1.
1897 in science
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The year 1897 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. April 30 – J. J. Thomson first describes his discovery of the electron, adolf Erik Nordenskiöld publishes Periplus, An Essay on the Early History of Charts and Sailing Directions in Stockholm. David Hilbert unifies the field of number theory with his treatise Zahlbericht. John Edward Campbell originates the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula for multiplication of exponentials in Lie algebras, raoul Bricard investigates and classifies flexible polyhedra, defining the Bricard octahedron. Henri Brocard begins publication of his book on geometric curves, Notes de Bibliographie des Courbes Géométriques. August 20 – Ronald Ross discovers the malaria Plasmodium in an Anopheles mosquito, october 10 – Chemists working at Bayer AG create a synthetically altered version of salicin which the company names Aspirin. Danish veterinarian Bernhard Bang isolates Brucella abortus as the agent of Brucellosis, epinephrine discovered by John Jacob Abel. L. Emmett Holt publishes the standard textbook The Diseases of Infancy, Émile Durkheim publishes his classic study Le Suicide. June 26 – At the British Fleet Review, Charles Parsons gives a display of the unprecedented speed attainable by his steam turbine-powered Turbinia. August 10 – Rudolf Diesel builds his first working prototype Diesel engine in Augsburg, august 31 – Thomas Edison is granted a patent for the Kinetoscope, a precursor of the movie projector. The Dahlander pole changing motor is patented, maxim develops the muffler in conjunction with the firearm silencer. Copley Medal, Albert von Kölliker Wollaston Medal, Wilfred Hudleston March 24 – Wilhelm Reich, july 20 – Tadeusz Reichstein, Polish-born Nobel Prize-winning chemist. August 12 – Otto Struve, Ukrainian-born astronomer, september 12 – Irène Joliot-Curie, French chemist. November 4 – C. B. van Niel, Dutch-born microbiologist, november 13 – Tilly Edinger, German-born paleoneurologist. December 22 – Vojtěch Jarník, Czech mathematician, january 25 – David Kirkaldy, Scottish-born engineer, pioneer of materials testing. February 19 – Karl Weierstrass, German mathematician, March 3 – John Peirce, American inventor. March 15 – James Joseph Sylvester, English mathematician, may 6 Edward James Stone, English astronomer. May 7 – Abraham Dee Bartlett, English zoologist, august 27 – Eduard von Hofmann, Austrian forensic pathologist
2.
1905 in science
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The year 1905 in science and technology involved some significant events, particularly in physics, listed below. January 2 – Charles Dillon Perrine at Lick Observatory discovers Elara, the Dominion Observatory opens in Ottawa. Various astronomers discover the minor planets 554 Peraga through 583 Klotilde, the nova V604 Aquilae appears in the constellation Aquila. The Umov effect is noted by Nikolay Umov, april 18 – William Bateson coins the term genetics in a letter to Adam Sedgwick. Reginald Punnetts Mendelism is published in Cambridge, probably the first popular book on genetics. Frederick Blackman proposes his law of limiting factors in relation to photosynthesis, nettie Stevens and Edmund Beecher Wilson independently describe the XY sex-determination system. Stamen Grigorov identifies the bacterium Lactobacillus bulgaricus, an agent in the creation of yogurt. Maltese doctor and archaeologist Themistocles Zammit identifies unpasteurized milk as the source of the pathogen causing Brucellosis. National Association of Audubon Societies for the Protection of Wild Birds, Carl von Linde obtains pure liquid oxygen and nitrogen by cooling air. Alfred Einhorn synthesises the local anesthetic novocaine, the first commercial use of the Frank–Caro process for the nitrogen fixation reaction of calcium carbide and atmospheric nitrogen to produce calcium nitrate as a fertilizer. Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch develop the Haber process for making ammonia from its elements, pierre Fatou defines the Mandelbrot set. Oswald Veblen proves the Jordan curve theorem, martin Kutta describes the popular fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. James Cullen, S. J. begins the study of Cullen numbers, emanuel Lasker proves the Lasker–Noether theorem for the special case of polynomial rings. The Saurian Expedition led by John C, merriam recovers many specimens of ichthyosaur. Tyrannosaurus rex is described and named by Henry Fairfield Osborn, albert Einstein publishes his four Annus Mirabilis papers. In particular, he formulates the theory of relativity and states the law of mass-energy conservation. He also explains the effect by quantization and mathematically analyzes Brownian motion. Because of this,1905 is said to be the year for physics
3.
1903 in art
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June 3 – Laura Johnson marries Harold Knight. Isadora Duncan develops free dance, a dance influenced by the ancient Greeks. With the support of Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Jacques Villon, Auguste Rodin and others, koloman Moser and Josef Hoffmann found the Wiener Werkstätte in Vienna. Frederic Dorr Steele produces his first illustrations for Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes stories in the United States, bernard Berenson publishes The Drawings of the Florentine Painters. Anna Muthesius publishes Das Eigenkleid der Frau, during what is known as his Blue Period, Pablo Picasso paints Portrait of Angel Fernández de Soto Tête de femme, Vieux guitariste aveugle, The Tragedy, and La vie, among others. W. Lindes Sons Camille Pissarro – Self-portrait Sir Edward Poynter – The Cave of the Storm Nymphs Tom Roberts – The Big Picture John Singer Sargent – Mrs. W
4.
