1.
1897 in Italy
–
See also,1896 in Italy, other events of 1897,1898 in Italy. Increasing wheat prices caused social unrest, february 2 – Despite the guarantees given by the Great Powers on the Ottoman sovereignty over Crete, Col. Timoleon Vassos unilaterally proclaimed the union of the island with Greece. The Powers reacted by demanding that the Greek Prime Minister Theodoros Deligiannis immediately withdraw Greek forces from the island in exchange for a statute of autonomy, the bold action of the Greeks exites popular admiration in Italy and sympathy with the Cretan Christians. He warns Greece and Cretan insurgents to cease all hostile actions against the Turks, february 21 – Popular manifestations in Rome and other towns in Italy in favour of the union of Greece and Crete, which is under Ottoman rule. March 21 – First round of the Italian general election, march 28 – Second round of the Italian general election,1897. The Ministerial left-wing bloc, led by Giovanni Giolitti remained the largest in Parliament, april 5-May 8 – Greco-Turkish War over the status of the Ottoman province of Crete, whose Greek majority long desired union with Greece. Italian volunteers under the command of Ricciotti Garibaldi go to Crete to fight for the unification of Crete with Greece, Greece will suffer a heavy defeat and the Great Powers will force the Greek army to abandon the island. April 12 – After four days of debate Prime Minister Antonio di Rudinì survives a vote of confidence over the policy towards Greece in relation with the Cretan State. April 22 – King Umberto I is attacked by an unemployed anarchist ironsmith, Pietro Acciarito, december 5 – Minister of War, General Luigi Pelloux, resigns over a conflict about army promotions. Prime Minister Di Rudini is tasked with forming a new Cabinet, the previous one was riddled with irreconcilable positions, Di Rudini now tries to form a more unified government. December 14 – Prime Minister Di Rudini forms a new Cabinet, november 1 – Juventus F. C. founded as Sport-Club Juventus by a group of young students from Turin. Modern Italy,1871 to the Present, New York, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-4058-2352-4
2.
1898 in Italy
–
See also,1897 in Italy, other events of 1898,1899 in Italy. Events from the year 1898 in Italy, monarch – Umberto I Prime Minister - Antonio di Rudinì Luigi Pelloux The year is marked by widespread bread riots all over Italy. The tariff on the duty on imported wheat is lowered from 75 lire a tonne to 50 lire. In 1897 the wheat harvest in Italy was substantially lower than the years before, moreover, import of American grain was more expensive due to the Spanish–American War in 1898. Wheat prices in Milan increased from 225 lire a tonne to 330 lire a tonne in April 1898, in order to try to diminish the rising prices the government of Antonio Di Rudinì was urged to abolish the duty on imported wheat. The lowering of the tariff is generally considered to be too little, street demonstrations demanding bread and work began in the South of Italy, which already had seen widespread revolts by the Fasci Siciliani in 1893–94. In towns like Bari and Naples rioting could be suppressed, while Florence was controlled by demonstrators for a whole day, the situation escalated when demonstrators were shot by nervous policemen, and rioting increased. The Finance Minister in the administration of Prime Minister Antonio di Rudinì, Luigi Luzzatti and its lyrics were written by Giovanni Capurro and the music was composed by Eduardo di Capua. January 2 – Bread riots in Sicily near Agrigento, january 17–18 – Two days of bread riots in Ancona after a demonstration of women demanding a reduction in the price of bread. February 27 – To annihilate the Sicilian Mafia, Italian troops arrest 64 people of Palermo, April 27 – Bread riots start in Bari, where a mob of 2,000 attacks the tax office. The riots expand to many parts of Italy, with several people killed, in Naples, women lead the mobs carrying loaves of bread or red flags on long staves. May 7–9 – Bread riots in Milan, Florence and Livorno, the Bava Beccaris massacre, named after the Italian General Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris, quells widespread riots in Milan. On May 9,1898, the troops used artillery to breach the walls of a monastery outside Porta Monforte, according to the government, there were 118 dead and 450 wounded. The opposition claimed 400 dead and more than 2,000 injured people, filippo Turati of the Italian Socialist Party was arrested, accused of inspiring the riots. May 14 – Bread riots continue in areas in Italy, such as Naples and Pontedera. May 28 – Fall of the administration of Antonio di Rudinì following the May massacres in Milan, june 18 – The recently reformed new administration of Antonio di Rudinì resigns. June 29 – Luigi Pelloux forms a new government, wins the first FIGC endorsed Italian Football Championship at the Velodromo Umberto I in Turin against Internazionale F. C. Torino. Modern Italy,1871 to the Present, New York, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-4058-2352-4 Sarti, Italy, a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present, New York, Facts on File Inc
3.
19th century
–
The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
–
The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
21st century
–
The 21st century is the current century of the Anno Domini era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1,2001 and will end on December 31,2100 and it is the first century of the 3rd millennium. It is distinct from the time known as the 2000s. The long term effects of increased globalization are not known, the Arab Spring of the early 2010s led to mixed outcomes in the Arab world. The Digital Revolution which began around the 1980s also continues into the present, millennials and Generation Z come of age and rise to prominence in this century. The completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003 marks the rise of life sciences, making mankinds long-held dreams, such as curing cancer. By the 2010s, gene therapy, first performed somatically in late 1990 and heritably in 1996, showed promise but remains an experimental, by 2013, about 80% of the worlds population used mobile phones. An estimated 33% owned personal computers in 2010, and 46% used the Internet by 2016, the International Energy Agency estimates that 83% of the global population has access to electricity as of 2013 with the percentage projected to increase to 88% by 2030. The world population was about 6.1 billion at the start of the 21st century and it had reached 7.3 billion in 2015, and is estimated to reach about 9.37 billion by the year 2050. There is a debate among experts and the public on how to pronounce specific years of the 21st century in English. A less common variation would have been twenty nought-five, the Vancouver Olympics, which took place in 2010, was being officially referred to by Vancouver 2010 as the twenty-ten Olympics. The latest timeframes for change are usually placed at 2020, kubrick said he did this in the hope that if the film became popular, it would influence the pronunciation of that year. See the timeline of the 21st century, genocide still remains a problem in this century with the concern of the war in Darfur and the growing concern in Sri Lanka. Also controversies from past genocides remain commonplace in the minds of victims, 1998–2002 – The Second Congo War continued into the early 21st century. A1999 ceasefire quickly broke down and a UN peacekeeping mission, Laurent Kabila, president of the DRC, was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph Kabila, took power. Throughout 2002 steps were made towards peace and Rwanda and Uganda both removed their troops from the country, on December 17,2002, a massive treaty officially ended the war. However, the DRC only holds power in less than half of the country, with most of the eastern and northern portions still controlled by rebel groups, in addition, Rwanda still supports anti-DRC rebels and anti-Rwandan rebels continue to operate from the DRC. The war killed an estimated 3.9 million people, displaced nearly 5.5 million, Severe human rights violations continue to be reported
6.
1870s
–
The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
7.
1880s
–
The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
8.
1890s
–
The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
9.
1900s (decade)
–
The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
10.
1910s
–
The 1910s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1910, and ended on December 31,1919. The 1910s represented the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the half of the 19th century. The murder triggered a chain of events in which, within 33 days, the conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11,1918, leading to the controversial, one-sided Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28,1919. However, each of these states had large German and Hungarian minorities, the decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. Russia also had a similar fate, since World War I led to a collapse in morale as well as to economic chaos and this atmosphere encouraged the establishment of Bolshevism, which was later renamed as communism. Like the Mexican Revolution, the Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October Revolution, much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed. Many of the restaurants were equipped with dance floors. Prohibition in the United States began January 16,1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, armenian Genocide during and just after World War I. Wadai War Italo-Turkish War First Balkan Wars – two wars took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Saudi-Ottoman War Latvian War of Independence - a military conflict in Latvia between the Republic of Latvia and the Russian SFSR. The Russian Revolution is the term for the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917. April 13,1919 - The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Amritsar in the Punjab Province of British India, sows the seeds of discontent, xinhai Revolution causes the overthrow of Chinas ruling Qing Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China. Madero proclaims the elections of 1910 null and void, and calls for a revolution at 6 p. m. against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution lead to the ouster of Porfirio Díaz six months later, the Revolution progressively becomes a civil war with multiple factions and phases, culminating with the Mexican Constitution of 1917, but combat would persist for three more years. Germany abolishes its monarchy and becomes under the rule of a new elected government called the Weimar Republic, federal Reserve Act is passed by United States Congress, establishing a Central Bank in the US. George V becomes king in Britain, fourteen Points as designed by United States President Woodrow Wilson advocates the right of all nations to self-determination. Rise to power of the Bolsheviks in Russia under Vladimir Lenin, creating the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, easter Rising against the British in Ireland, eventually leads to Irish independence. Several nations in Eastern Europe get their own state, thereby replacing major multiethnic empires
11.
