective departments, were to execute the programs and decisions of the president. The president also was to have the power to appoint and dismiss the governors of the provinces, the bicameral parliament was replaced by a unicameral legislative body called the National Assembly. Governors of provinces were no longer elected by provincial assemblies but appointed by the central government, the president had the power to issue autonomous regulations on matters other than those pertaining to the domain of law, without prejudice to other provisions of the constitution. Under certain conditions, the president was empowered to govern by executive order, but the most far-reaching change was the creation of the Popular Movement of the Revolution on 17 April 1967, marking the emergence of the nation politically organized. Rather than being the emanation of the state, the state was defined as the emanation of the party
26.
Air Transport Command
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Air Transport Command was a United States Air Force unit that was created during World War II as the strategic airlift component of the United States Army Air Forces. ATC also operated an air transportation system for military personnel. Inactivated on 1 June 1948, Air Transport Command was the precursor to what became the Military Air Transport Service in 1948 and was redesignated Military Airlift Command in 1966. It was consolidated with MAC in 1982, providing a history of long range airlift through 1992 when the mission was transferred to todays Air Mobility Command. By no means least among the achievements of the Army Air Forces in World War II was its development of a system of air transport. That system, and its functions, soon became synonymous with the organization which controlled it, railroads was used to move the equipment and aircraft from one base to another and to the Ports of Embarkation along the East Coast for subsequent sea shipment to the battlefields of France. It wasnt until the 1920s that the development of cargo and personnel transport aircraft began with such as the Boeing Model 40. In the early 1930s, the Air Corps began formally experimenting with the use of air transport for the distribution of aviation supplies. The group, redesignated the 10th Transport Group in 1937, also transported supplies from one depot to another, with the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939, several European governments approached the United States for military equipment. They needed immediate help for the battles they might soon have to fight on their own soil against invading German armies. The French ordered Douglas DB-7 two-engine light bombers, Curtiss P-36 Hawks, the idea of developing a regular military service for ferrying aircraft was the result of several factors. Production of aircraft by United States manufacturers was increasing for both the Army Air Corps and for purchase by the British, as produced and ready for delivery at the factory, these aircraft were flyable but also needed modifications before they were ready for combat service. It was advantageous to fly the aircraft to a modification center where changes could be made. By ferrying these bombers under their own power, vital shipping space was saved, however, the British Government had limited funds, and was rapidly running out of resources for the purchase of war materiel of all types from the United States. In the spring of 1941, the Roosevelt Administration was committed to all possible help, short of actual combat, to the United Kingdom. With that clear intention, the doors were opened for larger numbers of aircraft to be sent to the Royal Air Force to defend Great Britain and it was also clear that the pioneering efforts of the British would have to be expanded to accommodate the increased number of aircraft. These shipments to the British caused a shortage in the United States of multi-engine aircraft in particular, Air Corps units were in need of training in long-range navigation, weather and radio-flying that a coast-to-coast ferrying service would give them in the latest models of aircraft. This would make possible the ferrying of medium and light bombers across the North Atlantic Ocean, the British ferrying service was well under way when the Lend-Lease Act became law on 11 March 1941
27.
1611th Air Transport Wing
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The 1611th Air Transport Wing is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last was assigned to the Eastern Transport Air Force, Military Air Transport Service, stationed at McGuire Air Force Base and it was inactivated on 8 January 1966. With the disestablishment of MATS, the USAF assets of the Wing were reassigned to the 438th Military Airlift Wing, established in 1954 at McGuire AFB, New Jersey after Military Air Transport Service assumed jurisdiction at McGuire from Air Defense Command. Operated primarily C-118 Liftmaster transports throughout its existence, received C-135 Stratolifters in 1962 and was upgraded from a medium to a transport wing. Commenced transitioning to C-130E Hercules late 1963, supported Air Force Reserve associate units beginning in 1961. Operated Aerial Port and Port of Embarkation for the Northeast United States, maintained support for Air Weather Service and Air Rescue Service squadrons and aircraft as well as Air Defense Command interceptor aircraft and other air defense units. Discontinued on 8 January 1966 along with MATS, equipment and personnel reassigned to MAC 438th MAW same date,4 June 1943, activated 21 June 1943, disbanded 1 December 1943 Assigned to, 13th Ferry / Air Transport Squadron, India-China Wing, Air Transport Command. This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/. Mueller, Robert, Air Force Bases Volume I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982, Office of Air Force History,1989 AFHRA 1611th Air Transport Wing
28.