1903 in architecture
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The year 1903 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. September - First Garden City Ltd formed to develop Letchworth in England with Barry Parker, the Group Plan for the civic center of Cleveland, Ohio, by Daniel Burnham, Arnold Brunner, and John Carrere is released. Giles Gilbert Scott wins the competition to design Liverpool Cathedral, the Beurs van Berlage, designed by Hendrik Berlage. Hill House, Helensburgh, Scotland, designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, juselius Mausoleum, Pori, Finland, designed by Josef Stenbäck. Palazzo Castiglioni, Italy, designed by Giuseppe Sommaruga, wemyss Bay railway station in Scotland, rebuilt by James Miller. Communal Palace of Buzău, Romania, designed by Alexandru Săvulescu,22, Rue du Général de Castelnau in Strassburg completed 56, Allée de la Robertsau in Strassburg completed Sängerhaus in Strassburg inaugurated Royal Gold Medal - Charles Follen McKim. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Léon Jaussely, april 18 - Stephen Dykes Bower, English ecclesiastical architect June 17 - A
5.
1903 in music
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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1903. February 11 - Anton Bruckners 9th Symphony is premiered in Vienna February 23-March 8 – George Enescu conducts the world premieres of three of his works, the Suite No.1 for orchestra, op,9, in C major, and the two Romanian Rhapsodies, op. 11, in A major and D major, as part of a concert at the Romanian Athenaeum in Bucharest, september - Frederick Delius marries Jelka Rosen. Enrico Caruso joins cast of New Yorks Metropolitan Opera Company and makes first records for the Victor Talking Machine Company, Victor Herberts Babes in Toyland premieres. Charles W. Clark is the first American to give a concert at the Paris National Conservatoire of Music, Charles K. Harris Always Leave Them Laughing When You Say Goodbye w. m. George M. Cohan Are We To Part Like This, Harry Castling & Charles Collins Anona w. m. Vivian Grey Bedelia w. William Jerome m, Jean Schwartz The Beer That Made Milwaukee Famous w. m. Dan McAvoy The Burning of Rome by E. T. Paull By The Sycamore Tree w. George V. Hobart m, max Hoffmann Congo Love Song w. m. Bob Cole & J. Rosamond Johnson Daisy Donahue w. James ODea m. Robert J. Adams Dear Old Girl w. Richard Henry Buck m. Theodore F. Morse Dear Sing Sing Schwartz Down At The Old Bull And Bush w. m. Florrie Forde Flowers Of Dixieland w. Edgar Smith m. J. Rosamond Johnson General Hardtack On Guard w. m, dave Reed Jr Good-bye, Eliza Jane w. Andrew B. Sterling m. Harry Von Tilzer Hamlet Was A Melancholy Dane w. William Jerome m, Jean Schwartz Hannah. by Joseph Farrell He Was A Sailor w. William Jerome m. Jean Schwartz Hurrah For Baffins Bay w. Vincent Bryan m. Theodore F. Morse I Cant Do The Sum w. Glen MacDonough m, Victor Herbert I Could Love You In A Steam Heat Flat w. Vincent Bryan m. J. B. Mullen I Never Could Love Like That Bowman, Johns Ida, Eddie Munson Im A Jonah Man w. m. Alex Rogers Im On The Water Wagon Now w. Paul West m, John Walter Bratton Im Thinking Of You All The While Reed Jnr Im Wearing My Heart Away For You w. m. Charles K. Harris In The Village By The Sea w. Andrew B, sterling m. Stanley Crawford Indolence Jason Mathews Is Your Mother In, Molly Malone. Mills & Everard It Takes the Irish to Beat the Dutch w. Edward Madden m. Theodore F. Morse It Was The Dutch w. Vincent Bryan m. J. B. Mullen Its The Man In The Sailor Suit w. Fred C. Farrell m. Theodore F. Morse Jack Tar March by John Philip Sousa Julie w. William Jerome m. Jean Schwartz Lazy Moon w. Bob Cole m. J. Rosamond Johnson Like A Star That Falls From Heaven w. Arthur Lamb m, kerry Mills Little Yellow Bird w. m
6.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
7.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
8.
Wright brothers
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They made the first controlled, sustained flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft on December 17,1903, four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. In 1904–05 the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft, although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible. The brothers fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and this method became and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. From the beginning of their work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving the flying problem. This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put emphasis on developing powerful engines. Using a small wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings. Their first U. S. patent,821,393, did not claim invention of a machine, but rather. They gained the skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that a vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, the Wright brothers status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists over the competing claims of early aviators. The Wright brothers were two of seven born to Milton Wright, of English and Dutch ancestry, and Susan Catherine Koerner, of German. Wilbur was born near Millville, Indiana, in 1867, Orville in Dayton, Ohio, the other Wright siblings were Reuchlin, Lorin, Katharine, and twins Otis and Ida. In elementary school, Orville was given to mischief and was once expelled, the direct paternal ancestry goes back to a Samuel Wright who sailed to America and settled in Massachusetts in 1636. In 1878 their father, who traveled often as a bishop in the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, the device was based on an invention of French aeronautical pioneer Alphonse Pénaud. Made of paper, bamboo and cork with a band to twirl its rotor. Wilbur and Orville played with it until it broke, and then built their own, in later years, they pointed to their experience with the toy as the spark of their interest in flying
9.