1920s
–
The 1920s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1920, and ended on December 31,1929. French speakers refer to the period as the Années folles, emphasizing the social, artistic. The economic prosperity experienced by many countries during the 1920s was similar in nature to that experienced in the 1950s and 1990s, each period of prosperity was the result of a paradigm shift in global affairs. These shifts in the 1920s, 1950s, and 1990s, occurred in part as the result of the conclusion of World War I and Spanish flu, World War II, the 1920s saw foreign oil companies begin operations throughout South America. Venezuela became the second largest oil producing nation. In some countries the 1920s saw the rise of political movements. Communism spread as a consequence of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ victory in the Russian Civil War, fear of the spread of Communism led to the emergence of far right political movements and fascism in Europe. The devastating Wall Street Crash in October 1929 is generally viewed as a harbinger of the end of 1920s prosperity in North America, the Roaring Twenties brought about several novel and highly visible social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, “Normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism during World War I, jazz blossomed, and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, large baseball stadiums were built in major U. S. cities, in addition to palatial cinemas. Most independent countries passed womens suffrage after 1918, especially as a reward for support of the war effort and endurance of its deaths. Egypt officially becomes an independent country through the Declaration of 1922, though it remains under the military. Prohibition was finally repealed in 1933, organized crime turns to smuggling and bootlegging of liquor, led by figures such as Al Capone, boss of the Chicago Outfit. The Immigration Act of 1924 places restrictions on immigration, the major sport was baseball and the most famous player was Babe Ruth. The Lost Generation, was the name Gertrude Stein gave to American writers, poets, and artists living in Europe during the 1920s. A peak in the early 1920s in the membership of the Ku Klux Klan of four to five million members, followed by a rapid decline down to an estimated 30,000 members by 1930. The Scopes Trial, which declared that John T. Scopes had violated the law by teaching evolution in schools, major armed conflict in Ireland including Irish War of Independence resulting in Ireland becoming an independent country in 1922 followed by the Irish Civil War
12.
1930s
–
The 1930s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1930, and ended on December 31,1939. In response, authoritarian regimes emerged in countries in Europe and South America. The 1930s also saw a proliferation of new technologies, especially in the fields of aviation, radio. Colombia–Peru War – fought between the Republic of Colombia and the Republic of Peru, Chaco War – the war was fought between Bolivia and Paraguay over the disputed territory of Gran Chaco resulting in an overall Paraguayan victory in 1935. An agreement dividing the territory was made in 1938, officially ending outstanding differences, saudi–Yemeni War – was a war between Saudi Arabia and Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. Second Sino-Japanese War – fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It also made up more than 50% of the casualties in the Pacific War, World War II breaks out on September 1,1939 Chinese Civil War - The ruling Kuomintang and the rebel Communist Party of China fight a civil war for control of China. The Communists consolidated territory in the early 1930s and proclaimed a short-lived Chinese Soviet Republic that collapsed upon Kuomintang attacks, the Kuomintang and Communists attempted to put away their differences after 1937 to fight the Japanese occupation of China, but intermittent clashes continued through the remainder of the 1930s. Spanish Civil War – Germany and Italy back anti-communist Falange forces of Francisco Franco, the Soviet Union and international communist parties back the left-wing republican faction in the war. The war ends in April 1939 with Francos nationalist forces defeating the republican forces, Franco becomes Head of State of Spain, President of Government and de facto dictator. The Republic gives way to the Spanish State, an authoritarian dictatorship, Hitler pulls Germany out of the League of Nations, but hosts the 1936 Summer Olympics to show his new reich to the world as well as the supposed superior athleticism of his Aryan troops/athletes. Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, attempts the appeasement of Hitler in hope of avoiding war by allowing the dictator to annex the Sudetenland, later signing the Munich Agreement and promising constituents Peace for our time. He was ousted in favor of Winston Churchill in May 1940, some 267 synagogues were destroyed, and thousands of homes and businesses were ransacked. Kristallnacht also served as the pretext for the confiscation of firearms from German Jews. Germany and Italy pursue territorial expansionist agendas, Germany demands the annexation of the Federal State of Austria and of other German-speaking territories in Europe. Between 1935 and 1936, Germany recovers the Saar and remilitarizes the Rhineland, Germany and Italy improve relations by forming an alliance against communism in 1936 with the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact. Germany annexes Austria in the event known as the Anschluss, the annexation of the Sudetenland followed negotiations which resulted in the Munich Agreement of 1938. The Italian invasion of Albania in 1939 succeeds in turning the Kingdom of Albania into an Italian protectorate, the vacant Albanian throne was claimed by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
13.
1897
–
As of the start of 1897, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – The International Alpha Omicron Pi sorority is founded, january 4 – A British force is ambushed by Chief Ologbosere, son-in-law of the Oba of Benin. This leads to an expedition against Benin. January 7 – Cyclone destroys Darwin, Australia, january 22 – In this dates issue of the journal Engineering, the word computer, is first used to refer to a mechanical calculation device, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. January 23 – Elva Zona Heaster is found dead in Greenbrier County, the resulting murder trial of her husband is perhaps the only capital case in United States history where spectral evidence helps secure a conviction. January 31 – Czechoslav Trade Union Association is founded in Prague, February 10 – Freedom of religion is proclaimed in Madagascar. February 16 – The French conquer the island of Raiatea and capture the rebel chief Teraupoo, ending the Leeward Islands War, February 18 – Benin is put to the torch by the British Armys Benin Expedition. February 24 – Foundation of Čekan Mekenroff 1897 association football club in Pozsony in the Kingdom of Hungary, February 26 – The Sigma Pi fraternity is founded. February 27 – The French military governor of Madagascar, Joseph Gallieni, exiles Queen Ranavalona III to Réunion, march 4 – William McKinley is sworn in as President of the United States. March 13 – San Diego State University is founded, march 22 – Emilio Aguinaldo unseats Andrés Bonifacio at the Tejeros Convention, becoming the new head of the Filipino revolutionary group Katipunan. April 15 – Drillers near Bartlesville, Oklahoma, strike oil for the first time in the designated Indian Territory, the gusher, at the Nellie Johnstone Number One well, leads to rapid population growth. April 19 – The first Boston Marathon is held, with fifteen men competing, may 14 The Stars and Stripes Forever, the American patriotic march by John Philip Sousa, is performed for the first time. – The Scientific-Humanitarian Committee is founded in Berlin as an LGBT campaigning organization, may 19 – Oscar Wilde is released from prison in England and goes into exile on the continent. May 26 – Irish-born theatrical manager Bram Stokers contemporary Gothic horror novel Dracula is first published, June 22 – Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria celebrated in the United Kingdom. No other British monarch celebrated such a jubilee until Elizabeth II in 2012, July 11 – S. A. Andrées Arctic Balloon Expedition of 1897 begins. The ill-fated expedition to fly over the Arctic results in the death of the team within months. July 17 – The Klondike Gold Rush begins when the first successful prospectors arrive in Seattle, July 25 – Writer Jack London sails to join the Klondike Gold Rush where he will write his first successful stories. July 26–August 2 – Siege of Malakand, British troops are besieged by Pashtun tribesmen in Malakand on the North-West frontier of the British Raj, July 31 – Mount Saint Elias, the second highest peak in the United States and Canada, is first ascended
14.
1898
–
As of the start of 1898, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, the city is geographically divided into five boroughs, Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx and Staten Island. February 15 – Spanish–American War, The USS Maine explodes and sinks in Havana harbor, Cuba, for never fully established. The event precipitates the United States declaration of war on Spain two months later, february 23 – Émile Zola is imprisoned in France after writing Jaccuse. March 24 – Robert Allison of Port Carbon, Pennsylvania, becomes the first person to buy an American-built automobile when he buys a Winton automobile that has advertised in Scientific American. March 26 – The Sabie Game Reserve in South Africa is created, April 5 – Annie Oakley promotes the service of women in combat situations with the United States military. In the history of women in the military, there are records of female U. S, April 22 – Spanish–American War, The United States Navy begins a blockade of Cuban ports and the USS Nashville captures a Spanish merchant ship. April 25 – Spanish–American War, The United States declares war on Spain, April 25 – In Essen, German company Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk RWE is founded. April 26 – An explosion in Santa Cruz, California, kills 13 workers at the California Powder Works, may 1 – Spanish–American War – Battle of Manila Bay, Commodore Dewey destroys the Spanish squadron. The first battle of the war, as well as the first battle in the Philippines Campaign, may 2 – Thousands of Chinese scholars and Beijing citizens seeking reforms protest in front of the capital control yuan. May 7 –May 9 – Bava-Beccaris massacre, Hundreds of demonstrators are killed when General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris orders troops to fire on a rally in Milan, may 8 – The first games of the Italian Football League are played. May 12 – Bombardment of San Juan, the first major battle of the Puerto Rican Campaign during the Spanish–American War. May 27 – The territory of Kwang-Chou-Wan is leased by China to France, according to the Treaty of 12 April 1892, as the Territoire de Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, forming part of French Indochina. May 28 – Secondo Pia takes the first photographs of the Shroud of Turin, june 1 – The Trans-Mississippi Exposition worlds fair opens in Omaha, Nebraska. June 7 – William Ramsay and Morris Travers discover neon at their laboratory at University College London after extracting it from liquid nitrogen, june 9 – The British government makes a 99 year rent of Hong Kong from China. June 12 – Philippine Declaration of Independence, General Emilio Aguinaldo declares the Philippines independence from Spain, june 13 – Yukon Territory is formed, with Dawson chosen as its capital. June 21 – Spanish–American War, The United States captures Guam making it the first U. S. overseas territory, july 3 Spanish–American War, Battle of Santiago de Cuba – The United States Navy destroys the Spanish Navys Caribbean Squadron. Joshua Slocum completes a 3-year solo circumnavigation of the world, july 4 – En route from New York to Le Havre, the ocean liner SS La Bourgogne collides with another ship and sinks off the coast of Sable Island, with the loss of 549 lives
15.
