1.
1891 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1891. January – The Strand Magazine is first published in London, on June 25 Arthur Conan Doyles private consulting detective Sherlock Holmes appears in it for the first time, in the story A Scandal in Bohemia. January 31 – Henrik Ibsens play Hedda Gabler is first performed, at the Königliches Residenz-Theater in Munich, the first British performance is on April 20 at the recently reopened Vaudeville Theatre, London, with Elizabeth Robins as Hedda and co-directing. March 13 – Henrik Ibsens play Ghosts achieves a single London performance, to evade the Lord Chamberlains Offices censorship it has to be staged privately by the Independent Theatre Society, but still attracts strong criticism on moral grounds. May 21 – Maurice Maeterlincks play Intruder is premièred at Paul Forts Theatre dArt in Paris, late June – In a meeting of decadent poets in London, Oscar Wilde is first introduced to Lord Alfred Douglas by Lionel Johnson at Wildes Tite Street home. July 1 – International Copyright Act of 1891 comes into effect in the United States permitting foreign authors to register their works for copyright, on July 3, the first such work, the play Saints and Sinners by English author Henry Arthur Jones, is registered. August 22 – Israel Zangwills The Big Bow Mystery, the first classic full-length locked room mystery, october 9 – Émile Zolas stage adaptation of his novel Thérèse Raquin achieves a single London performance, its English stage première. To evade the Lord Chamberlains Offices censorship it has to be staged privately by the Independent Theatre Society, september 4 – Ambrose Bierce dates the preface of Tales of Soldiers and Civilians for this day, although it will not actually be issued until 1892. It includes An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge, one of his best known works, december – Thomas Hardy writes The Sons Veto, which he regards as his best short story. December 7 – Maurice Maeterlincks play The Blind is premièred, tristan Bernard has his first work published in La Revue Blanche and adopts his pseudonym. Sophia Alice Callahans Wynema, a Child of the Forest is published, publication of the first complete 1-volume popular German language translation of Shakespeares plays. Approximate date – Edmund Clerihew Bentley, G. K. Chesterton and fellow pupils of St Pauls School, London, grant Allen – The Great Taboo Hall Caine – The Scapegoat J. M. Gardener – Is This Your Son, My Lord. André Gide – Les Cahiers dAndré Walter George Gissing – New Grub Street Thomas Hardy A Group of Noble Dames Tess of the dUrbervilles J. -K
2.
1895 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1895. January–May – Publication of H. G. Wells first scientific romance, the first book editions are published by Henry Holt and Company in New York on May 7 and by Heinemann in London on May 29. January 3 – Première of Oscar Wildes comedy An Ideal Husband at the Haymarket Theatre in London, january 5 Première of Henry Jamess historical drama Guy Domville at St Jamess Theatre in London is booed. A. E. Waite ceases to publish and edit his own occult periodical The Unknown World, january 12 – The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is registered in England and begins acquiring properties and making them accessible to the public. Carlyles House in Chelsea is one of the first to be opened, february 14 – Première of Oscar Wildes last play, the comedy The Importance of Being Earnest, at St. James Theatre, London. In a meeting on March 25 at the Café Royal in London, Frank Harris, april/May – Pan, a German arts and literary magazine, is first published, in Berlin. April 3–5 – Libel case of Wilde v Queensberry at the Old Bailey in London, april 6 – Oscar Wilde is arrested at the Cadogan Hotel, London, for unlawfully committing acts of gross indecency with certain male persons and detained on remand in Holloway Prison. April 29 – Joseph Conrads novel Almayers Folly is published in London by T. Fisher Unwin, Conrads first published work, may 23 – Representatives of the Astor Library and Lenox Library agree to merge and form the New York Public Library. On November 21 he is transferred to Reading Gaol, Henry Irving becomes the first actor invested with a knighthood. October The American Historical Review is published for the first time, stephen Cranes American Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage is first published in book format by D. Appleton & Company in New York. It receives strong criticism on moral grounds, Hardy later claims that Walsham How, Bishop of Wakefield, december 19 – Robert Frost marries Elinor Miriam White at Lawrence, Massachusetts. George du Mauriers novel Trilby, serialized in 1894, is first published in book form. It is also adapted as a play, Trilby, first in the United States with Wilton Lackaye as Svengali and Virginia Harned in the title rôle, then in England with Herbert Beerbohm Tree and Dorothea Baird. The stage version is so successful that Tree is able to use the profits to build Her Majestys Theatre, william Poel establishes the Elizabethan Stage Society to promote productions of plays by Shakespeare and his contemporaries in the performance style of the English Renaissance theatre. Abdallah bin Hemedi bin Ali Ajjemys Habari za Wakilindi is the first Swahili novel, Publication in Boston of Castello Holfords utopian novel Aristopia, A Romance-History of the New World, the first full-length alternate history in English. Ernest Thayer recites Casey at the Bat at a Harvard class reunion, the first edition of the Times Atlas of the World is published at the office of The Times newspaper in London. Hall Caine travels in the United States and Canada, where he represents the British Society of Authors, grant Allen The British Barbarians The Woman Who Did John Kendrick Bangs – A House-Boat on the Styx Rhoda Broughton – Scylla or Charybdis
3.
1897 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1897. January–March – Oscar Wilde, imprisoned in Reading Gaol in England, writes his letter to his lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, january 2 – Newspapers in London, England erroneously report the death of Mark Twain. It is believed that the rumors began when Twains cousin had become ill, Twain makes his famous statement the report of my death was an exaggeration. April–December – H. G. Wells science fiction novel The War of the Worlds is serialised in Pearsons Magazine, april 13 – The Grand Guignol is opened in Paris by Oscar Méténier. May 19 – Oscar Wilde is released early this morning from Pentonville Prison in London and this afternoon he visits Hatchards bookshop briefly before catching an evening train to Newhaven en route to exile on the continent under the name Sebastian Melmoth. On May 18 he had staged a reading of a version at the Lyceum Theatre. July 2 – Yorkshire Dialect Society founded, the oldest such society in England, july 25 – Writer Jack London sails to join the Klondike Gold Rush where he will write his first successful stories. October – First issue Albina, the Romanian literary and agriculturalist magazine aimed at a peasant readership, put out in Bucharest by Ioan Kalinderu, George Coșbuc, november 1 – The Library of Congress Building in Washington, D. C. is opened. December 30 – The comedy The White Horse Inn, by Oscar Blumenthal and Gustav Kadelburg, opens in Berlin, decades later it will be turned into a popular, hall Caines novel The Christian is published, becoming the first in Britain to sell a million copies. Anna Katharine Greens That Affair Next Door introduces the first female fictional character in a novel, Amelia Butterworth. Benito Pérez Galdós is elected to the Real Academia Española, the publisher Doubleday is founded as the Doubleday & McClure Company by Frank Nelson Doubleday in partnership with magazine publisher Samuel McClure in New York City. The publisher Commercial Press is founded as the first modern publishing organisation in China by 26-year-old Xia Ruifang and three friends in Shanghai
4.