Americans
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Americans are citizens of the United States of America. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, Americans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Americans, non-citizen residents, dual citizens, and expatriates may also claim an American identity. See Names for United States citizens. S, virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. It also includes influences of African-American culture, westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements, immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics, in addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, the United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Some other race is also an option in the census and other surveys, people of European descent, or White Americans, constitute the majority of the 308 million people living in the United States, with 72. 4% of the population in the 2010 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the peoples of Europe, the Middle East. Of those reporting to be White American,7,487,133 reported to be Multiracial, with largest combination being white, additionally, there are 29,184,290 White Hispanics or Latinos. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states, there are four minority-majority states, California, Texas, New Mexico, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia has a non-white majority, the state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. The largest continental ancestral group of Americans are that of Europeans who have origins in any of the peoples of Europe. This includes people via African, North American, Caribbean, Central American or South American and Oceanian nations that have a large European diaspora, the Spanish were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the United States. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the Thirteen Colonies to English parents. 8% of the total population, Hispanic or Latino Americans constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group after non-Hispanic Whites in the United States, hispanic/Latino Americans are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category, rather than a race
10.
Aida de Acosta
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Aida de Acosta Root Breckinridge was an American socialite and the first woman to fly a powered aircraft solo. In 1903, while in Paris with her mother, she caught her first glimpse of dirigibles and she then proceeded to take only three flight lessons, before taking the sky by herself. Later in life, after losing sight in one eye to glaucoma, among her seven siblings were the writers and socialites Mercedes de Acosta and Rita de Acosta Lydig. On June 27,1903 in Paris, when Acosta was nineteen, Brazilian pioneer aviator Alberto Santos-Dumont showed her how to operate his personal dirigible, “No. 9”. Santos-Dumont was the toast of Paris at the time, flying his dirigible downtown to his favorite restaurant, Acosta flew Santos-Dumont’s aircraft solo from Paris to Château de Bagatelle while Santos-Dumont rode his bicycle along below, waving his arms and shouting advice. Acosta later recalled that upon her first landing, Santos-Dumont asked her how she had fared and it is very nice, M. Santos-Dumont, she replied. Mademoiselle, he cried, vous êtes la première aero-chauffeuse du monde and she was in fact the first woman to pilot any kind of motorized aircraft, nearly six months before the Wright brothers first flew in a heavier-than-air powered aircraft. The first flight ended in the field at Bagatelle at the northern end of the Bois de Boulogne. Spectators assisted her from the basket, after watching some polo with Santos-Dumont, Acosta climbed back into the basket and flew the machine back to Neuilly St. James, the entire trip lasting one and a half hours. Hearing about the flight, her parents were appalled, Acosta is the only person that Santos-Dumont ever permitted to fly any of his many aircraft. Also, Santos-Dumont, a bachelor with no known romantic ties, kept a photograph of Acosta on his desk, next to a vase of fresh flowers. Nonetheless, there is no indication that Santos-Dumont and Acosta stayed in touch after her flight, upon Santos-Dumonts death Acosta was reported as saying that she hardly knew the man. Aida de Acosta married, Oren Root III, son of Oren Root II and nephew of American statesman and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Elihu Root, in 1908 and they had a son, Oren Root IV, and a daughter Alva de Acosta Root. Colonel Henry S. Breckinridge, whom she married in 1927 and he was attorney to Charles A. Lindbergh during the Lindbergh kidnapping case, and assistant secretary of war under Woodrow Wilson. In 1922, Aida was afflicted with glaucoma and her ophthalmologist was famed eye specialist William H. Wilmer, whom Time magazine called the greatest eye surgeon the U. S. has ever had. She eventually lost sight in one eye, but Dr. S, in 1945 she became Executive Director of the Eye-Bank for Sight Restoration in New York, the first eye bank in the U. S. She died in Bedford, New York, at the age of 77, hélène Dutrieu American Women, by Gail Collins Air & Space Power Journal Hoffman, P. Wings of Madness, Alberto Santos-Dumont and the Invention of Flight at pp 212–217
11.