438th Air Expeditionary Wing
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The 438th Air Expeditionary Wing is an active United States Air Force unit operating in Afghanistan and assigned to United States Air Forces Central. The wing trains Afghan Air Force members, including pilots, as part of this reorganization, the 438th Troop Carrier Wing was activated at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska. The wing absorbed the resources of the 381st Bombardment Group, which was inactivated at Offutt. Although the wings manning, along with that of its component squadrons, was limited to 25% of active duty organization authorizations, it was assigned four squadrons, rather than three. The wing trained under the 2473d Air Force Reserve Training Center for troop carrier operations with the C-46, all combat units of the Air Force Reserve were ordered to active service for the Korean War. The 438th was called up in the wave of mobilizations on 10 March 1951. Its personnel were used to man other organizations, primarily those of Strategic Air Command and its aircraft were distributed to other organizations as well. Little more than a year later the wing was redesignated the 438th Fighter-Bomber Wing and activated at Billy Mitchell Field, Wisconsin, the reserve mobilization for the Korean War, however, had left the Reserve without airplanes, and the unit did not receive aircraft until July 1952. When it finally began to receive its planes, they were World War II era North American F-51 Mustangs, once more, the 2473d Air Force Reserve Training Center was responsible for the training of the 438th Wing and other units at the station. Despite its designation as a bomber unit, the group initially trained in the air defense role. In 1957 the group began to upgrade to the North American F-86 Sabre, however, its time with this plane would be short. By 1956, the Joint Chiefs of Staff were pressuring the Air Force to provide more wartime airlift, at the same time, about 150 Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars became available from the active force. Consequently, in November 1956 the Air Force directed Continental Air Command to convert three fighter wings to the troop carrier mission by September 1957. The 438th Military Airlift Wing replaced the 1611th Air Transport Wing at McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey in January 1966, on 1 December 1991, the wing was redesignated as the 438th Airlift Wing and implemented objective wing. On 1 June 1992, it was assigned to the new Air Mobility Command. On 1 October 1993, the 30th AS was moved without personnel or equipment to the 374th Operations Group, Yokota AB, Japan, replacing the 20th AS as part of the Air Force illustrious units realignment. It was replaced by the 13th Airlift Squadron at McGuire which was transferred without personnel or equipment from the 18th Operations Group, Kadena AB, the 438th Air Expeditionary Group was activated after the September 11 terror attacks in 2001. Its people fought in Iraq and trained Iraqis and then moved to Afghanistan to train Afghan airmen at bases around the country
29.