1899
–
As of the start of 1899, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Spanish rule ends in Cuba, queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City. January 6 – Lord Curzon becomes Viceroy of India, january 8 – The Association football club SK Rapid Wien is founded in Vienna. January 10 – The Tau Kappa Epsilon Fraternity is founded at Illinois Wesleyan University in Bloomington, january 17 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. January 19 – Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is formed, january 20 – The term wringer was created at chicken factories. January 21 – Opel Motors opens for business, january 22 – The leaders of six Australian colonies meet in Melbourne to discuss the confederation of Australia as a whole. January 23 Emilio Aguinaldo is sworn in as President of the First Philippine Republic, British Southern Cross Expedition crosses the Antarctic Circle. February 2 – The Australian Premiers Conference held in Melbourne agrees that Australias capital should be located between Sydney and Melbourne, february 4 – The Philippine–American War begins as hostilities break out in Manila. February 6 – Spanish–American War, A peace treaty between the United States and Spain is ratified by the United States Senate, february 12–February 14 – Great Blizzard of 1899, Freezing temperatures and snow extend well south into North America, including southern Florida. It is the latest in a series of disasters to Floridas citrus industry, february 14 – Voting machines are approved by the U. S. Congress for use in federal elections. The manifesto is viewed as unconstitutional and a coup détat by many Finns who have come to consider their country a constitutional state in its own right in union with the Russian Empire. This results in Finnish fears that the Diet of Finland may be overruled arbitrarily, february 16 – Knattspyrnufélag Reykjavíkur, the first Association football club in Iceland, is established in the islands capital, Reykjavík. March 2 – In Washington state, USA, Mount Rainier National Park is established, march 4 – Cyclone Mahina strikes Bathurst Bay, Queensland. A12 m wave reaches up to 5 km inland, leaving over 400 dead, march 6 – Felix Hoffmann patents aspirin and Bayer registers its name as a trademark. March 8 – The Frankfurter Fußball-Club Victoria von 1899 is founded, march 20 – At Sing Sing prison in Ossining, New York, Martha M. Place becomes the first woman executed in an electric chair, march 24 – George Dewey is made Admiral of the US Navy. March 27 Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmits a signal across the English Channel. March 30 German Society of Chemistry issued an invitation to other scientific organizations to appoint delegates to the International Committee on Atomic Weights
16.
1900
–
As of the start of 1900, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. As of March 1, when the Julian calendar acknowledged a leap day and the Gregorian calendar did not, january 2 – U. S. Secretary of State John Hay announces the Open Door Policy to promote American trade with China. Rowland of Johns Hopkins University announces a theory about the cause of the Earths magnetism, january 6 – Second Boer War, Boers attempt to end the Siege of Ladysmith, which leads to the Battle of Platrand. January 9 – S. S. Lazio, an Italian professional sports club, is founded in Rome, january 14 Puccinis opera Tosca premieres in Rome, Italy. The U. S. Senate accepts the British-German treaty of 1899, january 24 – The Second Boer War, At the Battle of Spion Kop, Boer troops defeat the British Army. January 27 – Boxer Rebellion, Foreign diplomats in Peking, Qing dynasty China, january 31 – Datu Muhammad Salleh, leader of the Mat Salleh Rebellion in North Borneo, is shot dead in Tambunan. February 5 – The United Kingdom and the United States sign a treaty for the building of a Central American shipping canal across Central America in Nicaragua, february 6 – The international arbitration court at The Hague is created when the Netherlands Senate ratifies an 1899 peace conference decree. February 8 – Second Boer War, British troops are defeated by the Boers at Ladysmith, february 14 – Second Boer War – Battle of Paardeberg,20,000 British troops invade the Orange Free State. February 15 – Second Boer War, The Siege of Kimberley is lifted, february 17 – Second Boer War, Battle of Paardeberg, British troops defeat the Boers. February 27 FC Bayern, Germanys most successful club, is founded in Munich. Second Boer War, British military leaders accept the notice of surrender from Boer General Piet Cronjé. British Labour Party, officially established in London, England, United Kingdom, March 5 – Two U. S. Navy cruisers are sent to Central America to protect American interests in a dispute between Nicaragua and Costa Rica. March 6 – A coal mine explosion in West Virginia, U. S. A. kills 50 miners, March 14 – Botanist Hugo de Vries rediscovers Mendels Laws of Heredity. March 15 – The Gold Standard Act is ratified, placing the United States currency on the gold standard, March 16 – The British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans purchases the land on Crete on which the ruins of the palace of Knossos stand. He begins to unearth some of the three days later. March 18 – AFC Ajax, a most successful club in Netherlands. March 27 – The arrival of a Russian naval fleet in Korea causes concern to the Imperial Japanese government, april 14 – The Paris World Exhibition opens. April 22 – Battle of Kousséri, French forces secure their domination of Chad, warlord Rabih az-Zubayr is defeated and killed
17.
1901
–
As of the start of 1901, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, edmund Barton becomes first Prime Minister of Australia. The birth of Pentecostalism at a meeting at Bethel Bible College in Topeka. January 5 – Typhoid fever breaks out in a Seattle jail, January 7 – Alferd Packer is released from prison after serving 18 years for cannibalism. January 10 – In the first great Texas gusher, oil is discovered at Spindletop in Beaumont, Texas. January 22 Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom dies at age 81, after more than 63 years on the throne, the Grand Opera House in Cincinnati is destroyed in a fire. January 28 – Baseballs American League declares itself a Major League, february 2 – Funeral of Queen Victoria at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle. February 5 Hay–Pauncefote Treaty signed by United Kingdom and United States, J. P. Morgan buys mines and steel mills in the United States, marking the first billion dollar business deal. In Evansville, Indiana, a fire burns through the business district, february 11 – Anti-Jesuit riots sweep across Spain. February 12 – Viceroy of India Lord Curzon creates the new North-West Frontier Province in the north of the Punjab region, february 14 – Edward VII opens his first parliament of the United Kingdom. February 15 – The Alianza Lima Foundation is created in Peru, february 20 – The Hawaii Territory Legislature convenes for the first time. February 22 – The Pacific Mail Steamship Companys SS City of Rio de Janeiro sinks entering San Francisco Bay, february 23 – The United Kingdom and Germany agree the frontier between German East Africa and the British colony of Nyasaland. February 25 – U. S. Steel is incorporated by industrialist J. P. Morgan as the first billion-dollar corporation, february 26 Chi-hsui and Hsu-cheng-yu, Boxer Rebellion leaders, executed in Peking. The Middelburg peace conference fails in South Africa as Boers continue to demand autonomy,1901 Census of India taken, the fourth, and first reliable, census of the British Raj. March 2 – The United States Congress passes the Platt Amendment, march 4 – William McKinley is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States. March 5 – Irish nationalist demonstrators are ejected by police from House of Commons of the United Kingdom in London, march 6 – In Bremen, an assassination attempt is made on Wilhelm II, German Emperor. March 11 – The United Kingdom rejects the amended Hay–Pauncefote Treaty, march 13 – Benjamin Harrison, 23rd president of the United States, dies of pneumonia at age 67. March 17 A showing of 71 Vincent van Gogh paintings in Paris,11 years after his death, student riots in Saint Petersburg and Moscow
18.
