1.
1903 in art
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June 3 – Laura Johnson marries Harold Knight. Isadora Duncan develops free dance, a dance influenced by the ancient Greeks. With the support of Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Jacques Villon, Auguste Rodin and others, koloman Moser and Josef Hoffmann found the Wiener Werkstätte in Vienna. Frederic Dorr Steele produces his first illustrations for Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes stories in the United States, bernard Berenson publishes The Drawings of the Florentine Painters. Anna Muthesius publishes Das Eigenkleid der Frau, during what is known as his Blue Period, Pablo Picasso paints Portrait of Angel Fernández de Soto Tête de femme, Vieux guitariste aveugle, The Tragedy, and La vie, among others. W. Lindes Sons Camille Pissarro – Self-portrait Sir Edward Poynter – The Cave of the Storm Nymphs Tom Roberts – The Big Picture John Singer Sargent – Mrs. W
2.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
3.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
4.
Wright brothers
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They made the first controlled, sustained flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft on December 17,1903, four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. In 1904–05 the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft, although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible. The brothers fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and this method became and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. From the beginning of their work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving the flying problem. This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put emphasis on developing powerful engines. Using a small wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings. Their first U. S. patent,821,393, did not claim invention of a machine, but rather. They gained the skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that a vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, the Wright brothers status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists over the competing claims of early aviators. The Wright brothers were two of seven born to Milton Wright, of English and Dutch ancestry, and Susan Catherine Koerner, of German. Wilbur was born near Millville, Indiana, in 1867, Orville in Dayton, Ohio, the other Wright siblings were Reuchlin, Lorin, Katharine, and twins Otis and Ida. In elementary school, Orville was given to mischief and was once expelled, the direct paternal ancestry goes back to a Samuel Wright who sailed to America and settled in Massachusetts in 1636. In 1878 their father, who traveled often as a bishop in the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, the device was based on an invention of French aeronautical pioneer Alphonse Pénaud. Made of paper, bamboo and cork with a band to twirl its rotor. Wilbur and Orville played with it until it broke, and then built their own, in later years, they pointed to their experience with the toy as the spark of their interest in flying
5.
Americans
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Americans are citizens of the United States of America. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, Americans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Americans, non-citizen residents, dual citizens, and expatriates may also claim an American identity. See Names for United States citizens. S, virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. It also includes influences of African-American culture, westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements, immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics, in addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, the United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Some other race is also an option in the census and other surveys, people of European descent, or White Americans, constitute the majority of the 308 million people living in the United States, with 72. 4% of the population in the 2010 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the peoples of Europe, the Middle East. Of those reporting to be White American,7,487,133 reported to be Multiracial, with largest combination being white, additionally, there are 29,184,290 White Hispanics or Latinos. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states, there are four minority-majority states, California, Texas, New Mexico, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia has a non-white majority, the state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. The largest continental ancestral group of Americans are that of Europeans who have origins in any of the peoples of Europe. This includes people via African, North American, Caribbean, Central American or South American and Oceanian nations that have a large European diaspora, the Spanish were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the United States. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the Thirteen Colonies to English parents. 8% of the total population, Hispanic or Latino Americans constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group after non-Hispanic Whites in the United States, hispanic/Latino Americans are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category, rather than a race
6.
Alberto Santos-Dumont
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Alberto Santos-Dumont was a Brazilian aviation pioneer, one of the very few people to have contributed significantly to the development of both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air aircraft. The heir of a family of coffee producers, Santos-Dumont dedicated himself to aeronautical study and experimentation in Paris. His conviction that aviation would usher in an era of peace and prosperity led him to freely publish his designs. Santos-Dumont is a hero in Brazil, where it is popularly held that he preceded the Wright brothers in demonstrating a practical airplane. Countless roads, plazas, schools, monuments, and airports in Brazil are dedicated to him and he was a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1931 until his suicide in 1932. Santos-Dumont was born on 20 July 1873 in Cabangu in the Brazilian town of Palmira in the state of Minas Gerais in southeast Brazil and he was youngest of the seven children born to Henrique Dumont, an engineer of French descent, and Francisca de Paula Santos. Santos-Dumonts father managed a plantation on land owned by his wifes family. His extensive use of labor-saving inventions earned him a fortune, Santos-Dumont was fascinated by machinery, and while still a child he learned to drive the plantations steam tractors and locomotives. He also read a great deal of the works of Jules Verne and he wrote in his autobiography that the dream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil from the plantation. In 1891 Santos-Dumonts father was paralyzed by a fall from a horse. He sold the plantation and went to Europe with his wife, in Paris, Santos-Dumont contacted a balloonist with the intention of making an ascent. The price quoted was 1,200 francs for a flight, plus payment for any damage caused. This was a sum of money, and Santos-Dumont decided not to make the flight. If it is bad the money will be lost, If it is good I shall want to repeat it and I shall not have the means. After this he bought a Peugeot automobile, which he took him when he returned to Brazil with his parents at the end of the year. In 1892 the family returned to Europe, but Henriques felt too ill to continue on to Paris from Lisbon and his fathers health deteriorated and he decided to return to Brazil, where he died on 30 August 1892. For the next four years Alberto lived in Paris, studying physics, chemistry, mechanics, and electricity with the help of a private tutor, during this period he sold his Peugeot, replacing it with a more powerful and faster De Dion motor-tricycle. In 1896 he returned to Brazil for a period, but began to miss Paris
7.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
8.