Alberto Santos-Dumont
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Alberto Santos-Dumont was a Brazilian aviation pioneer, one of the very few people to have contributed significantly to the development of both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air aircraft. The heir of a family of coffee producers, Santos-Dumont dedicated himself to aeronautical study and experimentation in Paris. His conviction that aviation would usher in an era of peace and prosperity led him to freely publish his designs. Santos-Dumont is a hero in Brazil, where it is popularly held that he preceded the Wright brothers in demonstrating a practical airplane. Countless roads, plazas, schools, monuments, and airports in Brazil are dedicated to him and he was a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1931 until his suicide in 1932. Santos-Dumont was born on 20 July 1873 in Cabangu in the Brazilian town of Palmira in the state of Minas Gerais in southeast Brazil and he was youngest of the seven children born to Henrique Dumont, an engineer of French descent, and Francisca de Paula Santos. Santos-Dumonts father managed a plantation on land owned by his wifes family. His extensive use of labor-saving inventions earned him a fortune, Santos-Dumont was fascinated by machinery, and while still a child he learned to drive the plantations steam tractors and locomotives. He also read a great deal of the works of Jules Verne and he wrote in his autobiography that the dream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil from the plantation. In 1891 Santos-Dumonts father was paralyzed by a fall from a horse. He sold the plantation and went to Europe with his wife, in Paris, Santos-Dumont contacted a balloonist with the intention of making an ascent. The price quoted was 1,200 francs for a flight, plus payment for any damage caused. This was a sum of money, and Santos-Dumont decided not to make the flight. If it is bad the money will be lost, If it is good I shall want to repeat it and I shall not have the means. After this he bought a Peugeot automobile, which he took him when he returned to Brazil with his parents at the end of the year. In 1892 the family returned to Europe, but Henriques felt too ill to continue on to Paris from Lisbon and his fathers health deteriorated and he decided to return to Brazil, where he died on 30 August 1892. For the next four years Alberto lived in Paris, studying physics, chemistry, mechanics, and electricity with the help of a private tutor, during this period he sold his Peugeot, replacing it with a more powerful and faster De Dion motor-tricycle. In 1896 he returned to Brazil for a period, but began to miss Paris
12.
Dirigible
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An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. In early dirigibles, the gas used was hydrogen, due to its high lifting capacity. Helium gas has almost the same lifting capacity and is not flammable, unlike hydrogen, significant amounts were first discovered in the United States and for a while helium was only used for airships by the United States. Most airships built since the 1960s have used helium, though some have used hot air, the envelope of an airship may form a single gas bag, or may contain a number of internal gas-filled cells. An airship also has engines, crew, and optionally also payload accommodation, the main types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid. Non-rigid airships, often called blimps, rely on internal pressure to maintain the shape of the airship, semi-rigid airships maintain the envelope shape by internal pressure, but have some form of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it. Rigid airships have a structural framework which maintains the shape and carries all structural loads. Rigid airships were first flown by Count Zeppelin and the vast majority of rigid airships built were manufactured by the firm he founded, as a result, rigid airships are called zeppelins. S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the USS Akron and USS Macon respectively, during the pioneer years of aeronautics, terms such as airship, air-ship, air ship and ship of the air meant any kind of navigable or dirigible flying machine. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. Nowadays the term airship is used only for powered, dirigible balloons, semirigid architecture is the more recent and the late appearance is caused by both advancements about deformable structures and exigiency of reducing weight and volume of the airships. They have a structure that ensure to keep the shape jointly with overpressure of the gas envelope. An aerostat is an aircraft which remain aloft using buoyancy or static lift, Airships are a type of aerostat. The term aerostat has also used to indicate a tethered or moored balloon as opposed to a free-floating balloon. A blimp is a non-rigid aerostat, in American usage it refers specifically to a non-rigid type of dirigible balloon or airship. In British usage it refers to any non-rigid aerostat, including balloons and other kite balloons, having a streamlined shape. The initials LZ, for Luftschiff Zeppelin, usually prefixed their crafts serial identifiers, streamlined Parsifal-shaped rigid airships are usually referred to as Zeppelin, because of the fame that this company has acquired due to the number of airships it produced
13.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
14.
Petrol engine
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A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol and similar volatile fuels. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed before compression, the process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed, and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites. The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in Germany by Nikolaus August Otto, although there had been attempts by Étienne Lenoir, Siegfried Marcus, Julius Hock. The first petrol engine was prototyped in 1882 in Italy by Enrico Bernardi. British engineer Edward Butler constructed the first petrol combustion engine. Butler invented the spark plug, ignition magneto, coil ignition and spray jet carburetor, with both air and fuel in a closed cylinder, compressing the mixture too much poses the danger of auto-ignition — or behaving like a diesel engine. Spark plugs are typically set statically or at idle at a minimum of 10 degrees or so of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches T. D, higher octane petrol burns slower, therefore it has a lower propensity to auto-ignite and its rate of expansion is lower. Thus, engines designed to run high-octane fuel exclusively can achieve higher compression ratios, Petrol engines run at higher rotation speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft and due to petrol burning more quickly than diesel. However the lower compression ratios of petrol engines give petrol engines lower efficiency than diesel engines, examples, Bedford OB bus Bedford M series lorry GE 57-ton gas-electric boxcab locomotive Petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. For details of working cycles see, Four-stroke cycle Two-stroke cycle Wankel engine Common cylinder arrangements are from 1 to 6 cylinders in-line or from 2 to 16 cylinders in V-formation. Flat engines – like a V design flattened out – are common in airplanes and motorcycles and were a hallmark of Volkswagen automobiles into the 1990s. Flat 6s are still used in many modern Porsches, as well as Subarus, less common, but notable in vehicles designed for high speeds is the W formation, similar to having 2 V engines side by side. Alternatives include rotary and radial engines the latter typically have 7 or 9 cylinders in a single ring, Petrol engines may be air-cooled, with fins, or liquid-cooled, by a water jacket and radiator. The coolant was formerly water, but is now usually a mixture of water and either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol, the cooling system is usually slightly pressurized to further raise the boiling point of the coolant. Petrol engines use spark ignition and high current for the spark may be provided by a magneto or an ignition coil. In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic Engine Control Unit, the most common way of engine rating is what is known as the brake power, measured at the flywheel, and given in kilowatts or horsepower. This is the mechanical power output of the engine in a usable
15.