1898 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1898. January 13 – Émile Zolas open letter to Félix Faure, President of France, on the Dreyfus affair, on February 23, Zola is convicted of criminal libel in connection with Jaccuse. Following dismissal of his appeal he flees to London to escape imprisonment, in August he begins writing his novel Fécondité in the suburbs. February 5–June 18 – M. P. February 25 – Première of Frank Wedekinds Earth Spirit, first of his Lulu plays, in Leipzig, in a production by Carl Heine, March 25 – O. Henry is imprisoned in Ohio Penitentiary, Columbus, for embezzlement. May 28 – Max Beerbohm succeeds George Bernard Shaw as theatre critic of The Saturday Review, june – First appearance of E. W. Hornungs fictional gentleman thief A. J. Raffles in the story The Ides of March in Cassells Magazine. Peadar Ua Laoghaires story Séadna begins serialization in Ireland as the first Irish language novel, Gerald Duckworth establishes the publishers Gerald Duckworth and Company in London. Henry Jamess novella In the Cage is among their first years output, English designer C. R. Ashbee begins book production at the Essex House Press. Joseph Wrights English Dialect Dictionary begins publication, the Generation of 98 writers and thinkers are active in Spain. The term Young Poland is coined after a manifesto by Artur Górski, published in the Kraków newspaper Życie, to signify the period of modernism in the Polish arts. Burks, American writer September 15 – J. Slauerhoff, Dutch poet and novelist September 16 – H. A. S. Lewis, English novelist and childrens writer December 27 – W. C
5.
1899 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1899. January 21 – French actress Sarah Bernhardt, having taken over management of the Paris theatre which she renames the Théâtre Sarah-Bernhardt, opens in the title rôle of Victorien Sardous La Tosca. On May 20 she premières an adaptation of Shakespeares Hamlet with herself in the title rôle March 20 – W. H. Davies, tramp-poet, loses his foot trying to jump a freight train at Renfrew, april – Karl Kraus establishes the radical periodical Die Fackel in Vienna. April–June – Rainer Maria Rilke travels to Moscow to meet Leo Tolstoy, may–December – Winston Churchills only work of fiction, Savrola, A Tale of the Revolution in Laurania, is serialized in Macmillans Magazine. May 8 – The Irish Literary Theatre, founded by W. B, Yeats, Augusta, Lady Gregory, George Moore and Edward Martyn, stages its first performance in Dublin, a version of Yeats verse drama The Countess Cathleen. June 20 – English writer Edward Thomas marries Helen Noble at Fulham register office, september 1 – The National Theatre in Norway opens with performances of pieces by Holberg. September – The British Mutoscope and Biograph Companys King John becomes the first known film based on a Shakespeare play, november 6 – William Gillettes play Sherlock Holmes, based on the writings of Arthur Conan Doyle, opens in New York City with himself in the title rôle. November 7 – Anton Chekhovs Uncle Vanya receives its metropolitan première at the Moscow Art Theatre with Konstantin Stanislavski directing and playing the rôle of Astrov and Olga Knipper as Yeléna. December 12 – Herbert Putnam is appointed Librarian of Congress in the United States, december – The imprisoned William Sydney Porters pseudonym O. Henry first appears over the short story Whistling Dicks Christmas Stocking in this months McClures Magazine. Curtis Brown established in London by American Albert Curtis Brown, edgar Rice Burroughs begins working in his fathers business. Simon Pokagons O-gi-maw-kwe Mit-I-gwa-ki is published, the first novel both by and about Native Americans in the United States, Arthur Machens wife Amy dies after a long illness, an event that has a devastating effect on him. Lin Shus first translation into Chinese from a Western text, The Lady of the Camellias as 巴黎茶花女遺事, is published, Leo Tolstoys last novel, Resurrection, is published serially in Niva. First series of the Arden Shakespeare under the editorship of W. J. Craig begins publication by Methuen in London with an edition of Hamlet edited by Edward Dowden. A. Henty – The Golden Canon E. W. Hornung – The Amateur Cracksman Henry James – The Awkward Age Selma Lagerlöf – The Tale of a Manor Octave Mirbeau – The Torture Garden A. E. W. M. Edwards, Guernsey-born writer July 11 – E. B
6.
1900 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1900. May Rainer Maria Rilke makes his visit to Russia in the company of Lou Andreas-Salomé. Release of the first film to feature the detective character Sherlock Holmes, Sherlock Holmes Baffled, by the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company. May 17 – L. Frank Baums The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is published in Chicago, june 24 – During the Boxer Rebellion, the Hanlin Academy in Peking, housing the oldest and richest library in the world, catches fire and is destroyed. July 1 – Net Book Agreement comes into force in the U. K, november 19 – August Strindbergs To Damascus receives its première at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm with August Palme and Harriet Bosse, Strindbergs future wife, in the leading rôles. Ermete Novelli establishes the Casa di Goldoni, a new theatre, at Rome, S. Pritchett, English short story writer January 19 – William Larminie, Irish poet and folklorist January 20 – Richard Doddridge Blackmore, English novelist January 25 – Frederick H
7.
1902 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1902. January 5 The political drama Dantons Death by Georg Büchner, receives its première, first performance of George Bernard Shaws controversial 1893 play Mrs. Warrens Profession at a private club in London. April – Mark Twain purchases a home in Tarrytown, New York, june 4 – Mark Twain receives an honorary doctorate of literature degree from the University of Missouri. June 16 – Bertrand Russell writes to Gottlob Frege informing him of the problem that will become known as Russells paradox. July 1 – The Romanian language literary review Luceafărul begins publication in Budapest, september 9 – P. G. Wodehouse leaves his job at the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Company in London to become a freelance writer. Early October – Beatrix Potters self-illustrated childrens book The Tale of Peter Rabbit is first published in an edition by Frederick Warne & Co in London. By the end of the year it sells 28,000 copies, October 5 – Thousands attend the funeral of French novelist Émile Zola at the Cimetière de Montmartre, Paris, they include Alfred Dreyfus, given special permission by Mme Zola to attend. November 4 – J. M. Barries comedy The Admirable Crichton is premièred at the Duke of Yorks Theatre in London, irving, Henry Kemble and Irene Vanbrugh and running for an extremely successful 828 performances. December 5 – Leo Tolstoys drama The Power of Darkness is premièred at the Moscow Art Theatre by Konstantin Stanislavski with some success, although he is self-critical. December 18 – Maxim Gorkys drama The Lower Depths – Scenes from Russian Life is premièred at the Moscow Art Theatre with Stanislavski directing and starring, the Irish Literary Theatre project ends. Poet Ștefan Petică publishes the cycle Fecioara în alb, which marks a maturing of Romanian Symbolism, crevedia, Romanian poet, novelist and journalist. A. Henty, English historical novelist Nobel Prize for Literature, Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen
8.