1902
–
As of the start of 1902, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The first college bowl game, the Rose Bowl between Michigan and Stanford, is held in Pasadena, California. Nurses Registration Act 1901 comes into effect in New Zealand, making it the first country in the world to require registration of nurses. On January 10, Ellen Dougherty becomes the worlds first registered nurse, January 12 – Uddevalla Suffrage Association is officially dissolved. January 23 – A snowstorm at Mount Hakkoda, northern Honshu, Japan, January 28 – The Carnegie Institution is founded in Washington, D. C. with a $10 million gift from Andrew Carnegie. February 9 – Fire levels 26 city blocks of Jersey City, february 11 – Police and universal suffrage demonstrators are involved in a physical altercation in Brussels. February 15 – The Berlin U-Bahn underground is opened, february 18 – U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt prosecutes the Northern Securities Company for violation of the Sherman Act. February 27 American writer John Steinbeck is born, australian officers Breaker Morant and Peter Handcock are executed for the murder of Boer prisoners of war near Louis Trichardt. March 6 – Real Madrid C. F. is founded as Madrid Football Club, march 7 – Second Boer War, South African Boers win their last battle over the British Army, with the capture of a British general and 200 of his men. March 8 – Jean Sibeliuss Second Symphony is premiered in Helsinki, march 10 – A Circuit Court prevents Thomas Edison from having a monopoly on motion picture technology. April 2 – Electric Theatre, the first movie theater in the United States, april 13 – A new car speed record of 74 mph is set in Nice, France, by Léon Serpollet. April 19 – The 7.5 Mw Guatemala earthquake shakes Guatemala with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII, may 5 – The Commonwealth Public Service Act creates Australias Public Service. May 13 – Alfonso XIII of Spain begins his reign, may 20 – Cuba gains independence from the United States. May 22 – The White Star Liner, SS Ionic, is launched, may 29 – Lord Rosebery opens London School of Economics. May 31 – The Treaty of Vereeniging ends the Second Boer War, june 2 – The Anthracite Coal Strike begins in the United States. June 15 – The New York Central Railroad inaugurates the 20th Century Limited passenger train between Chicago and New York City, june 16 – Australia, Female British subjects win the vote with the Uniform Franchise Act. June 17 – Norwich City Football Club is formed, june 26 – Edward VII institutes the Order of Merit. July 5 – Erik Gustaf Boström returns as Prime Minister of Sweden, july 8 – Service of Reclamation within U. S. Geological Survey
19.
1903
–
As of the start of 1903, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Edward VII is proclaimed Emperor of India, January 19 – The first west–east transatlantic radio broadcast is made from the United States to England. February 11 – The Oxnard strike of 1903 becomes the first time in U. S. history that a union is formed from members of different races. February 15 – Morris and Rose Michtom introduce the first teddy bear in the United States, february 17 – El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico becomes part of the United States National Forest System as the Luquillo Forest Reserve. February 23 – Cuba leases Guantánamo Bay to the United States in perpetuity, march 2 – In New York City, the Martha Washington Hotel, the first hotel exclusively for women, opens. March 3 – The British Admiralty announces plans to build a base at Rosyth. March 4 – Beşiktaş J. K. founded, march 5 – The Ottoman Empire and the German Empire sign an agreement to build the Constantinople–Baghdad Railway. March 12 – The University of Puerto Rico is founded, march 14 – The Hay–Herrán Treaty, granting the United States the right to build the Panama Canal, is ratified by the United States Senate. The Colombian Senate later rejects the treaty, april 26 – Atletico Madrid, as well known for professional football club in Spain, officially founded. April 29 – A 30-million-m3 landslide kills 70-90 in Frank, Alberta, april 29 – The 7.0 Ms Manzikert earthquake affects eastern Turkey, leaving 3,500 dead. May 4 – The leading Macedonian Bulgarian revolutionary Gotse Delchev is killed in a skirmish with the Turkish army, may 18 – The port of Burgas, Bulgaria opens. May 24 – The Paris–Madrid race for automobiles begins, during which at least eight people are killed, june 11 – Serbian King Alexander Obrenović and Queen Draga are assassinated in Belgrade by the Black Hand organization. June 14 – The town of Heppner, Oregon, is destroyed by a cloud burst that resulted in a flash flood that kills an estimated 238 people. July 1–July 19 – First Tour de France bicycle race, won by Maurice Garin, july 7 – The British take over the Fulani Empire. July 23 – Dr. Ernst Pfenning of Chicago becomes the first owner of a Ford Model A, july 29 – Explosion of a United States Cartridge Company magazine destroys 70 homes killing 22 residents of Tewksbury, Massachusetts. July 30–August 23 – Second Congress of the All-Russian Social Democratic Labour Party held in exile in Brussels, august 2 – The Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising, organized by the Secret Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization, breaks out in the Ottoman provinces of Macedonia and Adrianople. August 4 – Pope Pius X succeeds Pope Leo XIII as the 257th pope, august 10 – Paris Métro train fire takes place. August 25 – The Judiciary Act is passed in the Australian parliament, september – Texas State University in San Marcos, TX opens its doors as Southwest Texas Normal School
20.
Umberto I of Italy
–
It can also refer to Humbert I, Count of Savoy and to Humbert I of Viennois, Dauphin of the Viennois. Umberto I, nicknamed the Good, was the King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his assassination on 29 July 1900. Umbertos reign saw Italy attempt colonial expansion into the Horn of Africa, successfully gaining Eritrea, in 1882, he approved the Triple Alliance with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. He was deeply loathed in leftist circles because of his conservatism and he was especially hated by anarchists, who attempted an assassination on him during the first year of his reign. He was killed by another anarchist, Gaetano Bresci, two years after the Bava-Beccaris massacre. The son of Victor Emmanuel II and Archduchess Adelaide of Austria, Umberto was born in Turin and his education was entrusted to, amongst others, Massimo Taparelli, marquis dAzeglio and Pasquale Stanislao Mancini. From March 1858 he had a career in the Sardinian army. It proved difficult to find any royal bride for either of the sons of king Victor Emmanuel II and their conflict with the papacy did not help these matters. Not many eligible Catholic royal brides were easily available for young Umberto. At first, Umberto was to marry Archduchess Mathilde of Austria, on 21 April 1868 Umberto married his first cousin, Margherita Teresa Giovanna, Princess of Savoy. Their only son was Victor Emmanuel, prince of Naples, the King warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh. The would-be assassin was condemned to death, even though the law allowed the death penalty if the King was killed. The King commuted the sentence to one of penal servitude for life, passanante would later die in a psychiatric institution. In foreign policy Umberto I approved the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany, repeatedly visiting Vienna, many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with their former Austrian enemies, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy. Umberto was also favorably disposed towards the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of Massawa in Eritrea, Italy expanded into Somalia in the 1880s as well. In the summer of 1900, Italian forces were part of the Eight-Nation Alliance which participated in the Boxer Rebellion in Imperial China, through the Boxer Protocol, signed after Umbertos death, the Kingdom of Italy gained a concession territory in Tientsin. Umbertos attitude towards the Holy See was uncompromising, in an 1886 telegram, he declared Rome untouchable and affirmed the permanence of the Italian possession of the Eternal City. The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, the protesters included the young Benito Mussolini, then a member of the socialist party
21.
Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
–
Victor Emmanuel III was the King of Italy from 29 July 1900 until his abdication on 9 May 1946. In addition, he claimed the thrones of Ethiopia and Albania as Emperor of Ethiopia and King of the Albanians, during his long reign, which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I, the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two World Wars. His reign also encompassed the birth, rise, and fall of Italian Fascism, Victor Emmanuel abdicated his throne in 1946 in favour of his son Umberto II, hoping to strengthen support for the monarchy against an ultimately successful referendum to abolish it. He then went in exile to Alexandria, Egypt, where he died and was buried the following year. He was called by the Italians Il Re soldato for having led his country during both the wars, and, after Italys victory in the First World War Il Re vittorioso. He was also nicknamed Sciaboletta due to his height of 1.53 m, Victor Emmanuel was born in Naples, Italy. He was the child of Umberto I, King of Italy. Margherita was the daughter of the Duke of Genoa, from birth until his accession, Victor Emmanuel was known by the title of the Prince of Naples. On 24 October 1896, Prince Victor Emmanuel married Princess Elena of Montenegro, on 29 July 1900, at the age of 30, Victor Emmanuel acceded to the throne upon his fathers assassination. The only advice that his father Umberto ever gave his heir was Remember, to be a king, all you need to know is how to sign your name, read a newspaper, and mount a horse. His early years showed evidence that, by the standards of the Savoy monarchy, indeed, even though his father was killed by an anarchist, the new King showed a commitment to constitutional freedoms. Though parliamentary rule had been established in Italy, the Statuto Albertino, or constitution. For instance, he had the right to appoint the Prime Minister even if the individual in question did not command majority support in the Chamber of Deputies, when World War I began, Italy at first remained neutral, despite being part of the Triple Alliance. However, in 1915, Italy signed several secret treaties committing her to enter the war on the side of the Triple Entente, most of the politicians opposed war, however, and the Italian Chamber of Deputies forced Prime Minister Antonio Salandra to resign. At this juncture, Victor Emmanuel declined Salandras resignation and personally made the decision for Italy to enter the war and he was well within his rights to do so under the Statuto. Popular demonstrations in favor of the war were staged in Rome, with 200,000 gathering on 16 May 1915 and it was at this time, the period of World War I, that the King enjoyed the genuine affection of the majority of his people. Still, during the war he received about 400 threatening letters from people of social background. The economic depression which followed World War I gave rise to much extremism among Italys sorely tried working classes and this caused the country as a whole to become politically unstable
22.