Military Airlift Command
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The Military Airlift Command is an inactive United States Air Force major command that was headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois. In 1982, the heritage of the World War II Air Transport Command, mACs emblem reflected its predecessors history by incorporating the emblem of MATS into its shield. Under the USAF lineage system, they did not possess a permanent lineage or history and were discontinued upon inactivation, AFCON units were activated under MAC, to which USAF personnel and equipment formerly assigned to MATS MAJCOM units were reassigned effective 8 January 1966. No formal lineage or history between former MATS MAJCOM units and MAC AFCON units was ever made, with the establishment of MAC by the USAF, plans were also made to discontinue the role of the United States Navy within the new command. At first, MAC transports to Vietnam landed regularly only at Tan Son Nhut AB, New air bases opened at Da Nang AB and Cam Ranh AB in January 1966, and later at Pleiku, Bien Hoa and Phu Cat Air Bases, reducing the need for redistribution. Major unit movements by MAC aircraft from the United States usually required further airlifts to operating areas by in-country transports, eventually, however, C-5s could unload at Tan Son Nhut and elsewhere. Primarily, MAC transports carried high-value cargo such as aircraft and equipment parts, while MAC civilian-contract flights transported passengers to and from the combat zone. In the winter of 1965-66, MAC conducted Operation Blue Light, generally, patients requiring hospitalization for thirty days or more were moved to offshore hospitals, others were sometimes evacuated to keep an empty-bed reserve of fifty percent in Vietnam. Military Airlift Command transports carried the more serious cases from Clark AB to the United States, on 30 March 1972, North Vietnam launched an all-out invasion of South Vietnam, which came to be known as the Easter Offensive. The Vietnamization policy of the United States had resulted in the vast majority of US ground combat forces been withdrawn from South Vietnam with PACAFs tactical air units also being reduced. Military Airlift Commands C-141 force, accustomed to operating in and out of Vietnam from offshore were utilized for movement of large amounts of men and materiel to oppose the invasion. Beginning on 21 April, MAC C-141s began shuttling passengers and cargo between Tan Son Nhut AB and the other main bases, principally Da Nang AB, Bien Hoa AB. Planes and crews were based for one or more nights at Tan Son Nhut and this C-141 effort permitted the VNAF and PACAF C-130s to concentrate on drops, unit hauls, and deliveries to forward locations. The rapid American response to the invasion allowed the South Vietnamese forces to defeat the invaders for the moment, by the terms of the 1973 Paris Peace Accords, the cease-fire was to become effective in Vietnam the morning of 28 January 1973, Saigon time. American prisoners in North Vietnam were to be released and the last 23,700 American troops withdrawn from Vietnam within sixty days, planning for Operation Homecoming, the return of the Americans held by North Vietnam, was given to the Military Airlift Command. C-141s of the 63d Military Airlift Wing, stationed at Norton AFB, a second C-130 left Tan Son Nhut AB carrying members of the international commission to Hanoi oversee the repatriations. This C-130 arrived at Gia Lam Airport about one hour before the C-130 from CCK arrived, on the ground at Gia Lam the C-130 crew met the airport manager, and went indoors for tea offered by the North Vietnamese. The first of three C-141s flown in from Clark landed soon after and repatriation began, as the first returnee moved from the release desk, one of the C-130 flight engineers quickly moved to clear the way, leading the former prisoner by the arm
30.
March Air Reserve Base
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March Air Reserve Base, previously known as March Air Force Base is located in Riverside County, California between the cities of Riverside and Moreno Valley. It is the home to the Air Force Reserve Commands 4th Air Force Headquarters and the host 452d Air Mobility Wing, for almost 50 years, March AFB was a Strategic Air Command base during the Cold War. The host unit at March is the Air Force Reserves 452d Air Mobility Wing, March JARB is also the home to Headquarters, 4th Air Force of the Air Force Reserve Command and multiple units of the California Air National Guard. Prior to 2013, the 144 FW stationed F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft, initially consisting of F-16C/D Block 25, then F-16C/D Block 32, on alert at March. Following the wings transition to the F-15 Eagle, the 144 FW now stations an air defense alert detachment F-15C/D Eagle aircraft at this location in support of USNORTHCOM. Dragon Flight is a formation flight demonstration team, based at March. The team uses the T-34 Mentor, making appearances throughout the southwest United States each year. The March Field Airfest, also known as Thunder Over the Empire, is an air show held at March. The air show is among the largest events in the Inland Empire, the show has featured such performers as the United States Air Force Thunderbirds, the F-22 Raptor and many other military and civilian demonstrations. 2010 saw the Patriots Jet Team as the demonstration team of the show. Attendance for the 2010 show was estimated at over 150,000, March is one of the oldest airfields operated by the United States military, being established as Alessandro Flying Training Field in February 1918. It was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I in April 1917, the airfield was renamed March Field the following month for 2d Lieutenant Peyton C. March, Jr. the recently deceased son of then-Army Chief of Staff Peyton C, March, who was killed in an air crash in Texas just fifteen days after being commissioned. The establishment of March Air Force Base began in the early 20th century at a time when the United States was rushing to build up its forces in anticipation of an entry into World War I. At the same time, the War Department announced its intentions to build new military installations. The Army quickly set about establishing the new air field, sergeant Charles E. Garlick, who had landed at Alessandro Field in a Curtiss JN-4 Jenny in November 1917, was selected to lead the advance contingent of four men to the new base from Rockwell Field. On 20 March 1918, Alessandro Flying Training Field became March Field, March, Jr. son of the Army Chief of Staff, who had been killed when his Curtiss JN-4 Jenny crashed in Fort Worth, Texas the previous month. His crash occurred two weeks after he had commissioned in the regular United States Army Air Service
31.