1904 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1904. January Mark Twain begins dictating his Autobiography, first issue of Süddeutsche Monatshefte, published in Munich by Paul Nikolaus Cossmann. January 17 – Anton Chekhovs last play, The Cherry Orchard, February 25 – J. M. Synges tragedy Riders to the Sea is first performed at the Molesworth Hall, Dublin, by the Irish National Theatre Society. April 24 – Lithuanian press ban in the Russian Empire lifted, may 10 – Following the death on 22 February of her father, Sir Leslie Stephen, Virginia Woolf suffers a mental breakdown. June 16 – The original Bloomsday, the day James Joyce first walks out with Nora Barnacle, to the Dublin suburb of Ringsend, june 28 – Anton Chekhov, dying of tuberculosis at Badenweiler, writes to his sister Masha, saying his health is improving. He dies just over two weeks later, september – Mark Twain purchases a home at 21 Fifth Avenue, New York City. November 1 George Bernard Shaws comedy about Ireland, John Bulls Other Island, opens at the Royal Court Theatre, London, Yeats rejects it for Dublins Abbey Theatre. The Stephen family have moved to a home at 46 Gordon Square, Bloomsbury, London, here the Bloomsbury Group will form. December 24 – The Coliseum Theatre in London opens, december 27 The Irish National Theatre Society opens to the public in Dublin for the first time. The bill consists of three plays, On Bailes Strand and Cathleen Ní Houlihan by Yeats and Spreading the News by Lady Gregory. Alexander Bloks poetry cycle Stikhi o prekrasnoi Dame, written to his new wife, a seven-year-old Wasif Jawhariyyeh begins keeping his diaries, later acclaimed as masterpieces of modern Arabic and Jerusalemite literature. Herbert Beerbohm Tree establishes what will become the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, 1889–1903» Giovanni Pascoli – Primi poemetti and Primi conviviali A. C
9.
1906 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1906. February 8 – Writer Hilaire Belloc becomes a Liberal Member of Parliament of the United Kingdom, february 15 – J. M. Dent and Company commence publication in the United Kingdom of the Everymans Library series with Boswells Life of Johnson. March 13 – Romanian nationalist historian Nicolae Iorga instigates a boycott of the National Theater Bucharest over its staging of French-language plays, april 10–October 13 – Maxim Gorky visits the United States with his mistress, the actress Maria Andreyeva, to raise funds for the Bolsheviks. In the Adirondack Mountains he writes his novel of revolutionary conversion and struggle, the couple then retreat to Capri. April 18 – The 1906 San Francisco earthquake destroys the new building for Stanford University Library before it can be completed. Many of the leading poets and writers retreat to join the arts colony at Carmel-by-the-Sea. May–October – Jack Londons novel White Fang is serialized in the American magazine Outing, june – Virginia Stephen, the future Virginia Woolf, writes her first work of fiction, the short story which becomes known as Phyllis and Rosamond when first, posthumously, published. July 11 – Murder of Grace Brown in the Herkimer County, New York, pre-September – Last full-scale court performance of gambuh dance-drama in Bali. September 1 – Annie Carroll Moore begins work as Superintendent of the Department of Work with Children at the New York Public Library and it is first staged in Stockholm on December 13 at the Folkan. November 8 – Max Reinhardt inaugurates the Kammerspiele at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin with a production of Ghosts by Henrik Ibsen designed by Edvard Munch. December 24 – Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio program, a reading, a violin solo. Livraria Lello & Irmão opens a new bookstore in Porto, the magazine Eesti Kirjandus is founded in the Governorate of Estonia as part of the Estonian national awakening
10.
1908 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1908. March – Ezra Pound leaves America for Europe, in April, he moves to Venice, where in July he self-publishes his first collection of poems, A Lume Spento. In August he settles in London, where he will remain until 1920, june 18 – Mark Twain purchases a house in Redding, Connecticut. Summer – The Marlowe Society stages a production at the New Theatre, Cambridge, July – Katherine Mansfield moves to London, she will never return to her native New Zealand. September 30 – Maurice Maeterlincks The Blue Bird is premièred at Konstantin Stanislavskys Moscow Art Theatre, october 3 – The Avenida Theatre opens on Buenos Aires Avenida de Mayo with a production of Lope de Vegas El castigo sin venganza directed by María Guerrero. December – Ford Madox Hueffer begins publication of the literary magazine The English Review in London, yeats, produces its first publication, Poetry and Ireland, essays by W. B. Ethiopian linguist Afevork Ghevre Jesuss ልብ ፡ ወለድ ፡ ታሪክ ።, malay tale Hikayat Hang Tuah is first published, edited by Sulaiman bin Muhammed Nur and William Shellabear. Romanian writer Urmuz is known to be working on his manuscript stories, K. M. Forster – A Room with a View John Fox, Jr. Madero – La sucesión presidencial en 1910 Friedrich Nietzsche – Ecce homo, Wie man wird, was man ist Alfred R. M
11.
1909 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1909. January – T. E. Hulmes poems Autumn and A City Sunset, january 15 – Opening night of Filippo Tommaso Marinettis drama La donna è mobile at the Teatro Alfieri, Turin. February 20 – Filippo Tommaso Marinettis Futurist Manifesto is first published, march 2 – Katherine Mansfield, at this time pregnant by another man, marries singing teacher George Bowden in London, leaving him the same evening to resume a lesbian relationship with Ida Baker. April The opening night of Filippo Tommaso Marinettis drama Le Roi bombance is heckled by the audience, the German periodical Die Tat is founded by Ernst Horneffer. April 24 – The Metropolitan Library in Beijing, predecessor of the National Library of China, is founded by the Qing government, september 6 – Israel Zangwills play The Melting Pot opens in New York City. September 23 – Gaston Lerouxs novel The Phantom of the Opera begins serialization in the Paris newspaper Le Gaulois. September 29 – Franz Kafkas short story The Aeroplanes at Brescia, based on an event, is published in the Prague newspaper Bohemia. November – E. M. Forsters science fiction short story The Machine Stops is published in The Oxford and Cambridge Review. G
12.