Wright Flyer
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The Wright Flyer was the first successful heavier-than-air powered aircraft. It was designed and built by the Wright brothers and they flew it four times on December 17,1903, near Kill Devil Hills, about four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, US. Today, the airplane is exhibited in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington D. C, the U. S. Smithsonian Institution describes the aircraft as the first powered, heavier-than-air machine to achieve controlled, sustained flight with a pilot aboard. The flight of Flyer I marks the beginning of the era of aviation. The Flyer was based on the Wrights experience testing gliders at Kitty Hawk between 1900 and 1902 and their last glider, the 1902 Glider, led directly to the design of the Flyer. The Wrights built the aircraft in 1903 using giant spruce wood as their construction material, the wings were designed with a 1-in-20 camber. Since they could not find a suitable engine for the task, they commissioned their employee Charlie Taylor to build a new design from scratch. A sprocket chain drive, borrowing from bicycle technology, powered the twin propellers, the Flyer was a canard biplane configuration. As with the gliders, the pilot flew lying on his stomach on the wing with his head toward the front of the craft in an effort to reduce drag. He steered by moving a cradle attached to his hips, the cradle pulled wires which warped the wings and turned the rudder simultaneously. The Flyers runway was a track of 2x4s stood on their narrow edge, the Flyer was conceived as a control-canard, as the Wrights were more concerned with control than stability. However, it was found to be so unstable that it was barely controllable. Following the first flight, ballast was added to the nose to move the center of gravity forward, however the basics of pitch stability of the canard configuration were not understood by the Wright Brothers. Culick stated, The backward state of the theory and understanding of flight mechanics hindered them. Indeed, the most serious gap in their knowledge was probably the reason for their unwitting mistake in selecting their canard configuration. Upon returning to Kitty Hawk in 1903, the Wrights completed assembly of the Flyer while practicing on the 1902 Glider from the previous season, on December 14,1903, they felt ready for their first attempt at powered flight. The brothers tossed a coin to decide who would get the first chance at piloting, the airplane left the rail, but Wilbur pulled up too sharply, stalled, and came down in about three seconds with minor damage. Repairs after the abortive first flight took three days, when they were ready again on December 17, the wind was averaging more than 20 mph, so the brothers laid the launching rail on level ground, pointed into the wind, near their camp
9.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
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Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky was a Russian and Soviet rocket scientist and pioneer of the astronautic theory. Along with the French Robert Esnault-Pelterie, the German Hermann Oberth and his works later inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko and contributed to the success of the Soviet space program. Tsiolkovsky spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of Kaluga, a recluse by nature, he appeared strange and bizarre to his fellow townsfolk. He was born in Izhevskoye, in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family and his father, Edward Tsiolkovsky, was a Polish-born Russian Orthodox, his mother, Maria Ivanovna Yumasheva belonged to Russian nobility of Volga Tatar origin. His father was successively a forester, teacher, and minor government official, at the age of 10, Konstantin caught scarlet fever and became hard of hearing. When he was 13, his mother died and he was not admitted to elementary schools because of his hearing problem, so he was self-taught. As a reclusive home-schooled child, he passed much of his time by reading books, as a teenager, he began to contemplate the possibility of space travel. After falling behind in his studies, Tsiolkovsky spent three years attending a Moscow library where Russian cosmism proponent Nikolai Fyodorov worked and he later came to believe that colonizing space would lead to the perfection of the human race, with immortality and a carefree existence. Additionally, inspired by the fiction of Jules Verne, Tsiolkovsky theorized many aspects of space travel and he is considered the father of spaceflight and the first person to conceive the space elevator, becoming inspired in 1895 by the newly constructed Eiffel Tower in Paris. Afterwards, Tsiolkovsky passed the exam and went to work at a school in Borovsk near Moscow. He also met and married his wife Varvara Sokolovaya during this time, despite being stuck in Kaluga, a small town far from major learning centers, Tsiolkovsky managed to make scientific discoveries on his own. The first two decades of the 20th century were marred by personal tragedy, Tsiolkovskys son Ignaty committed suicide in 1902, and in 1908 many of his accumulated papers were lost in a flood. In 1911, his daughter Lyubov was arrested for engaging in revolutionary activities and this section has recently been partly machine translated from the Russian article. Please supply an improved translation if possible, Tsiolkovsky stated that he developed the theory of rocketry only as a supplement to philosophical research on the subject. He wrote more than 400 works including approximately 90 published pieces on space travel, Tsiolkovskys first scientific study dates back to 1880–1881. Undaunted, he pressed ahead with his work, The Mechanics of the Animal Organism. It received favorable feedback, and Tsiolkovsky was made a member of the Society, in 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. Tsiolkovsky developed the first aerodynamics laboratory in Russia in his apartment, in 1897, he built the first Russian wind tunnel with an open test section and developed a method of experimentation using it
10.