Wright Flyer
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The Wright Flyer was the first successful heavier-than-air powered aircraft. It was designed and built by the Wright brothers and they flew it four times on December 17,1903, near Kill Devil Hills, about four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, US. Today, the airplane is exhibited in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington D. C, the U. S. Smithsonian Institution describes the aircraft as the first powered, heavier-than-air machine to achieve controlled, sustained flight with a pilot aboard. The flight of Flyer I marks the beginning of the era of aviation. The Flyer was based on the Wrights experience testing gliders at Kitty Hawk between 1900 and 1902 and their last glider, the 1902 Glider, led directly to the design of the Flyer. The Wrights built the aircraft in 1903 using giant spruce wood as their construction material, the wings were designed with a 1-in-20 camber. Since they could not find a suitable engine for the task, they commissioned their employee Charlie Taylor to build a new design from scratch. A sprocket chain drive, borrowing from bicycle technology, powered the twin propellers, the Flyer was a canard biplane configuration. As with the gliders, the pilot flew lying on his stomach on the wing with his head toward the front of the craft in an effort to reduce drag. He steered by moving a cradle attached to his hips, the cradle pulled wires which warped the wings and turned the rudder simultaneously. The Flyers runway was a track of 2x4s stood on their narrow edge, the Flyer was conceived as a control-canard, as the Wrights were more concerned with control than stability. However, it was found to be so unstable that it was barely controllable. Following the first flight, ballast was added to the nose to move the center of gravity forward, however the basics of pitch stability of the canard configuration were not understood by the Wright Brothers. Culick stated, The backward state of the theory and understanding of flight mechanics hindered them. Indeed, the most serious gap in their knowledge was probably the reason for their unwitting mistake in selecting their canard configuration. Upon returning to Kitty Hawk in 1903, the Wrights completed assembly of the Flyer while practicing on the 1902 Glider from the previous season, on December 14,1903, they felt ready for their first attempt at powered flight. The brothers tossed a coin to decide who would get the first chance at piloting, the airplane left the rail, but Wilbur pulled up too sharply, stalled, and came down in about three seconds with minor damage. Repairs after the abortive first flight took three days, when they were ready again on December 17, the wind was averaging more than 20 mph, so the brothers laid the launching rail on level ground, pointed into the wind, near their camp
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Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina
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Kill Devil Hills is a town in Dare County, North Carolina. The population was 6,683 at the 2010 census, up from 5,897 in 2000 and it is the most populous settlement in both Dare County and on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. The Kill Devil Hills Micropolitan Statistical Area is part of the larger Virginia Beach-Norfolk, the town is home to the site of the Wright brothers first controlled, powered airplane flights on December 17,1903, chosen for its good winds. The town was commemorated by the Wright Brothers National Memorial, which was dedicated in 1932, at the time of their flight, the town of Kill Devil Hills did not exist, having received its municipal charter in 1953. Kitty Hawk, popularly noted as the site of the flights, is approximately four miles to the north. Kill Devil Hills is the site of the Wright Brothers National Memorial, commemorating the siblings four powered airplane flights of Thursday, December 17,1903. Orville returned in 1911, and on October 25 he set a new world record, remaining in the air 10 minutes and 34 seconds. In addition to the Wright Brothers National Memorial, Sams Diner was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999, Kill Devil Hills is located at 36°1′32″N 75°40′12″W, on the barrier islands known as the Outer Banks. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 5.5 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,897 people,2,585 households, the population density was 1,067.8 people per square mile. There were 5,302 housing units at a density of 960.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 40% White,0. 61% African American,0. 17% Native American,0. 59% Asian,0. 12% Pacific Islander,1. 05% from other races, and 1. 05% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 95% of the population. 26. 4% had children under the age of 18 living with them,44. 2% were married couples living together,9. 6% had a householder with no husband present. 27. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.77. In the town, the population was out with 20. 9% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,38. 1% from 25 to 44,22. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 105.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.3 males, the median income for a household in the town was $39,713, and the median income for a family was $44,681
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Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
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Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky was a Russian and Soviet rocket scientist and pioneer of the astronautic theory. Along with the French Robert Esnault-Pelterie, the German Hermann Oberth and his works later inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko and contributed to the success of the Soviet space program. Tsiolkovsky spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of Kaluga, a recluse by nature, he appeared strange and bizarre to his fellow townsfolk. He was born in Izhevskoye, in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family and his father, Edward Tsiolkovsky, was a Polish-born Russian Orthodox, his mother, Maria Ivanovna Yumasheva belonged to Russian nobility of Volga Tatar origin. His father was successively a forester, teacher, and minor government official, at the age of 10, Konstantin caught scarlet fever and became hard of hearing. When he was 13, his mother died and he was not admitted to elementary schools because of his hearing problem, so he was self-taught. As a reclusive home-schooled child, he passed much of his time by reading books, as a teenager, he began to contemplate the possibility of space travel. After falling behind in his studies, Tsiolkovsky spent three years attending a Moscow library where Russian cosmism proponent Nikolai Fyodorov worked and he later came to believe that colonizing space would lead to the perfection of the human race, with immortality and a carefree existence. Additionally, inspired by the fiction of Jules Verne, Tsiolkovsky theorized many aspects of space travel and he is considered the father of spaceflight and the first person to conceive the space elevator, becoming inspired in 