Prime Minister of Italy
–
The office of Prime Minister is established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the Constitution of Italy. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election, prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic, the position was called President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943, Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946. The Prime Minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds executive power, the position is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems. The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office, as the President of the Council of Ministers the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet. In addition the Prime Minister leads a political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament. Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that the Prime Minister directs, the Prime Ministers activity has often consisted of mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition, rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers. The office was first established in 1848 in Italys predecessor state, the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in its constitution, from 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the Kingdom, most of them being right-wing politicians. After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom, in fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king, and presided over a very unstable political system. The first Prime Minister was Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was appointed on 23 March 1861, from 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country. One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi, a patriot and statesman. He led the country for six years, from 1887 until 1891, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister, ally, and admirer of Bismarck. His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a banking scandal. He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1892 Giovanni Giolitti, a young leftist politician, was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I, but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power. In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed head of the government. Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Mussolini, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party. They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no links to political constituencies
23.
Luigi Pelloux
–
Luigi Gerolamo Pelloux was an Italian general and politician, born of parents who retained their Italian nationality when Savoy was annexed to France. He was the Prime Minister of Italy from 29 June 1898 to 24 June 1900, Pelloux was born in La Roche-sur-Foron, Savoy, then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He entered the war office in 1870, and in 1880 became General Secretary and he was elected to the Chamber in 1881 as deputy for Livorno, which he represented until 1895, and joined the party of the Left. After a succession of military commands he received the appointment of Chief of the General Staff in 1896. He was Minister of War in the Rudinì and Giolitti cabinets of 1891–1893, in July 1896 he resumed the portfolio of War in the Rudinì cabinet, and was appointed Senator. He resigned office in May 1899 over his Chinese policy, but was entrusted with the formation of a government. His new cabinet was essentially military and conservative, the most decisively conservative since 1876 and he took stern measures against the revolutionary elements in Italy. The Radicals and Socialist start an obstructionist campaign against the new coercive law using the filibuster, points of order, endless speeches, the growing opposition succeeded in forcing General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900, and to resign office after the general election in June. In the autumn of 1901 he was appointed to the command of the Turin army corps, Pelloux died at Bordighera in 1924. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Pelloux. Modern Italy,1871 to the present, Harlow, Pearson Education, ISBN 1-4058-2352-6 Seton-Watson, Italy from liberalism to fascism, 1870-1925, New York, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-416-18940-7
24.
Giuseppe Saracco
–
Giuseppe Saracco was an Italian politician, financier and Knight of the Annunziata. Giuseppe Saracco was born at Bistagno, after qualifying as an advocate, he entered the Piedmontese parliament in 1849. He was a supporter of Cavour, after Cavour died in 1861, Saracco joined the party of Rattazzi and became under-secretary of state for public works in the Rattazzi cabinet of 1862. In 1864 Sella appointed Saracco as secretary-general of finance, and after being created senator in 1865, in 1879 he succeeded in postponing the total abolition of the grist tax, and was throughout a fierce opponent of Maglianis loose financial administration. After February 1901 Saracco resumed his functions as president of the senate, Saracco received the supreme honour of the knighthood of the Annunziata from King Umberto in 1898. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Saracco
25.
Demographics of Italy
–
However the distribution of the population is widely uneven. In addition, after centuries of net emigration, from the 1980s Italy has experienced large-scale immigration for the first time in modern history, according to the Italian government, there were an estimated 5,000,073 foreign nationals resident in Italy. High fertility and birth rates persisted until the 1970s, after which they started to dramatically decline, at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, one in five Italians was over 65 years old. However, as a result of the immigration of the last two decades, in recent years Italy experienced a significant growth in birth rates. The total fertility rate has climbed from an all-time low of 1.18 children per woman in 1995 to 1.41 in 2008. Since the 1984 Lateran Treaty agreement, Italy has no official religion, however, it recognizes the role the Catholic Church plays in Italian society. 87. 8% of the population identify as Catholic,5. 8% as non-believers or atheists,2. 6% as Muslims, about 68% of Italian population is classified as urban, a relatively low figure among developed countries. However, none of these new local authorities has yet fully operative. Between 1898 and 1914, the years of Italian diaspora. Italian communities once thrived in the former African colonies of Eritrea, Somalia, all of Libyas Italians were expelled from the North African country in 1970. In addition, after the annexation of Istria in 1945, up to 350,000 ethnic Italians left Titoist Yugoslavia. Today, large numbers of people with full or significant Italian ancestry are found in Brazil, Argentina, US, France, Venezuela, Uruguay, Canada, the official figures also exclude illegal immigrants, the so-called clandestini, whose numbers are very difficult to determine. In May 2008 The Boston Globe quoted an estimate of 670,000 for this group, the second most important area of immigration to Italy has always been the neighbouring North Africa, with soaring arrivals as a consequence of the Arab Spring. Furthermore, in recent years, growing migration fluxes from the Far East, the number of unregistered Romanians is difficult to estimate, but the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network suggested that in 2007 that there might have been half a million or more. Overall, at the end of the 2000s the foreign population of Italy was from, Europe, Africa, Asia. The distribution of immigrants is largely uneven in Italy,84. 9% of immigrants live in the northern and central parts of the country, while only 15. 1% live in the southern half of the peninsula. Ethnologue has estimated there are about 55 million speakers of the language in Italy. However, between 120 and 150 million people use Italian as a second or cultural language, worldwide and its development was also influenced by the Germanic languages of the post-Roman invaders
26.
Giacomo Puccini
–
Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini was an Italian opera composer who has been called the greatest composer of Italian opera after Verdi. Puccinis early work was rooted in traditional late-19th-century romantic Italian opera, later, he successfully developed his work in the realistic verismo style, of which he became one of the leading exponents. Puccinis most renowned works are La bohème, Tosca, and Madama Butterfly, Puccini was born Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini in Lucca in Tuscany, in 1858. He was one of nine children of Michele Puccini and Albina Magi, the Puccini family was established in Lucca as a local musical dynasty by Puccinis great-great grandfather – also named Giacomo. This first Giacomo Puccini was maestro di cappella of the Cattedrale di San Martino in Lucca and he was succeeded in this position by his son, Antonio Puccini, and then by Antonios son Domenico, and Domenicos son Michele. Each of these men studied music at Bologna, and some additional musical studies elsewhere. Domenico Puccini studied for a time under Giovanni Paisiello, each composed music for the church. In addition, Domenico composed several operas, and Michele composed one opera, Puccinis father Michele enjoyed a reputation throughout northern Italy, and his funeral was an occasion of public mourning, at which the then-famed composer Giovanni Pacini conducted a Requiem. However, when Michele Puccini died in 1864, his son Giacomo was only six years old, as a child, he nevertheless participated in the musical life of the Cattedrale di San Martino, as a member of the boys choir and later as a substitute organist. Puccini was given an education at the seminary of San Michele in Lucca. One of Puccinis uncles, Fortunato Magi, supervised his musical education, Puccini got a diploma from the Pacini School of Music in Lucca in 1880, having studied there with his uncle Fortunato, and later with Carlo Angeloni, who had also instructed Alfredo Catalani. Puccini studied at the conservatory for three years, sharing a room with Pietro Mascagni, in 1880, at the age of 21, Puccini composed his Mass, which marks the culmination of his familys long association with church music in his native Lucca. Puccini wrote a piece called the Capriccio sinfonica as a thesis composition for the Milan Conservatory. Puccinis teachers Ponchielli and Bazzini were impressed by the work, and it was performed at a student concert at the conservatory on 14 July 1883, conducted by Franco Faccio. Puccinis work was reviewed in the Milanese publication Perseveranza. After the premiere of the Capriccio sinfonica, Ponchielli and Puccini discussed the possibility that Puccinis next work might be an opera, Ponchielli invited Puccini to stay at his villa, where Puccini was introduced to another young man named Fernando Fontana. Puccini and Fontana agreed to collaborate on an opera, for which Fontana would provide the libretto, the work, Le Villi, was entered into a competition sponsored by the Sozogno music publishing company in 1883. Although it did not win, Le Villi was later staged at the Teatro Dal Verme, G. Ricordi & Co. music publishers assisted with the premier by printing the libretto without charge
27.