Hamilton Army Airfield
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Hamilton Field was a United States Air Force base that was inactivated in 1973, decommissioned in 1974, and put into a caretaker status with the Air Force Reserves until 1976. It was transferred to the United States Army in 1983 and redesignated an Army Airfield until its closure pursuant to BRAC action in 1988 and it is located along the western shore of San Pablo Bay in the southern portion of Novato, in Marin County, California. Thirteen days later Hamilton died in action near Lagnicourt, France, what would eventually become Hamilton Air Force Base has its origins in the late 1920s, when the airfield was first established. Then, with development beginning, it was named Hamilton Field on July 12,1932. Construction of the airfield began about July 1,1932, with the airfield being originally designed to accommodate four bomb squadrons, the Hamilton Field Station Complement replaced the 70th Service Squadron on March 1,1935. The U. S. Weather Bureau had a cooperative weather station on the base from 1934 to 1964. Hamilton Field was originally a bomber installation, on May 5,1934, the first planes assigned to Hamilton were Martin B-10 and B-12 bombers of the 7th Bombardment Group, having been transferred from March Airfield. Shortly thereafter, amphibious aircraft of the 88th Observation Squadron were assigned to Hamilton. The B-12 bombers housed at Hamilton Field were phased out in 1937, the B-18 was a standard two-engine short-range bomber, and was capable of airlifting combat-equipped troops en masse, an important advance in combat techniques at the time. Because the runway at Hamilton Field was not adequate for the B-17, in 1939, the 7th Bombardment Group was designated a heavy bomb group and was moved to Fort Douglas, Utah on September 7,1940, to train with B-17s. Hamilton became a base under the USAAC Air Force Combat Command in December 1940. The 9th PW was reassigned from March Field, bringing the 14th, the arrival of the pursuit wings and their crews caused crowding at the base and initiated the first of many housing problems. After leaving Hamilton, and flying all through the night, the bombers arrived over Oahu on the morning of December 7,1941, the B-17s had arrived over Oahu during the Japanese air attack on Hawaii which triggered American entry into World War II. They arrived at Pearl Harbor at the height of the attack, the B-17Es of the 7th Bombardment Group were moved back to Hamilton from Utah for deployment to the Far East. Six of them arrived in Hawaii just after the Pearl Harbor attack, during World War II, Hamilton was an important West Coast air training facility. Its mission was that of a training base for newly formed fighter groups. The ATC West Coast Wing was headquartered at the airfield, with the 64th Transport Group being assigned early in 1942, the 1503rd AAF Base Unit was also stationed here. In the initial years, Hamilton remained Air Transport Commands primary West Coast facility until 1948 when Military Air Transport Service moved most activities to nearby Travis AFB
32.