1895 by the newly constructed Eiffel Tower in Paris. Afterwards, Tsiolkovsky passed the exam and went to work at a school in Borovsk near Moscow. He also met and married his wife Varvara Sokolovaya during this time, despite being stuck in Kaluga, a small town far from major learning centers, Tsiolkovsky managed to make scientific discoveries on his own. The first two decades of the 20th century were marred by personal tragedy, Tsiolkovskys son Ignaty committed suicide in 1902, and in 1908 many of his accumulated papers were lost in a flood. In 1911, his daughter Lyubov was arrested for engaging in revolutionary activities and this section has recently been partly machine translated from the Russian article. Please supply an improved translation if possible, Tsiolkovsky stated that he developed the theory of rocketry only as a supplement to philosophical research on the subject. He wrote more than 400 works including approximately 90 published pieces on space travel, Tsiolkovskys first scientific study dates back to 1880–1881. Undaunted, he pressed ahead with his work, The Mechanics of the Animal Organism. It received favorable feedback, and Tsiolkovsky was made a member of the Society, in 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. Tsiolkovsky developed the first aerodynamics laboratory in Russia in his apartment, in 1897, he built the first Russian wind tunnel with an open test section and developed a method of experimentation using it
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Liquid fuel
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Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy, they also must take the shape of their container. It is the fumes of liquid fuels that are flammable instead of the fluid. Most liquid fuels in use are derived from fossil fuels, however, there are several types, such as hydrogen fuel, ethanol, and biodiesel. Many liquid fuels play a role in transportation and the economy. Liquid fuels are contrasted with solid fuels and gaseous fuels, some common properties of liquid fuels are that they are easy to transport, and can be handled with relative ease. Also they are easy to use for all engineering applications. Liquid fuels are used most popularly in Internal combustion engines. Some very technically important properties include, flash point, fire point, cloud point, most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum. The most notable of these is gasoline, scientists generally accept that petroleum formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earths crust. Gasoline is the most widely used liquid fuel, however, many aromatic compounds such as benzene are found naturally in gasoline and cause the health risks associated with prolonged exposure to the fuel. Production of gasoline is achieved by distillation of crude oil, the desirable liquid is separated from the crude oil in refineries. Crude oil is extracted from the ground in several processes, the most commonly seen may be beam pumps, to create gasoline, petroleum must first be removed from crude oil. Liquid gasoline itself is not actually burned, but its fumes ignite, causing the liquid to evaporate. Gasoline is extremely volatile and easily combusts, making any leakage potentially extremely dangerous, gasoline sold in most countries carries a published octane rating. The octane number is a measure of the resistance of gasoline to combusting prematurely. The higher the rating, the more resistant the fuel is to autoignition under high pressures. Engines with a compression ratio, commonly used in race cars and high-performance regular-production automobiles, can produce more power, however. Increasing the octane rating has, in the past, been achieved by adding anti-knock additives such as lead-tetra-ethyl, because of the environmental impact of lead additives, the octane rating is increased today by refining out the impurities that cause knocking
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Rocket
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A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket before use, Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in the vacuum of space. In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere, multistage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China, significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Earths moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for satellites, human spaceflight. Chemical rockets are the most common type of high power rocket, chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks, the first gunpowder-powered rockets were developed in Song China, by the 13th century. The Chinese rocket technology was adopted by the Mongols and the invention was spread via the Mongol invasions to the Near East, medieval and early modern rockets were used militarily as incendiary weapons in sieges. An early Chinese text to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing, between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya, which included 107 gunpowder recipes,22 of which are for rockets. In Europe, Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his military treatise Bellifortis around 1405. The name Rocket comes from the Italian rocchetta, meaning bobbin or little spindle, the Italian term was adopted into German in the mid 16th century by Leonhard Fronsperger and Conrad Haas, and by the early 17th century into English. Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima, an important early work on rocket artillery. The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the late 18th century in the Kingdom of Mysore, in 1814, Francis Scott Key wrote the line rockets red glare while held captive on a British ship that was laying siege to Fort McHenry. The first mathematical treatment of the dynamics of rocket propulsion is due to William Moore, in 1815, Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko constructed rocket-launching platforms, which allowed rockets to be fired in salvos, and gun-laying devices. William Hale in 1844 greatly increased the accuracy of rocket artillery, the Congreve rocket was further improved by Edward Mounier Boxer in 1865. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky first speculated on the possibility of manned spaceflight with rocket technology, robert Goddard in 1920 published proposed improvements to rocket technology in A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes
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Space suit