Tosca
–
Tosca is an opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini to an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa. It premiered at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome on 14 January 1900 and it contains depictions of torture, murder and suicide, as well as some of Puccinis best-known lyrical arias. Puccini saw Sardous play when it was touring Italy in 1889 and, after some vacillation, turning the wordy French play into a succinct Italian opera took four years, during which the composer repeatedly argued with his librettists and publisher. Tosca premiered at a time of unrest in Rome, and its first performance was delayed for a day for fear of disturbances, despite indifferent reviews from the critics, the opera was an immediate success with the public. Musically, Tosca is structured as a work, with arias, recitative, choruses. Puccini used Wagnerian leitmotifs to identify characters, objects and ideas, the dramatic force of Tosca and its characters continues to fascinate both performers and audiences, and the work remains one of the most frequently performed operas. Many recordings of the work have been issued, both of studio and live performances, the French playwright Victorien Sardou wrote more than 70 plays, almost all of them successful, and none of them performed today. In the early 1880s Sardou began a collaboration with actress Sarah Bernhardt, Puccini had seen La Tosca at least twice, in Milan and Turin. Ricordi sent his agent in Paris, Emanuele Muzio, to negotiate with Sardou and he complained about the reception La Tosca had received in Italy, particularly in Milan, and warned that other composers were interested in the piece. Nonetheless, Ricordi reached terms with Sardou and assigned the librettist Luigi Illica to write a scenario for an adaptation, in 1891, Illica advised Puccini against the project, most likely because he felt the play could not be successfully adapted to a musical form. When Sardou expressed his unease at entrusting his most successful work to a new composer whose music he did not like. He withdrew from the agreement, which Ricordi then assigned to Alberto Franchetti, Illica wrote a libretto for Franchetti, who was never at ease with the assignment. There are several versions of how Ricordi got Franchetti to surrender the rights so he could recommission Puccini, by some accounts, Ricordi convinced Franchetti that the work was too violent to be successfully staged. Franchetti family tradition holds that Franchetti gave the work back as a gesture, saying. American scholar Deborah Burton contends that Franchetti gave it up simply because he saw merit in it. Franchetti surrendered the rights in May 1895, and in August Puccini signed a contract to control of the project. According to the libretto, the action of Tosca occurs in Rome in June 1800, Sardou, in his play, dates it more precisely, La Tosca takes place in the afternoon, evening, and early morning of 17 and 18 June 1800. Italy had long divided into a number of small states
28.
Chamber of Deputies (Italy)
–
The Chamber of Deputies is a house of the bicameral Parliament of Italy. The two houses form a perfect bicameral system, meaning they perform identical functions, but do so separately. Pursuant to article 56 of the Italian Constitution, the Chamber of Deputies has 630 seats, of which 618 are elected from Italian constituencies, Deputies are styled The Honourable and meet at Palazzo Montecitorio. Previously, the seat of the Chamber of Deputies of the Kingdom of Italy had been briefly at the Palazzo Carignano in Turin and the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. Under the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, from 1939 to 1943, the Chamber is composed of all members meeting in session at the Montecitorio. The assembly also has the right to meetings of the Government. If required, the Government is obligated to attend the session, conversely, the Government has the right to be heard every time it requires. The term of office of the House is five years,61.2 of the Constitution, states that representatives whose term has expired shall continue to exercise their functions until the first meeting of the new Chamber. An extension of the term, provided for by art,60.2, can be enacted only in case of war. Election of members to the Chamber of Deputies is by voluntary, universal, terms last for a total of five years, unless an early dissolution of the Chamber is called by the President of the Republic, at which point a snap election is held. Unlike the Senate, which members to be 40 years of age. The current system for elections to the Chamber of Deputies has been in operation since 2015, the territory of Italy is divided into 100 constituencies electing between 3 and 9 deputies depending on their size. For each constituency, the parties designate a list of candidates, head of list candidates can run in up to 10 constituencies, if two preference votes are expressed, they must be of a different sex, otherwise, the second preference is discarded. Only parties passing a 3% minimum threshold in the first round are assigned seats, if the party receiving the plurality of the votes passes a 40% threshold, it is attributed a minimum of 340 seats. The remaining 277 seats are allocated to the other parties using the largest remainder method. This provision was however rendered null and void by a Constitutional Courts judgment in January 2017, the President of the Chamber of Deputies performs the role of speaker of the house and is elected during the first session after the election. During this time the prerogatives of speaker are assumed by the vicepresident of Chamber of Deputies of the legislature who was elected first. If two were elected simultaneously, the oldest deputy serves as president of Chamber of Deputies, the President of Chamber of Deputies has also the role of President during the Parliament joint sessions, when the upper and lower houses have to vote together
29.
Giuseppe Zanardelli
–
Giuseppe Zanardelli was an Italian jurisconsult, nationalist and political figure. He was the Prime Minister of Italy from February 15,1901 to November 3,1903 and he was a distinguished jurist and eloquent orator. Throughout his long career he was among the most ardent advocates of freedom of conscience and divorce. Giuseppe Zanardelli was born in Brescia and he was a combatant in the volunteer corps during the First Italian War of Independence of 1848 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia, within the era of Italian unification. After the lost battle of Novara he went to Pisa to study law, for a time earned a livelihood by teaching law, but was molested by the Austrian police and forbidden to teach in consequence of his refusal to contribute pro-Austrian articles to the press. In 1859 he was forced to flee to Switzerland and he moved to Lugano, but returned in time to organize the insurrection of Brescia in the Second Italian War of Independence and welcomed Giuseppe Garibaldi in the city. Enlisted in the Cacciatori delle Alpi, he remained in the area until the armistice of Villafranca, with the annexation of Lombardy to Piedmont he was elected to Parliament in Turin. In 1876 he became Minister of Public Works in the first government of Agostino Depretis, overthrown with Cairoli in December 1878, he returned to power as Minister of Justice in 1881 the Depretis government, and succeeded in completing the commercial code. He also was the architect of the reform in 1892 which lowered the voting age from 25 to 21. During this period he began the reform of the magistracy and promulgated a new penal code, the code was regarded as a great work by contemporary European jurists. After the fall of the government of Giovanni Giolitti in 1893, Zanardelli made a strenuous and he was rewarded by being enabled to form an administration with the support of the Extreme Left upon the fall of the government of Giuseppe Saracco in February 1901. Giolitti became Minister of the Interior in the administration of Zanardelli, Zanardelli was unable to achieve much during his last term of office, as his health was greatly impaired. His Divorce Bill, although voted in the chamber, had to be withdrawn on account of the opposition of the country. He retired from the administration on October 21,1903, tired and ill, he died in Maderno on December 26,1903. On September 15,1902, Giuseppe Zanardelli stayed at the Imperial Hotel Tramontano, owned by the Commendator Guglielmo Baron Tramontano of Sorrento, the hunchbacks tailor, Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882–1922, Greenwood. Italy, a guide from the Renaissance to the present, New York. Italy from liberalism to fascism, 1870–1925, New York, Taylor & Francis, della vita del professore Camillo Guerini
30.
L'Ora
–
LOra was an Sicilian daily newspaper published in Palermo. The paper was founded in 1900 and stopped being published in 1992, in the 1950s-1980s the paper was known for its investigative reporting about the Sicilian Mafia. The first issue was published on April 22,1900, the formal owner was Carlo Di Rudinì, the son of the former prime minister of Italy Antonio Di Rudinì, but the main shareholder and financier was Ignazio Florio. The political direction of the newspaper was generally republican and progressive, after the First World War the editorial line turned against the rise of fascism. In November 1926, in the aftermath of the attack against Benito Mussolini in Bologna. The Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 resulted in the suspension of the newspaper, the paper changed ownership several times. Under the new ownership, the newspaper enjoyed its golden years under the editor-in-chief Vittorio Nistico, in this period the journal developed into a newspaper that published many investigative reports about the Sicilian Mafia, in an era that the organisation was hardly mentioned. The retaliation of Leggio was swift, at 4,52 a. m. on October 19,1958, two days later the paper appeared again, the front-page headline read, The mafia threatens us, the investigation continues. The price of the civic engagement was the killing of three of its journalists. The first was Cosimo Cristina, who was killed on May 5,1960, next was Mauro De Mauro who disappeared on September 16,1970, investigating the involvement of the Mafia with the death of Eni president Enrico Mattei. And finally, Giovanni Spampinato, who was killed on October 27,1972, while looking into the activities of neo-fascism in Sicily, in the 1970s, the newspaper started to have financial problems. As an afternoon paper, it was vulnerable to the competition of TV news than its main competitor. The paper also lost support of the PCI that decided to concentrate on its main publication LUnità in combination with the historic compromise, trying to accommodate the Christian Democrats. Although LOra changed to publish as a newspaper in 1976. The measures were taken in the hope of acquiring financial and editorial independence, from the economic point of view the journal was kept alive thanks to the NEM, a company formed by the cooperatives in agreement with the Communist Party, which owned the title and the equipment. Despite the fact that the upgrading and renovation of the headquarters in Palermo was successful. Although the paper enjoyed a revival of sales in 1992, this did not prevent the PDS, the last issue was published on May 8,1992. Schneider, Jane T. & Peter T. Schneider
31.