1911 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1911. February–March – Antisemitic riots in Paris over the staging of Henri Bernsteins Après moi by the Comédie-Française, instigated by the far-right Action Française, in conjunction with the far-left Guerre Sociale. March – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in Paris, announces planned Futurist conference, april – Hugo Gernsback begins to publish his pioneering science fiction novel Ralph 124C 41+ in his monthly magazine Modern Electrics in the United States. April 8 – English poet Lascelles Abercrombie and his move to live near Dymock in rural Gloucestershire. October 16 – New building for Mitchell Library opens in Glasgow, october 17 – Rudolf Wilhelm Friedrich Ditzen, the later novelist Hans Fallada, kills his best friend in a suicide pact staged as a duel. November The Kalem Company of New York agrees to pay the estate of author Lew Wallace $25,000 in legal settlement for having adapted Ben Hur from his novel without securing prior rights. Virginia Stephen begins to share a London house at 38 Brunswick Square with other members of the Bloomsbury Group, Leonard Woolf, Adrian Stephen, John Maynard Keynes, jaroslav Hašek begins publishing stories of The Good Soldier Švejk in the Prague newspaper Karikatura edited by the illustrator Josef Lada. Irish novelist George Moore publishes Ave, the first part of his 3-volume autobiographical Hail, french publishing house Éditions Gallimard founded in Paris by Gaston Gallimard as Les Éditions de la Nouvelle Revue Française. Its first publication is Paul Claudels play LOtage, D. Beresford – The Hampdenshire Wonder Ambrose Bierce – The Devils Dictionary Algernon Blackwood – The Centaur J. E. Casely-Hayford – Ethiopia Unbound G. K. E. B. Du Bois – The Quest of the Silver Fleece Edna Ferber – Dawn OHara Ford Madox Ford – Ladies Whose Bright Eyes E. M. Forster – The Celestial Omnibus R. H. E. W
13.
1898 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. The Generation of 98 was a group of novelists, poets, essayists, jose Martínez Ruiz, commonly known as Azorín, comes up with the name in 1913 to allude to the moral, political, and social crisis produced by Spains defeat. Writing mostly after 1910, the group reinvigorates Spanish letters, revives literary myths, in politics, members of the movement often justify radicalism and rebellion. Bliss Carman, By the Aurelian Wall William Henry Drummond, Phil-o-rum’s Canoe and Madeleine Vercheres, Two Poems, New York, G. P
14.
1899 in poetry
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— Opening lines of Rudyard Kiplings White Mans Burden, first published this year Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. March 20 – Welsh tramp-poet W. H. Davies loses his foot trying to jump a freight train at Renfrew, William Hughes Mearns writes Antigonish this year, it wont be published until 1922. Romesh Chunder Dutts translation of the Ramayana into English verse is first published, shinshisha founded by Yosano Tekkan in Japan. William Wilfred Campbell, Beyond the Hills of Dream, fidelis, Lays of the True North, and Other Canadian Poems. John Frederic Herbin, The Marshlands Archibald Lampman, Alcyone, including City of the End of Things, thomas OHagan, Songs of the Settlement Frederick George Scott, Poems Old and New. Francis Sherman, The Deserted City, Stray Sonnets, arthur Stringer, The Loom of Destiny. Anthologies Northland Lyrics, William Carman Roberts, Theodore Roberts & Elizabeth Roberts Macdonald, selected and arranged with a prologue by Charles G. D. Roberts, boston, Small, Maynard & Co. B. B. V. de L. R
15.
1901 in art
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March 12 – Whitechapel Gallery, designed by Charles Harrison Townsend, opens in London as one of the first publicly funded galleries for temporary exhibitions in the city. May 11 – The Kraków Society of Friends of Fine Arts inaugurates its Palace of Art, julien-Auguste Hervé exhibits his paintings in Paris under the title Expressionismes. Swedish-born painter Carl Oscar Borg enters the United States as a stowaway,28 January – James Richmond Barthé, sculptor. 22 March – Greta Kempton, Austrian-American artist,24 March – Ub Iwerks, American animator, cartoonist and special effects technician. 27 March – Carl Barks, American illustrator and comic book creator,9 June – John Skeaping, English sculptor and equine painter. July 5 – Len Lye, New Zealand-born kinetic sculptor and filmmaker, july 15 – Pyke Koch, Dutch painter. July 31 – Jean Dubuffet, French painter and sculptor, august 29 – Anna Zinkeisen, Scottish-born artist September 14 – Lucien Aigner, Hungcvx arian photographer. October 2 – Alice Prin, French artists model and painter, october 10 – Alberto Giacometti, sculptor
16.
1901 in architecture
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The year 1901 in architecture involved some significant events. Federal Court House and Post office for the Upper Midwest, the modern-day Landmark Center, St. Paul, Minnesota, Philadelphia City Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, designed by John McArthur, Jr. is completed, the worlds tallest occupied masonry building. Stolp Town Hall, in modern-day Słupsk, Poland, designed by Karl Zaar with Rudolf Vahl, is opened, union Station, designed by Daniel Burnham and W. Pierce Anderson, is commissioned. Germantown Junction station, North Philadelphia, designed by Theophilus P. Chandler Jr. is completed, moscow Vindavsky railway station, designed by Stanislav Brzhozovsky, is opened. Wardenclyffe Tower in Shoreham, New York, designed by Nikola Tesla, willits House in Highland Park, Illinois, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Deanery Garden in Sonning, England, designed by Edwin Lutyens with garden by Gertrude Jekyll, is completed, langer House in Vienna, designed by Jože Plečnik, is completed. Whitechapel Art Gallery in east London, designed by Charles Harrison Townsend, is opened, horniman Museum in south London, designed by C. Harrison Townsend, is completed. The Génin-Louis Grain Shop in Nancy, designed by Henry Gutton, the Vaxelaire Department Store in Nancy, designed by Émile André and Eugène Vallin, is completed. Jakarta Cathedral in the Dutch East Indies, completed by M. J. Hulswit following a design of 1891 by Pastor Antonius Dijkmans, is consecrated. The Glasgow International Exhibition is held with new architecture by James Millar and Charles Rennie Mackintosh and transplanted mock Tudor cottages from Port Sunlight
17.
1901 in music
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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1901. April 18 - Contralto Mariska Horvath marries politician J. Frank Aldrich, enrique Granados founds the Academia Granados in Spain. Geraldine Farrar makes her operatic debut, percy Grainger makes his recital debut. Thirteen-year-old Agustín Barrios begins attending university in Asunción on a music scholarship, aint That A Shame w. John Queen m. Walter Wilson All That Glitters Is Not Gold w. George A. Norton m. James W. Casey Any Old Place I Can Hang My Hat Is Home Sweet Home To Me w. William Jerome m, jean Schwartz At The Pan-I-Marry-Can w. Harry Dillon m. John Dillon Baby Mine w. Raymond A. Browne m, John N. Klohr Blaze Away m. Coon. by Leo Friedman & Gene Jefferson The Country Girl w. Stanislaus Stange m. Julian Edwards Davy Jones Locker w. m. H. W. Petrie Dont Put Me Off At Buffalo Any More w. William Jerome m. Jean Schwartz Down Where The Cotton Blossoms Grow w. Andrew B, sterling m. Harry Von Tilzer Eyes Of Blue, Eyes Of Brown w. m. Sterling Flora, I Am Your Adorer w. Vincent P. Bryan m. Charles Robinson The Fortune Telling Man w. m, Bert Williams & George Walker Go Way Back And Sit Down w. Elmer Bowman m. Ben Jansen He Ought To Have A Tablet In The Hall of Fame w. Arthur L. Robb m, John Walter Bratton Hello Central, Give Me Heaven w. m. Charles K. Harris Hiawatha w. James ODea m, high Society Porter Steele Hoity-Toity w. Edgar Smith m. Hughie Cannon I Love You Truly w. m. Carrie Jacobs-Bond I Want To Be A Lidy w. George Dance m. George Dee If You Love Your Baby, gus Edwards Im Tired w. William Jerome m. Jean Schwartz In The Shade Of The Palm w. m, leslie Stuart The Invincible Eagle March w. m. John Philip Sousa It Seems Like Yesterday w. Frederic Ranken m, isidore Witmark Ive Grown So Used To You w. m. Thurland Chattaway Josephine, My Jo w. Cecil Mack m. J. Tim Brymn Just A-Wearyin For You w. Frank Lebby Stanton m. Carrie Jacobs-Bond The Maiden With The Dreamy Eyes w. James Weldon Johnson & Bob Cole m. J. Rosamond Johnson Mamie, gus Edwards Mighty Lak A Rose w. Frank Lebby Stanton m. Ethelbert Nevin My Castle On The Nile w. Bob Cole & James Weldon Johnson m. J. Rosamond Johnson My Japanese Cherry Blossom w. Edgar Smith m, John Stromberg My Lady Hottentot w. William Jerome m. Harry von Tilzer My Lonesome Little Louisiana Lady w
18.