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A space suit is a garment worn to keep a human alive in the harsh environment of outer space, vacuum and temperature extremes. Space suits are worn inside spacecraft as a safety precaution in case of loss of cabin pressure. Space suits have been worn for work in Earth orbit, on the surface of the Moon. A self-contained oxygen supply and environmental control system is employed to allow complete freedom of movement, independent of the spacecraft. Three types of spacesuits exist for different purposes, IVA, EVA, IVA suits are meant to be worn inside a pressurized spacecraft, and are therefore lighter and more comfortable. IEVA suits are meant for use inside and outside the spacecraft and they include more protection from the harsh conditions of space, such as protection from micrometeorites and extreme temperature change. EVA suits, such as the EMU, are used outside spacecraft and they must protect the wearer against all conditions of space, as well as provide mobility and functionality. Some of these also apply to pressure suits worn for other specialized tasks. Above Armstrongs line, the atmosphere is so thin that pressurized suits are needed, the first full-pressure suits for use at extreme altitudes were designed by individual inventors as early as the 1930s. The first space suit worn by a human in space was the Soviet SK-1 suit worn by Yuri Gagarin in 1961, a space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably, inside or outside a spacecraft. It must provide, A stable internal pressure and this can be less than earths atmosphere, as there is usually no need for the space suit to carry nitrogen. Lower pressure allows for mobility, but requires the suit occupant to breathe pure oxygen for a time before going into this lower pressure. Movement is typically opposed by the pressure of the suit, mobility is achieved by careful joint design, See the Theories of space suit design section. Supply of breathable oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide, these gases are exchanged with the spacecraft or a Portable Life Support System Temperature regulation. Since the temperature on the outside of the suit varies greatly between sunlight and shadow, the suit is heavily insulated, and air temperature is maintained at a comfortable level. Experience has shown the greatest chance of exposure occurs near the field of a moon or planet. As part of astronautical hygiene control, a suit is essential for extravehicular activity. This space suit is capable of protecting the astronaut from temperatures ranging from −156 °C to 121 °C, during exploration of the moon or Mars, there will be the potential for lunar/Martian dust to be retained on the space suit
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Solar System
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The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are the planets, with the remainder being significantly smaller objects, such as dwarf planets, of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly, the moons, two are larger than the smallest planet, Mercury. The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud. The vast majority of the mass is in the Sun. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are terrestrial planets, being composed of rock. The four outer planets are giant planets, being more massive than the terrestrials. All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a flat disc called the ecliptic. The Solar System also contains smaller objects, the asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptunes orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc, which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices, within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets, identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris. In addition to two regions, various other small-body populations, including comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust clouds. Six of the planets, at least four of the dwarf planets, each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun, the heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of the interstellar medium, it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc. The Oort cloud, which is thought to be the source for long-period comets, the Solar System is located in the Orion Arm,26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way. For most of history, humanity did not recognize or understand the concept of the Solar System, the invention of the telescope led to the discovery of further planets and moons. The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G2 main-sequence star that contains 99. 86% of the known mass. The Suns four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the mass, with Jupiter. The remaining objects of the Solar System together comprise less than 0. 002% of the Solar Systems total mass, most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earths orbit, known as the ecliptic
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Vampire squid
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The vampire squid is a small, deep-sea cephalopod found throughout the temperate and tropical oceans of the world. Unique retractile sensory filaments justify the vampire squids placement in its own order, Vampyromorphida, as a phylogenetic relict it is the only known surviving member of its order. The vampire squid can reach a total length around 30 cm. Its 15-cm gelatinous body varies in colour from velvety jet-black to pale reddish, depending on location, a webbing of skin connects its eight arms, each lined with rows of fleshy spines or cirri, the inner side of this cloak is black. Only the distal halves of the arms have suckers and its limpid, globular eyes, which appear red or blue, depending on lighting, are proportionately the largest in the animal kingdom at 2.5 cm in diameter. The animals dark colour, cloak-like webbing, and red eyes give the vampire squid its name — it does not feed on blood, mature adults have a pair of small fins projecting from the lateral sides of the mantle. These fins serve as the primary means of propulsion, vampire squid fly through the water by flapping their fins. Within the webbing are two pouches wherein the tactile velar filaments are concealed, the filaments are analogous to a true squids tentacles, extending well past the arms, but differ in origin, and represent the pair that was lost by the ancestral octopus. The intensity and size of the photophores can also be modulated, appearing as small, white discs, the photophores are larger and more complex at the tips of the arms and at the base of the two fins, but are absent from the undersides of the caped arms. Two larger, white areas on top of the head were initially believed to also be photophores, the chromatophores common to most cephalopods are poorly developed in the vampire squid. The vampire squid is an example of a deep-sea cephalopod. Within this region of the oceans is a discrete habitat known as the oxygen minimum zone. Within the OMZ, oxygen saturation is too low to support aerobic metabolism in most higher organisms. Nonetheless, the squid is able to live and breathe normally in the OMZ at oxygen saturations as low as 3%, an ability that no other cephalopod. To cope with life in the depths, vampire squids have developed several interesting adaptations. Of all deep-sea cephalopods, their metabolic rate is the lowest. Their blue bloods hemocyanin binds and transports oxygen more efficiently than in other cephalopods, like many deep-sea cephalopods, the vampire squid lacks ink sacs. If disturbed, it will curl its arms up outwards and wrap them around its body, turning itself inside-out in a way, if highly agitated, it may eject a sticky cloud of bioluminescent mucus containing innumerable orbs of blue light from the arm tips
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Carl Chun