Palermo
–
Palermo is a city of Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence, Palermo is located in the northwest of the island of Sicily, right by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city was founded in 734 BC by the Phoenicians as Ziz, Palermo then became a possession of Carthage, before becoming part of the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire and eventually part of the Byzantine Empire, for over a thousand years. The Greeks named the city Panormus meaning complete port, from 831 to 1072 the city was under Arab rule during the Emirate of Sicily when the city first became a capital. The Arabs shifted the Greek name into Balarme, the root for Palermos present-day name, eventually Sicily would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860. The population of Palermo urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 855,285, in the central area, the city has a population of around 676,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Palermitani or, poetically, panormiti, the languages spoken by its inhabitants are the Italian language, Sicilian language and the Palermitano dialect. Palermo is Sicilys cultural, economic and touristic capital and it is a city rich in history, culture, art, music and food. Palermo is the main Sicilian industrial and commercial center, the industrial sectors include tourism, services, commerce. Palermo currently has an airport, and a significant underground economy. In fact, for cultural, artistic and economic reasons, Palermo was one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean and is now among the top tourist destinations in both Italy and Europe. It is the seat of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Arab-Norman Palermo. The city is going through careful redevelopment, preparing to become one of the major cities of the Euro-Mediterranean area. Roman Catholicism is highly important in Palermitano culture, the Patron Saint of Palermo is Santa Rosalia whose Feast Day is celebrated on 15 July. The area attracts significant numbers of each year and is widely known for its colourful fruit, vegetable and fish markets at the heart of Palermo, known as Vucciria, Ballarò. Palermo lies in a basin, formed by the Papireto, Kemonia, the basin was named the Conca dOro by the Arabs in the 9th century. The city is surrounded by a range which is named after the city itself. These mountains face the Tyrrhenian Sea, Palermo is home to a natural port and offers excellent views to the sea, especially from Monte Pellegrino
32.
Italian Socialist Party (2007)
–
The Italian Socialist Party is a social-democratic political party in Italy. Until October 2009 the party was known as the Socialist Party, since July 2008 Riccardo Nencini, of Tuscany, has been party leader, elected senator with the Democratic Party in 2013, he has been deputy minister of Infrastructures and Transports since 2014. In that occasion the party decided not to join the Democratic Party, at its foundation in October 2007 the PS was joined also by Gavino Angius Democracy and Socialism, a group of former Democrats of the Left most recently affiliated with the Democratic Left. At the 2008 general election the PS stood alone and Boselli was its candidate for Prime Minister, in the event, the party gained less than 1% of the vote, well below thresholds, and failed to win any seats in the Italian Parliament. At the first party congress, which place in July 2008, Riccardo Nencini was elected secretary, replacing Boselli. In October 2008 Angius led his group into the PD, proposing that the entire PS should follow him, in reply Nencini underlined that no former members of the late PSI were leaving the party. In fact, Spini, the only former Socialist in Angius group, however, De Michelis left the party soon after. For the 2009 European Parliament election the PS formed a joint list named Left and Freedom with the Movement for the Left, the Federation of the Greens, SL received a mere 3. 1% of the vote and failed to return any MEPs. Despite this, the council of the PS chose to continue the experience of SL in order to build a secular, libertarian. This led to the exit of Craxi, who launched the United Socialists in October, however, one month later, the PS left SL, having refused to into it. The PS was renamed Italian Socialist Party, chose to support joint candidates with the PD and to run its own lists in the regional elections. At the 2010 regional elections the PSI elected a total of 15 regional councillors, the party obtained its best results in Apulia, Basilicata, Umbria, Campania and Calabria. In December 2010 Boselli, long-time SDI leader and PS/PSI founder, in November 2011 Carlo Vizzini, a senator of The People of Freedom and former leader of the PSDI, joined the party, giving it parliamentary representation after more than three years. While leaving the PdL, Vizzini stated, It seems to me that the PdL is set to become the Italian section of the European Peoples Party. I come from another tradition, I have been secretary of the PSDI, when I joined Forza Italia there were Liberals, Socialists, Radicals. Vizzini was soon elected president of the PSI, the party did well in the 2012 local elections. In Carrara the Socialist mayor Angelo Zubbani was re-elected by a landslide and the party obtained 14. 4% of the vote. The PSI also won 15. 1% in Todi,8. 9% in Narni,7. 2% in Civitanova Marche,9. 5% in Frosinone,11. 8% in Paola, in the 2013 general election the PSI was part of the Italy
33.
Italian general election, 1900
–
General elections were held in Italy on 3 June 1900, with a second round of voting on 10 June. The ministerial left-wing bloc remained the largest in Parliament, winning 296 of the 508 seats, the election was held using 508 single-member constituencies. He resigned office in May 1899 over his Chinese policy, but was entrusted with the formation of a government. His new cabinet was essentially military and conservative, the most decisively conservative since 1876 and he took stern measures against the revolutionary elements in southern Italy. The Public Safety Bill for the reform of the laws, taken over by him from the Rudinì cabinet
34.
Giovanni Giolitti
–
Giovanni Giolitti was an Italian statesman. He was the Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921 and he is the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Benito Mussolini. He was a prominent leader of the Historical Left and the Liberal Union, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party, they were, instead, a series of informal personal groupings with no formal links to political constituencies. Besides putting in place several tariffs, subsidies and government projects, Giolitti also nationalized the private telephone, Liberal proponents of free trade criticized the Giolittian System, although Giolitti himself saw the development of the national economy as essential in the production of wealth. However his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate debate amongst writers. His father Giovenale Giolitti had been working in the avvocatura dei poveri and he died in 1843, a year after Giovanni was born. The family moved in the home of his mother Enrichetta Plochiù in Turin and his mother taught him to read and write, his education in the gymnasium San Francesco da Paola of Turin was marked by poor discipline and little commitment to study. He did not like mathematics and the study of Latin and Greek grammar, preferring the history and reading the novels of Walter Scott, at sixteen he entered the University of Turin and, after three years, he earned a law degree in 1860. His uncle was a member of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia and a friend of Michelangelo Castelli. However Giolitti did not appear interested in the Risorgimento and differently to many of his fellow students. Subsequently, he pursued a career in administration in the Ministry of Grace and Justice. In 1869 he moved to the Ministry of Finance, becoming an official and working along with important members of the ruling Right, like Quintino Sella. In the same year he married Rosa Sobrero, the granddaughter of Ascanio Sobrero, a famous chemist, who discovered nitroglycerine. In 1877 Giolitti was appointed to the Court of Audit and in 1882 to the Council of State At the 1882 Italian general election he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Historical Left. This election was a victory for the ruling Left of Agostino Depretis. As deputy he chiefly acquired prominence by attacks on Agostino Magliani, following Depretis’s death on 29 July 1887 Francesco Crispi, a notable politician and patriot, became the leader of the Left group and was also appointed Prime Minister by King Umberto I. On 9 March 1889 Giolitti was selected by Crispi as new Minister of Treasury, but in October 1890, Giolitti resigned from his office due to contrasts with Crispis colonial policy. Menelik informed the press and the scandal erupted
35.
Sidney Sonnino
–
Baron Sidney Costantino Sonnino was an Italian politician. He was the 19th Prime Minister of Italy and twice served briefly as one, in 1906 and he also was the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs during the First World War, representing Italy at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Sonnino was born in Pisa to an Italian father of Jewish heritage and he was raised an Anglican by his family. His grandfather had emigrated from the ghetto in Livorno to Egypt where he had built up a fortune as a banker. After graduating in law in Pisa in 1865, Sonnino became a diplomat and his family lived at the Castello Sonnino in Quercianella, near Livorno. He retired from the service in 1873. In 1876, Sonnino traveled to Sicily with Leopoldo Franchetti to conduct an investigation into the state of Sicilian society. In 1877, the two men published their research on Sicily in a substantial two-part report for the Italian Parliament, in the first part Sonnino analysed the lives of the islands landless peasants. Leopoldo Franchettis half of the report, Political and Administrative Conditions in Sicily, was an analysis of the Mafia in the century that is still considered authoritative today. Franchetti would ultimately influence public opinion about the Mafia more than anyone else until Giovanni Falcone over a years later. Political and Administrative Conditions in Sicily is the first convincing explanation of how the Mafia came to be, in 1878, Sonnino and Franchetti started a newspaper, which changed from weekly economic reviews to daily political issues. Sonnino was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies for the first time in the elections in May 1880. He belonged to the chamber to September 1919 from the XIV to XXIV legislature, Sonnino soon became one of the leading opponents of the Liberal Left. As a strict constitutionalist he favoured strong government to resist pressure of special interests, in December 1893, he became Minister of Finance and Minister of the Treasury in the government of Francesco Crispi, and tried to resolve the Banca Romana scandal. The newly established Banca dItalia was the result of a merger of three existing banks of issue, regional interests were still strong, hence the compromise of plurality of note issuance with the Banco di Napoli and the Banco di Sicilia, while providing for stricter state control. As Minister of the Treasury Sonnino restructured public finances, imposing new taxes, the budget deficit was sharply reduced, from 174 million lire in 1893-94 to 36 million in 1896-97. After the fall of the Crispi government as a result of the lost Battle of Adwa in March 1896, he served as the leader of the opposition conservatives against the liberal Giovanni Giolitti. In January 1897, Sonnino published an article titled Torniamo allo Statuto, in which he sounded the alarm about the threats that the clergy, republicans, in 1901 he founded a new major newspaper, Il Giornale dItalia
36.
Anarchism
–
Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
37.