Anton Chekhov
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Anton Pavlovich Chekhov was a Russian playwright and short story writer, who is considered to be among the greatest writers of short fiction in history. His career as a playwright produced four classics and his best short stories are held in esteem by writers. Along with Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg, Chekhov is often referred to as one of the three figures in the birth of early modernism in the theatre. Chekhov practiced as a medical doctor throughout most of his career, Medicine is my lawful wife, he once said. These four works present a challenge to the ensemble as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a theatre of mood. Chekhov had at first written stories only for financial gain, but as his artistic ambition grew and he made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them. Anton Chekhov was born on the feast day of St. Anthony the Great 29 January 1860, the third of six surviving children, in Taganrog, a port on the Sea of Azov in southern Russia. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a serf and his Ukrainian wife, were from the village Vilkhovatka near Kobeliaky. A director of the choir, devout Orthodox Christian, and physically abusive father. Chekhovs mother, Yevgeniya, was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels with her cloth-merchant father all over Russia and our talents we got from our father, Chekhov remembered, but our soul from our mother. Despotism and lying so mutilated our childhood that its sickening and frightening to think about it, remember the horror and disgust we felt in those times when Father threw a tantrum at dinner over too much salt in the soup and called Mother a fool. Chekhov attended the Greek School in Taganrog and the Taganrog Gymnasium and he sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his fathers choirs. In 1876, Chekhovs father was declared bankrupt after overextending his finances building a new house, to avoid debtors prison he fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolay, were attending university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow, Chekhovs mother physically and emotionally broken by the experience, Chekhov was left behind to sell the familys possessions and finish his education. Chekhov remained in Taganrog for three years, boarding with a man called Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in The Cherry Orchard, had bailed out the family for the price of their house. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches and he sent every ruble he could spare to his family in Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer them up. Chekhov also enjoyed a series of affairs, one with the wife of a teacher. In 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling and joined his family in Moscow, Chekhov now assumed responsibility for the whole family
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Olga Knipper
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Olga Leonardovna Knipper-Chekhova was a Russian Empire and Soviet stage actress. She was married to Anton Chekhov, Knipper was among the 44 original members of the Moscow Art Theatre when it was formed by Constantin Stanislavski in 1898. She played Arkadina in The Seagull, played Elena in the Moscow premiere of Uncle Vanya, Knipper married Anton Chekhov, the author of these plays, in 1901. Knipper-Chekhova played Ranevskaya again in 1943, when the theatre marked the 300th performance of The Cherry Orchard, the German actress Olga Chekhova was her niece and the Soviet composer Lev Knipper was her nephew. Olga Leonardovna Knipper was born on the 21 September 1868 in Glazov to Leonard, though both of her parents were of German origin, her father wasted no time in claiming Russia as their family heritage. Around the time of Olgas birth, her father, Leonard, was in charge of a factory in a small town north-east of European Russia called Glazov, two years after Olga was born, her family moved to Moscow, where they became accustomed to an upper-middle-class lifestyle. Growing up in between her two brothers, Konstantin and Vladimir, Olga was pampered extensively and she attended a private school for girls, was fluent in French, German, and English, and took music and singing lessons after rigorous schooling days. Olga showed considerable promise as a painter and was her own accompanist on the piano when she entertained friends and family at dinner parties. Her mother, Anna Ivanovna, though very talented as a singer and pianist, was forced to give up any hopes of pursuing a professional career in the arts. In 1894, Olgas father died unexpectedly, leaving the 25-year-old, Olga and her mother both began giving music and singing lessons to make ends meet. They also dismissed four of their five servants, and moved into a smaller flat, Olgas hopes of becoming a successful stage actress had not yet diminished. She enrolled briefly into the Maly Theatres drama school, although she dropped out one month later, with the help of her reluctant mother, Olga enrolled at the Philharmonic School, where she was taught by the future co-founder of the Moscow Art Theatre, Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko. Nemirovich introduced Knipper and fellow student Vsevolod Meierhold to Constantin Stanislavski, told in strict confidence, Nemirovich confessed to Knipper and Meierhold that he and Stanislavski were planning the creation of a new theatre company. Nemirovich assured the two actors that they would be invited to join this company and to lead it to greatness. After many weeks, enough capital was secured to found the new company. While rehearsing for The Seagull on 9 September, Olgas 30th birthday, she met Russias most eligible bachelor and playwright of The Seagull, Anton Chekhov. Knipper and Chekhov exchanged telegrams and letters for the few years, while Olga became more familiar with Chekhovs younger sister. Random letters of teasing and playfulness became letters of love and deep remorse that they lived so far apart each other
20.