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Carl Chun was a German marine biologist. Chun was born in Höchst, today a part of Frankfurt, and studied zoology at the University of Leipzig, where from 1878 to 1883 he was privat-docent of zoology, after professorial posts in Königsberg and Breslau, he returned to Leipzig as a professor of zoology. He initiated and led the German deep sea expedition, which set out on August 1,1898 from Hamburg to explore the sea in the subantarctic seas. They visited Bouvetøya, the Kerguelen Islands, and other islands in the area, before returning to Hamburg, Chun was a specialist on cephalopods and plankton. He discovered and named the vampire squid and he died on April 11,1914 in Leipzig, Germany, aged 61. Aus den Tiefen des Weltmeeres, Jena 1900, european and American voyages of scientific exploration
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Fauna and Flora International
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Fauna & Flora International, formerly the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society, is an international conservation charity and non-governmental organization. FFI was founded in 1903 as the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire by a group of British naturalists and it later became the Fauna Preservation Society, before being renamed Fauna and Flora Preservation Society in 1981. The goal of the society was to safeguard the future of southern Africa’s large mammal populations, working in tandem with landowners, government and sport hunters, the Society helped pass legislation which controlled hunting in vast stretches of East Africa and South Africa. This ultimately paved the way for the formation of National Parks, such as Kruger National Park, FFI has been referred to by many historians as the worlds first conservation society, and the societys early work in Africa was also trend-setting in ecotourism. The Societys scientific journal – Oryx – The International Journal of Conservation – is published on its behalf by Cambridge University Press, Fauna & Flora International is constituted under English law as a company limited by guarantee and is a registered charity with its head office in Cambridge. FFI has sister organisations in the U. S. and Australia, the logo of the society is the Arabian oryx, after the very successful Operation Oryx, a flagship Arabian oryx captive breeding project undertaken by the society. Queen Elizabeth II is FFIs patron, and Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands is the president of the organization. FFI also has a number of high-profile vice-presidents, including Sir David Attenborough, David Bellamy, Stephen Fry, Charlotte Uhlenbroek, Rove McManus, Judi Dench, FFI has members in over 80 countries. This was one of the worlds first successful breeding and reintroduction efforts for an endangered species. 1966 - Peter Scott, Chairman of IUCN Species Survival Commission, becomes Chairman of FFI and devises the Red Data Books,1971 - Launch of the 100% Fund, set up to support small-scale projects where urgent conservation action is needed to protect endangered species around the world
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Johnston Laboratories
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The Johnston Laboratories at the University of Liverpool in Liverpool, England, performed a variety of pathology and medical research during the 20th century. They are now located in the Johnston Building, the Laboratories were founded by early University benefactor and ship owner William Johnston and formally opened on 9 May 1903. Research activities of the Laboratories were documented in the Thompson Yates, during the 1900s and 1910s the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine was partly housed in the laboratories
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University of Liverpool
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The University of Liverpool is a public university based in the city of Liverpool, England. Founded as a college in 1881, it gained its charter in 1903 with the ability to award degrees and is also known to be one of the six original red brick civic universities. It comprises three faculties organised into 35 departments and schools and it is a founding member of the Russell Group, the N8 Group for research collaboration and the University Management school is AACSB accredited. Nine Nobel Prize winners are amongst its alumni and past faculty and it was the worlds first university to establish departments in Oceanography, civic design, architecture, and biochemistry at the Johnston Laboratories. In 2006 the university became the first in the UK to establish an independent university in China making it the worlds first Sino-British university, for 2015-16, Liverpool had a turnover of £490.2 million, including £93.7 million from research grants and contracts. It has the fifth largest endowment of any university in England, graduates of the University are styled with the post-nominal letters Lpool, to indicate the institution. The University has a partnership with Laureate International Universities, a for-profit college enterprise. The University was established in 1881 as University College Liverpool, admitting its first students in 1882, in 1884, it became part of the federal Victoria University. In 1894 Oliver Lodge, a professor at the University, made the worlds first public radio transmission, the Liverpool University Press was founded in 1899, making it the third oldest university press in England. Students in this period were awarded external degrees by the University of London, in 2004, Sylvan Learning, later known as Laureate International Universities, became the worldwide partner for University of Liverpool online. Following a Royal Charter and Act of Parliament in 1903, it became an independent university with the right to confer its own called the University of Liverpool. The next few years saw major developments at the university, including Sir Charles Sherringtons discovery of the synapse, in the 1930s to 1940s Sir James Chadwick and Sir Joseph Rotblat made major contributions to the development of the atomic bomb. From 1943 to 1966 Allan Downie, Professor of Bacteriology, was involved in the eradication of smallpox. In 1994 the university was a member of the Russell Group. The university has produced nine Nobel Prize winners, from the fields of science, medicine, economics, Sir Ronald Ross was also the first British Nobel laureate in 1902. These Lasker Awards are popularly known as Americas Nobels, over the 2013/2014 academic year, members of staff took part in numerous strikes after staff were offered a pay rise of 1% which unions equated to a 13% pay cut since 2008. The strikes were supported by both the universitys Guild of Students and the National Union of Students, some students at the university supported the strike, occupying buildings on campus. The university is based around a single urban campus approximately five minutes walk from Liverpool City Centre, at the top of Brownlow Hill
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Liverpool
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Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
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