Gaetano Bresci
–
Gaetano Bresci was an Italian anarchist who assassinated King Umberto I of Italy. Bresci was the first European regicide offender not to be executed, Bresci was born at Coiano, near Prato, Tuscany, and emigrated from Italy to the United States, making his living as a weaver in Paterson, New Jersey, which had a large Italian-American community. He became involved with and later a member of an Italian political group called Gruppo diritti all esistenza. He was one of the founders of La Questione Sociale, the Italian language anarchist paper published in Paterson, according to Emma Goldman, He was a skillful weaver, considered by his employers as a sober, hard-working man, but his pay averaged only fifteen dollars a week. He had a wife and child to support, yet he managed to donate weekly contributions to the paper and he had even saved a hundred and fifty dollars, which he lent to the group at a critical period of La Questione Sociale. His free evenings and Sundays he used to spend in helping with the office work and he was beloved and respected for his devotion by all the members of his group. In 1898, high prices led to demonstrations all over Italy. In Milan, a crowd of protestors marched toward the palace. The crowd ignored the order to disperse, whereupon Bava-Beccaris gave the signal to fire with muskets and cannons, resulting in a massacre of the demonstrators, in which more than ninety people died. King Umberto later decorated Bava-Beccaris, complimenting him upon his defense of the royal house — as a result of which Bresci became determined to kill the king. Bresci had his loan to the paper returned, and with the money he went to Italy, in Monza, where the king was visiting on July 29,1900, he shot him four times with a five-shot.32 revolver. A monument, the Cappella Espiatoria, has been erected in the spot the king was murdered. Bresci was captured and put on trial, where he was defended by the anarchist lawyer Francesco Saverio Merlino, less than a year later, on May 22,1901, he was found dead in prison at the age of 31. It is not clear whether he committed suicide, as officially announced, the city of Carrara dedicated a marble monument to Bresci. The city of Prato named a street for him in 1976, gaetano Bresci Page in the Anarchist Encyclopedia
38.
Monza
–
Monza listen is a city and comune on the River Lambro, a tributary of the Po in the Lombardy region of Italy, about 15 kilometres north-northeast of Milan. It is the capital of the Province of Monza and Brianza, Monza is best known for its Grand Prix motor racing circuit, the Autodromo Nazionale Monza, which hosts the Formula One Italian Grand Prix. On 11 June 2004 Monza was designated the capital of the new province of Monza and Brianza, the new administrative arrangement came fully into effect in summer 2009, previously, Monza was a comune within the province of Milan. Monza is the third-largest city of Lombardy and is the most important economic, industrial and administrative centre of the Brianza area, supporting a textile industry, Monza also hosts a Department of the University of Milan Bicocca, a Court of Justice and several offices of regional administration. Monza Park is one of the largest urban parks in Europe, Monza is located in the high plains of Lombardy, between Brianza and Milan, at an altitude of 162 metres above sea level. It is 15 kilometres from the centre of the capital, although when considering the cities borders. Monza is about 40 km from Lecco and Como, Monza shares its position with Milan in the same metro area, and is a big part of its new province. Monza is crossed north to south by the River Lambro. The river enters Monza from the north, between Via Aliprandi and Via Zanzi streets and this is an artificial fork of the river, created for defensive purposes in the early decades of the 14th century. The fork is known as Lambretto and it rejoins the main course of the Lambro as it exits to the south, another artificial stream is the Canale Villoresi, which was constructed in the late 19th century. Precipitation is abundant, with most occurring in the autumn and the least in winter and summer, despite this, during the Roman Empire, Monza was known as Modicia. During the 3rd century BCE, the Romans subdued the Insubres, a Gallo-Celtic tribe, perhaps the Insubres themselves, founded a village on the Lambro. The ruins of a Roman bridge named Ponte dArena can be seen near todays Ponte dei Leoni, Theodelinda, daughter of Garibald I of Bavaria and wife of the Lombard king Authari, chose Monza as her summer residence. Here in 595 she founded an oraculum dedicated to St. John the Baptist, according to this legend, the medieval name of Monza, Modoetia, is derived from these two words. She also had a palace built here, berengar I of Italy located his headquarters in Monza. A fortified castrum was constructed to resist the incursions of the Hungarians, under Berengars reign, Monza enjoyed a certain degree of independence, it had its own system of weights and measures, and could also seize property and mark the deeds with their signatures. Berengar was very evident by the donation of numerous works to the Monza Cathedral, including the famous cross. In 980 Monza hosted Emperor Otto II inside the walled city, the Glossary of Monza, one of the earliest examples of the evolution of Italian language, probably dates to the early 10th century
39.
Bava-Beccaris massacre
–
The Bava-Beccaris massacre, named after the Italian General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris, refers to the repression of widespread food riots in Milan, Italy, on 6–10 May 1898. In Italy the suppression of these demonstrations is also known as Fatti di Maggio or I moti di Milano del 1898, at least 80 demonstrators were killed, as well as two soldiers, and 450 wounded, according to government sources. The overreaction of the led to the demise of Di Rudini and his government in July 1898 and created a constitutional crisis. The events of May marked a height of popular discontent with government, the military, in 1897 the wheat harvest in Italy was substantially lower than the years before, it fell from on average 3.5 million tons in 1891–95 to 2.4 million tons that year. Moreover, import of American grain was more due to the Spanish–American War in 1898. Wheat prices in Milan increased from 225 lire a tonne to 330 lire a tonne in April 1898, in order to try to diminish the rising prices the government of Antonio Di Rudinì was urged to abolish the duty on imported wheat. In January 1898 the tariff was lowered from 75 lire a tonne to 50 lire, street demonstrations demanding bread and work began in the South of Italy, which already had seen widespread revolts by the Fasci Siciliani in 1893–94. In towns like Bari and Naples rioting could be suppressed, while Florence was controlled by demonstrators for a whole day, the situation escalated when demonstrators were shot by nervous policemen, and rioting increased. On May 5,1898, workers organized a strike against the rise of food prices, the first blood was shed that day at Pavia, when the son of Giuseppe Mussi, a deputy from Milan, was killed by the police in an attempt to control the crowd. The next day, on May 6, workers of the Pirelli factory went on strike in the morning, riots broke out and two were shot and killed. Riots also broke out in Florence and Livorno, Di Rudinìs government declared a state of siege in Lombardy and the city. General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris, a veteran of the wars of independence that had unified Italy was ordered to Milan, infantry, cavalry and artillery were brought into the city, as well as railway troops because railway workers had gone on strike as well. The troops were conscripts from rural and alpine areas, considered to be more reliable in a time of civil unrest than those from urban districts. With reserves, Bava-Beccaris had 45,000 men at his disposal, on May 7,60,000 people went on strike, moving from the working-class neighbourhoods in the outskirts of the city towards the city centre of Milan. The troops met fierce resistance while trying to remove the barricades that had been erected. Some of the demonstrators had acquired rifles from the workshops of arms manufacturers, General Bava-Beccaris ordered his troops to fire on demonstrators and used the artillery as well. According to the government,80 demonstrators and other civilians were killed, a total of 450 persons were wounded. The opposition claimed 400 dead and more than 2,000 injured people, according to The New York Times 300 people were killed and 1,000 wounded
40.
Naples
–
Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
41.
Cholera epidemic
–
Although much is known about the mechanisms behind the spread of cholera, this has not led to a full understanding of what makes cholera outbreaks happen some places and not others. Lack of treatment of human feces and lack of treatment of drinking water greatly facilitate its spread, bodies of water have been found to serve as a reservoir, and seafood shipped long distances can spread the disease. Cholera did not occur in the Americas for most of the 20th century after the early 1900s in New York City and it reappeared in the Caribbean toward the end of that century and seems likely to persist. Deaths in India between 1817 and 1860, in the first three pandemics of the century, are estimated to have exceeded 15 million people. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917, during the next three pandemics, Cholera deaths in the Russian Empire during a similar time period exceeded 2 million. The first cholera pandemic, though restricted, began in Bengal. Hundreds of thousands of Indians and ten thousand British troops died during this pandemic, the cholera outbreak extended as far as China, Indonesia and the Caspian Sea in Europe, before receding. A second cholera pandemic reached Russia, Hungary and Germany in 1831, in 1832 it reached London and the United Kingdom and Paris. In London, the disease claimed 6,536 victims and came to be known as King Cholera, in Paris,20,000 died, and total deaths in France amounted to 100,000. The epidemic reached Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia and New York in the year. In the center of the country, it spread through the cities linked by the rivers, over 15,000 people died of cholera in Mecca in 1846. A two-year outbreak began in England and Wales in 1848, in 1849, a second major outbreak occurred in Paris. In London, it was the worst outbreak in the history, claiming 14,137 lives. Cholera hit Ireland in 1849 and killed many of the Irish Famine survivors, already weakened by starvation and fever. In 1849, cholera claimed 5,308 lives in the port city of Liverpool, England, an embarkation point for immigrants to North America. An outbreak in North America took the life of former U. S. President James K. Polk. Cholera, believed spread from Irish immigrant ship from England, spread throughout the Mississippi river system, killing over 4,500 in St. Louis, thousands died in New York, a major destination for Irish immigrants. Cholera claimed 200,000 victims in Mexico and it is believed more than 150,000 Americans died during the two pandemics between 1832 and 1849
42.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
43.
Austria-Hungary
–
The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