Three Sisters (play)
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Three Sisters is a play by the Russian author and playwright Anton Chekhov. It was written in 1900 and first performed in 1901 at the Moscow Art Theatre, the play is sometimes included on the short list of Chekhovs outstanding plays, along with The Cherry Orchard, The Seagull and Uncle Vanya. Olga Sergeyevna Prozorova – The eldest of the three sisters, she is the figure of the Prozorov family though at the beginning of the play she is only 28 years old. Olga is a teacher at the school, where she frequently fills in for the headmistress whenever the latter is absent. Olga is a spinster and at one point tells Irina that she would have married any man, Olga is very motherly even to the elderly servants, keeping on the elderly nurse/retainer Anfisa, long after she has ceased to be useful. When Olga reluctantly takes the role of headmistress permanently, she takes Anfisa with her to escape the clutches of the heartless Natasha, Maria Sergeyevna Kulygina – The middle sister, she is 23 at the beginning of the play. She married her husband, Kulygin, when she was 18, when the play opens she has been disappointed in the marriage and falls completely in love with the idealistic Lieutenant-Colonel Vershinin. When he is transferred away, she is crushed, but returns to life with her husband and she has a short temper, which is seen frequently throughout the play, and is the sister who disapproves the most of Natasha. Onstage, her directness often serves as a tonic to the melodrama and her vitality provides most of the plays surprisingly plentiful humour. She was trained as a concert pianist, Irina Sergeyevna Prozorova – The youngest sister, she is 20 at the beginning of the play. It is her day at the beginning of the play. Her only desire is to go back to Moscow, which they left eleven years before the play begins. She believes she will find her love in Moscow, but when it becomes clear that they are not going to Moscow, she agrees to marry the Baron Tuzenbach. She gets her degree and plans to leave with the Baron. She decides to leave anyway and dedicate her life to work, Andrei Sergeyevich Prozorov – The brother of the three sisters. In Act I, he is a man on the fast track to being a Professor in Moscow. In Act III, his debts have grown to 35,000 rubles and he is forced to mortgage the house, Act IV finds Andrei a pathetic shell of his former self, now the father of two. He acknowledges he is a failure and laughed at in town for being a member of the council whose president
21.
Moscow Art Theatre
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The Moscow Art Theatre is a theatre company in Moscow. It was founded in 1898 by the seminal Russian theatre practitioner Konstantin Stanislavski, together with the playwright and it was conceived as a venue for naturalistic theatre, in contrast to the melodramas that were Russias dominant form of theatre at the time. The theatre, the first to put on shows implementing Stanislavskis system, proved hugely influential in the acting world and in the development of modern American theatre. At the end of the 19th-century, Stanislavski and Nemirovich-Danchenko both wanted to reform Russian theatre to high-quality art that was available to the general public and they set about creating a private theatre over which they had total control. On 22 June 1897, the two men met for the first time at the Slavyanski Bazar for a lunch that started at 2 PM, while Stanislavski’s approach to theatre revolved around the acting process, Nemirovich was far more concerned with the literary, intellectual angle. Stanislavski interviewed all his actors, making sure they were hard working and he made them live together in common housing for months at a time to foster community and trust, which he believed would raise the quality of their performances. Stanislavskis system, in which he trained actors via the studios he founded as part of the theatre. The system played an influence in the development of method acting. This production was so successful that the theatre adopted the seagull as its emblem and he took with him Savva Morozov, one of the theatre’s main investors at the time. Now in dire straits, the decided to accept invitations to go on an international tour in 1906, which started in Berlin and included Dresden, Frankfurt, Prague. The tour was a success, gaining the theatre international acclaim. The tension between the two led Stanislavski to abandon his duties as a member and to relinquish all his power over policy decisions. Mikhail Bulgakov wrote several plays for the MAT and satirised the organisation mercilessly in his novel Black Snow, isaac Babels Sunset was also performed there during the 1920s. A significant number of Moscow Art Theatres actors were awarded the title of Peoples Artist of the USSR. Many actors became known and admired thanks to their film roles. However, the Civil War saw many of the actors being cut off from Moscow. The subsidies it had come to rely on were withdrawn and the theatre was forced to survive on its own profits, by 1923, the MAT was in $25,000 debt. The theatre experienced further blows through the end of the 1930s, a “red director” was appointed to the management by the government to ensure that the MAT’s activities were not counter-revolutionary and that they served the Communist cause
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Konstantin Stanislavski
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Konstantin Sergeievich Stanislavski was a seminal Russian theatre practitioner. He was widely recognised as a character actor and the many productions that he directed garnered a reputation as one of the leading theatre directors of his generation. His principal fame and influence, however, rests on his system of training, preparation. Its influential tours of Europe and the US and its productions of The Seagull and Hamlet established his reputation. At the MATs 30-year anniversary celebrations in 1928, a heart attack on-stage put an end to his acting career. He continued to direct, teach, and write about acting until his death a few weeks before the publication of the first volume of his lifes great work, the acting manual An Actors Work. He was awarded the Order of the Red Banner and the Order of Lenin and was one of the first to be granted the title of Peoples Artist of the USSR. Stanislavski wrote that there is nothing more tedious than an actors biography, at the request of a US publisher, however, he reluctantly agreed to write his autobiography, My Life in Art, though its account of his artistic development is not always accurate. Two English-language biographies have been published, David Magarshacks Stanislavsky, A Life and Jean Benedettis Stanislavski, His Life, Stanislavski subjected his acting and direction to a rigorous process of artistic self-analysis and reflection. His system of acting developed out of his persistent efforts to remove the blocks that he encountered in his performances and he also introduced into the production process a period of discussion and detailed analysis of the play by the cast. Despite the success that this brought, particularly with his Naturalistic stagings of the plays of Anton Chekhov and Maxim Gorky. Both his struggles with Chekhovs drama and his experiments with Symbolism encouraged a greater attention to inner action and he began to develop the more actor-centred techniques of psychological realism and his focus shifted from his productions to rehearsal process and pedagogy. He pioneered the use of theatre studios as a laboratory in which to innovate actor training, the system cultivates what Stanislavski calls the art of experiencing. In rehearsal, the searches for inner motives to justify action. Stanislavskis earliest reference to his system appears in 1909, the year that he first incorporated it into his rehearsal process. The MAT adopted it as its official rehearsal method in 1911, later, Stanislavski further elaborated the system with a more physically grounded rehearsal process that came to be known as the Method of Physical Action. Minimising at-the-table discussions, he now encouraged an active analysis, in which the sequence of dramatic situations are improvised, the best analysis of a play, Stanislavski argued, is to take action in the given circumstances. The Opera-Dramatic Studio embodied the most complete implementation of the training exercises described in his manuals, meanwhile, the transmission of his earlier work via the students of the First Studio was revolutionising acting in the West
23.
Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko
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Vladimir Ivanovich Nemirovich-Danchenko was born into a mixed Ukrainian-Armenian family in the village of Shemokmedi near Ozurgeti. His father was an officer of the Russian army, and his mother and he was educated at High school in Tbilisi and then at Moscow State University. In 1879 he left the University for the theatre, starting as a critic, and in 1881, his first play Dog-rose. He was a teacher of Moskvin, Knipper and Meyerhold, in 1919 he established the Musical Theatre of the Moscow Art Theatre, which was reformed into the Nemirovich-Danchenko Musical Theatre in 1926. In 1943 Nemirovich-Danchenko established the Moscow Art Theatre School, which is still extant, Nemirovich-Danchenko opened for theatre a true sense of Chekhov and Gorky plays, a prose of Dostoevsky and Tolstoy. It has been said that If Stanislavsky was the soul of Art Theatre, Nemirovich-Danchenko created an acting and directing style of the Moscow Art Theatre, actors ensemble and atmosphere. Because of this the Moscow Art Theatre was considered the best theatre of the world at that time, but Nemirovich didnt write down his system of acting and we know only the system of Stanislavski. He was one of the first recipients of the title of Peoples Artist of the USSR in 1936, later, he was awarded the USSR State Prize, the Order of Lenin, and Order of the Red Banner of Labour. The Brothers Karamazov Resurrection Anna Karenina Three Sisters Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Biography from Answers. com
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Maria Fyodorovna Andreyeva
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Maria Fyodorovna Andreyeva was the stage name of Maria Fyodorovna Yurkovskaya, a Russian/Soviet actress and Bolshevik administrator. Her father, Fyodor Alexandrovich Fyodorov-Yurkovsky was the director of the Alexandrinsky Theater and she followed into the steps of her parents. After drama school she went to Kazan, aged 18 and she married Andrey Zhelyabuzhsky, who was her elder by 18 years. He was controller of the Kursk and Nizhny Novgorod railroads, but was involved in theatre. The couple had two children, Yuri and Yekaterina, Yuri went on to become a film director. After Zhelyabuzhsky received a new post, the moved to Tiflis. They next moved to Moscow, where Andreyeva worked with Konstantin Stanislavsky at the Moscow Art Theatre and she made her Moscow debut on December 15,1894. Andreyeva took an interest in Marxist literature and she joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1902, she decided to leave acting, in 1900, she met Maxim Gorky in Sevastopol the first time. In 1903 she became his law wife. Gorky and Andreyeva left Russia in 1906 and travelled around the United States, while in Capri, Gorky was involved in the Vpered group but Andreyeva fell out with Anna Aleksandrovna Lunacharskaya, wife of Anatoly Lunacharsky and sister of Alexander Bogdanov. Already by 1914, she was active in attempts to promote classical theatre to the masses, only after the October Revolution did these endeavours bear fruits. Between 1918 and 1921, she was Commissar of Theaters and Public Shows in Petrograd and she was instrumental in the establishment of the Bolshoi Drama Theater, which opened in 1919. In January that year, Anatoly Lunacharsky nominated her as his deputy in his role of head of art section of the Narkompros in Petrograd, the Petrograd Soviet refused to confirm her nomination, but Vladimir Lenin intervened in her favour and the appointment went ahead. In 1920, Lunacharsky offered her the position of head of TEO, the department of Narkompros, in Moscow. During this period she separated from Gorky, between 1931 and 1948, she held the post of Director of the House of Scientists in Moscow. The Commisariat of Enlightenment, Soviet Organization of Education and the Arts under Lunacharsky
25.
Leo Tolstoy
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Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, usually referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time. Born to an aristocratic Russian family in 1828, he is best known for the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, often cited as pinnacles of realist fiction. He first achieved acclaim in his twenties with his semi-autobiographical trilogy, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth. Tolstoys fiction includes dozens of stories and several novellas such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich, Family Happiness. He also wrote plays and numerous philosophical essays, in the 1870s Tolstoy experienced a profound moral crisis, followed by what he regarded as an equally profound spiritual awakening, as outlined in his non-fiction work A Confession. His literal interpretation of the teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him to become a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist. Tolstoy also became an advocate of Georgism, the economic philosophy of Henry George. Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, a family estate 12 kilometres southwest of Tula, the Tolstoys were a well-known family of old Russian nobility, tracing their ancestry to a mythical Lithuanian noble Indris. He was the fourth of five children of Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812, Tolstoys parents died when he was young, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives. In 1844, he began studying law and oriental languages at Kazan University and his teachers described him as both unable and unwilling to learn. Tolstoy left the university in the middle of his studies, returned to Yasnaya Polyana and then spent much of his time in Moscow, in 1851, after running up heavy gambling debts, he went with his older brother to the Caucasus and joined the army. It was about time that he started writing. Others who followed the path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy witnessed an execution in Paris. Writing in a letter to his friend Vasily Botkin, The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, henceforth, I shall never serve any government anywhere. Tolstoys concept of non-violence or Ahimsa was bolstered when he read a German version of the Tirukkural and he later instilled the concept in Mahatma Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi corresponded with him seeking his advice. His European trip in 1860–61 shaped both his political and literary development when he met Victor Hugo, whose literary talents Tolstoy praised after reading Hugos newly finished Les Misérables, the similar evocation of battle scenes in Hugos novel and Tolstoys War and Peace indicates this influence. Tolstoys political philosophy was influenced by a March 1861 visit to French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
26.
Excommunication
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The word excommunication means putting a specific individual or group out of communion. In some religions, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group, Excommunication may involve banishment, shunning, and shaming, depending on the religion, the offense that caused excommunication, or the rules or norms of the religious community. 1 Corinthians 5, 1-8 directs the church at Corinth to excommunicate a man for sexual immorality, in 2 Corinthians 2, 5-11, the man, having repented and suffered the punishment by the majority is restored to the church. In Romans 16,17, Paul writes to mark those who cause divisions contrary to the doctrine which ye have learned and avoid them. Also, in 2 John 1, 10-11, the writer advises believers that whosoever transgresseth and he that abideth in the doctrine of Christ, he hath both the Father and the Son. If there come any unto you, and bring not this doctrine, receive him not into your house, neither bid him God speed, within the Catholic Church, there are differences between the discipline of the majority Latin Church regarding excommunication and that of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Excommunication can be either latae sententiae or ferendae sententiae, according to Bishop Thomas J. Paprocki, excommunication does not expel the person from the Catholic Church, but simply forbids the excommunicated person from engaging in certain activities. g. A thus excommunicated bishop cannot validly invest a priest as pastor of a vacant parish and they are urged to retain a relationship with the Church, as the goal is to encourage them to repent and return to active participation in its life. These are the effects for those who have incurred a latae sententiae excommunication. Since excommunication excludes from reception of the sacraments, absolution from excommunication is required before absolution can be given from the sin that led to the censure, in many cases, the whole process takes place on a single occasion in the privacy of the confessional. For some more serious wrongdoings, absolution from excommunication is reserved to a bishop, another ordinary and these can delegate a priest to act on their behalf. Such ceremonies are not held today, and instead are simply announced by the bishop, interdict is a censure similar to excommunication. It too excludes from ministerial functions in public worship and from reception of the sacraments, in the Eastern Catholic Churches, excommunications is imposed only by decree, never incurred automatically by latae sententiae excommunication. A distinction is made between minor and major excommunication and those on whom minor excommunication has been imposed are excluded from receiving the Eucharist and can also be excluded from participating in the Divine Liturgy. They can even be excluded from entering a church when divine worship is being celebrated there, the decree of excommunication must indicate the precise effect of the excommunication and, if required, its duration. They are to be removed from participation in the Divine Liturgy, and they are deprived of the right to vote or to be elected. Minor excommunication is roughly equivalent to the interdict in Western law, under current law, an excommunicate is never vitandus. Persons belonging to an Eastern Catholic Church are never subject to a latae sententiae punishment, according to the Code of Canon Law of 1917, the excommunications reserved to the Apostolic See were grouped in three categories, those reserved 1
27.