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress
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The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is a four-engine heavy bomber developed in the 1930s for the United States Army Air Corps. Competing against Douglas and Martin for a contract to build 200 bombers, although Boeing lost the contract because the prototype crashed, the air corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation. From its introduction in 1938, the B-17 Flying Fortress evolved through numerous design advances, the B-17 was primarily employed by the United States Army Air Forces in the daylight strategic bombing campaign of World War II against German industrial and military targets. The B-17 also participated to an extent in the War in the Pacific, early in World War II. From its prewar inception, the USAAC promoted the aircraft as a weapon, it was a relatively fast, high-flying. It developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base, the B-17 developed a reputation as an effective bomber, dropping more bombs than any other U. S. aircraft in World War II. Of the 1.5 million tonnes of bombs dropped on Germany, in addition to its role as a bomber, the B-17 was also employed as a transport, antisubmarine aircraft, drone controller, and search-and-rescue aircraft. As of May 2015, ten aircraft remain airworthy, none of them are combat veterans. Dozens more are in storage or on static display, the oldest of these is a D-series veteran of combat in the Pacific and the Caribbean. On 8 August 1934, the U. S. Army Air Corps tendered a proposal for a bomber to replace the Martin B-10. The air corps was looking for a capable of reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii, Panama. Requirements were that it would carry a useful bombload at an altitude of 10,000 ft for ten hours with a top speed of at least 200 mph. They also desired, but did not require, a range of 2,000 mi, the competition for the air corps contract would be decided by a fly-off between Boeings design, the Douglas DB-1, and the Martin Model 146 at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. The prototype B-17, with the Boeing factory designation of Model 299, was designed by a team of engineers led by E. Gifford Emery and Edward Curtis Wells and it combined features of the experimental Boeing XB-15 bomber with the Boeing 247 transport aircraft. The B-17s armament consisted of up to 4,800 lb of bombs on two racks in the bay behind the cockpit, and initially possessed five.30 caliber machine guns. It was powered by four Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines each producing 750 hp at 7,000 ft, the first flight of the Model 299 was on 28 July 1935 with Boeing chief test-pilot Leslie Tower at the controls. Richard Williams, a reporter for the Seattle Times, coined the name Flying Fortress with his comment, Why, when the Model 299 was rolled out bristling with multiple machine gun installations. The most unusual gun emplacement was the installation which allowed the single machine gun to be fired toward almost any frontal angle
33.
Martin B-26 Marauder
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The Martin B-26 Marauder was a World War II twin-engined medium bomber built by the Glenn L. Martin Company from 1941 to 1945. First used in the Pacific Theater in early 1942, it was used in the Mediterranean Theater. After entering service with the US Army, the received the reputation of a Widowmaker due to the early models high accident rate during takeoffs. The Marauder had to be flown at exact airspeeds, particularly on final runway approach, the B-26 became a safer aircraft once crews were re-trained, and after aerodynamics modifications. After aerodynamic and design changes, the aircraft distinguished itself as the chief bombardment weapon on the Western Front according to a United States Army Air Forces dispatch from 1946, the Marauder ended World War II with the lowest loss rate of any USAAF bomber. A total of 5,288 were produced between February 1941 and March 1945,522 of these were flown by the Royal Air Force and the South African Air Force. By the time the United States Air Force was created as an independent service separate from the Army in 1947, the Douglas A-26 Invader then assumed the B-26 designation — before officially returning to the earlier A for Attack designation in May 1966. On 5 July 1939, the Glenn L. Martin Company submitted its design, produced by a led by Peyton M. Magruder, to meet the requirement. Martins design was evaluated as superior to the proposals and was awarded a contract for 201 aircraft. The B-26 went from concept to an operational bomber in approximately two years. Additional orders for a further 930 B-26s followed in September 1940, the B-26 was a shoulder-winged monoplane of all-metal construction, fitted with a tricycle landing gear. A gunner manned a turret armed with two.50 in machine guns, while an additional.30 in machine gun was fitted in the tail. The aircraft was powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial engines in nacelles slung under the wing, driving four-bladed propellers, the engines were manufactured at the Ford Dearborn Engine plant in Dearborn, Michigan, USA. The first B-26, with Martin test pilot William K, ken Ebel at the controls, flew on 25 November 1940 and was effectively the prototype. Deliveries to the US Army Air Corps began in February 1941 with the second aircraft, in March 1941, the Army Air Corps started Accelerated Service Testing of the B-26 at Patterson Field, Ohio. At least two of the earliest B-26s suffered hard landings and damage to the landing gear, engine mounts, propellers. The type was grounded briefly in April 1941 to investigate the landing difficulties, two causes were found, insufficient landing speed and improper weight distribution. The latter was due to the lack of a dorsal turret, some of the very earliest B-26s suffered collapses of the nose landing gear
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.