Russian Orthodox Church
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The Russian Orthodox Church, alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate, is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates. The Primate of the ROC is the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus and it also exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the autonomous Church of Japan and the Orthodox Christians resident in the Peoples Republic of China. The ROC branches in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Moldova and Ukraine since the 1990s enjoy various degrees of self-government, in Ukraine, ROC has tensions with schismatic groups supported by the current government, while it enjoys the position of numerically dominant religious organisation. The ROC should also not be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, headquartered in New York, New York, the two Churches reconciled on May 17,2007, the ROCOR is now a self-governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church. According to one of the legends, Andrew reached the location of Kiev. The spot where he erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrews Cathedral. By the end of the first millennium AD, eastern Slavic lands started to come under the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatios, by the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Byzantine Greek priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus′ to convert to Christianity and her grandson, Vladimir of Kiev, made Rus officially a Christian state. The Kievan church was a metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch appointed the metropolitan, who usually was a Greek. The Metropolitans residence was located in Kiev itself, the capital of the medieval Rus state. Following the tribulations of the Mongol invasion, the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival, despite the politically motivated murders of Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver, the Mongols were generally tolerant and even granted tax exemption to the Church. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tatar oppression, the Trinity monastery founded by Sergius of Radonezh became the setting for the flourishing of spiritual art, exemplified by the work of Andrey Rublev, among others. The followers of Sergius founded four hundred monasteries, thus extending the geographical extent of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. However, the Moscow Prince Vasili II rejected the act of the Council of Florence brought to Moscow by Isidore in March 1441, Isidore was in the same year removed from his position as an apostate and expelled from Moscow. The Russian metropolitanate remained effectively vacant for the few years due largely to the dominance of Uniates in Constantinople then. In December 1448, Jonas, a Russian bishop, was installed by the Council of Russian bishops in Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia without the consent from Constantinople. Subsequently, there developed a theory in Moscow that saw Moscow as the Third Rome, the successor to Constantinople
28.
August Strindberg
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Johan August Strindberg was a Swedish playwright, novelist, poet, essayist and painter. From his earliest work, Strindberg developed innovative forms of action, language. He is considered the father of modern Swedish literature and his The Red Room has frequently described as the first modern Swedish novel. In Sweden, Strindberg is known as an essayist, painter, poet, and especially as a novelist and playwright, but in other countries he is known mostly as a playwright. The Royal Theatre rejected his first major play, Master Olof, in 1872, it was not until 1881, at the age of thirty-two, that its première at the New Theatre gave him his theatrical breakthrough. In Miss Julie, characterisation replaces plot as the predominant dramatic element and the role of heredity. During the 1890s he spent significant time abroad engaged in scientific experiments, a series of psychotic attacks between 1894 and 1896 led to his hospitalization and return to Sweden. Under the influence of the ideas of Emanuel Swedenborg, he resolved after his recovery to become the Zola of the Occult, in 1898 he returned to play-writing with To Damascus, which, like The Great Highway, is a dream-play of spiritual pilgrimage. He also returned to writing historical drama, the genre with which he had begun his play-writing career and he helped to run the Intimate Theatre from 1907, a small-scale theatre, modeled on Max Reinhardts Kammerspielhaus, that staged his chamber plays. Strindberg was born on 22 January 1849 in Stockholm, Sweden, in his autobiographical novel The Son of a Servant, Strindberg describes a childhood affected by emotional insecurity, poverty, religious fanaticism and neglect. When he was seven, Strindberg moved to Norrtullsgatan on the northern, a year later the family moved near to Sabbatsberg, where they stayed for three years before returning to Norrtullsgatan. He attended a school in Klara for four years, an experience that haunted him in his adult life. He was moved to the school in Jakob in 1860, which he found far more pleasant, in the autumn of 1861, he was moved to the Stockholm Lyceum, a progressive private school for middle-class boys, where he remained for six years. As a child he had a keen interest in science, photography. His mother, Strindberg recalled later with bitterness, always resented her sons intelligence and she died when he was thirteen, and although his grief lasted for only three months, in later life he came to feel a sense of loss and longing for an idealized maternal figure. Less than a year after her death, his father married the childrens governess, according to his sisters, Strindberg came to regard them as his worst enemies. He passed his exam in May 1867 and enrolled at the Uppsala University. Strindberg spent the few years in Uppsala and Stockholm, alternately studying for exams
29.
Harriet Bosse
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Harriet Sofie Bosse was a Swedish–Norwegian actress. A celebrity in her own day, Bosse is today most commonly remembered as the wife of the playwright August Strindberg. Bosse began her career in a company run by her forceful older sister Alma Fahlstrøm in Kristiania. After a whirlwind courtship, which unfolds in detail in Strindbergs letters and diary, Strindberg and Bosse were married in 1901, when he was 52 and she 23. Strindberg wrote a number of roles for Bosse during their short and stormy relationship, especially in 1900–01. Like his previous two marriages, the relationship failed as a result of Strindbergs jealousy, which some biographers have characterized as paranoid. The spectrum of Strindbergs feelings about Bosse, ranging from worship to rage, is reflected in the roles he wrote for her to play, despite her real-life role as muse to Strindberg, she remained an independent artist. Bosse married Swedish actor Anders Gunnar Wingard in 1908, and Swedish screen actor, director, all three of her marriages ended in divorce after a few years, leaving her with a daughter by Strindberg and a son by Wingård. On retiring after an acting career based in Stockholm, she returned to her roots in Oslo. Bosse was born in Norways capital Kristiania, today called Oslo, as the thirteenth of fourteen children of Anne-Marie and her German father was a publisher and bookseller, and his business led to the familys alternating residence in Kristiania and Stockholm, the capital of Sweden. Bosse was to some confusion of national identity throughout her life. A bold, independent child, she first made the journey alone when she was six years old. Two of Bosses older sisters, Alma and Dagmar, were successful performers when Harriet was a small child. Inspired by these models, Harriet began her acting career in a Norwegian touring company run by her sister Alma. Alma was Harriets first and only—rather authoritarian—acting teacher and their harmonious and sisterly teacher–pupil relationship became strained when Alma discovered that her husband Johan and Harriet were having an affair. Both Bosse parents were now dead, and Harriet, ordered by Alma to leave, used a modest legacy from her father to finance studies in Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Paris. Returning to Scandinavia, she was hesitant as to whether she should carve out a career in Stockholm, with its greater opportunities, or in Kristiania, to which she had closer emotional ties. In spite of the disadvantage of speaking Swedish with a Norwegian accent and she applied for a place at the Royal Dramatic Theatre, the main drama venue of Stockholm, governed by the conservative tastes of King Oscar II and his personal advisors