Rocket
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A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket before use, Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in the vacuum of space. In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere, multistage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China, significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Earths moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for satellites, human spaceflight. Chemical rockets are the most common type of high power rocket, chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks, the first gunpowder-powered rockets were developed in Song China, by the 13th century. The Chinese rocket technology was adopted by the Mongols and the invention was spread via the Mongol invasions to the Near East, medieval and early modern rockets were used militarily as incendiary weapons in sieges. An early Chinese text to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing, between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya, which included 107 gunpowder recipes,22 of which are for rockets. In Europe, Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his military treatise Bellifortis around 1405. The name Rocket comes from the Italian rocchetta, meaning bobbin or little spindle, the Italian term was adopted into German in the mid 16th century by Leonhard Fronsperger and Conrad Haas, and by the early 17th century into English. Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima, an important early work on rocket artillery. The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the late 18th century in the Kingdom of Mysore, in 1814, Francis Scott Key wrote the line rockets red glare while held captive on a British ship that was laying siege to Fort McHenry. The first mathematical treatment of the dynamics of rocket propulsion is due to William Moore, in 1815, Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko constructed rocket-launching platforms, which allowed rockets to be fired in salvos, and gun-laying devices. William Hale in 1844 greatly increased the accuracy of rocket artillery, the Congreve rocket was further improved by Edward Mounier Boxer in 1865. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky first speculated on the possibility of manned spaceflight with rocket technology, robert Goddard in 1920 published proposed improvements to rocket technology in A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes
11.
Space suit
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A space suit is a garment worn to keep a human alive in the harsh environment of outer space, vacuum and temperature extremes. Space suits are worn inside spacecraft as a safety precaution in case of loss of cabin pressure. Space suits have been worn for work in Earth orbit, on the surface of the Moon. A self-contained oxygen supply and environmental control system is employed to allow complete freedom of movement, independent of the spacecraft. Three types of spacesuits exist for different purposes, IVA, EVA, IVA suits are meant to be worn inside a pressurized spacecraft, and are therefore lighter and more comfortable. IEVA suits are meant for use inside and outside the spacecraft and they include more protection from the harsh conditions of space, such as protection from micrometeorites and extreme temperature change. EVA suits, such as the EMU, are used outside spacecraft and they must protect the wearer against all conditions of space, as well as provide mobility and functionality. Some of these also apply to pressure suits worn for other specialized tasks. Above Armstrongs line, the atmosphere is so thin that pressurized suits are needed, the first full-pressure suits for use at extreme altitudes were designed by individual inventors as early as the 1930s. The first space suit worn by a human in space was the Soviet SK-1 suit worn by Yuri Gagarin in 1961, a space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably, inside or outside a spacecraft. It must provide, A stable internal pressure and this can be less than earths atmosphere, as there is usually no need for the space suit to carry nitrogen. Lower pressure allows for mobility, but requires the suit occupant to breathe pure oxygen for a time before going into this lower pressure. Movement is typically opposed by the pressure of the suit, mobility is achieved by careful joint design, See the Theories of space suit design section. Supply of breathable oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide, these gases are exchanged with the spacecraft or a Portable Life Support System Temperature regulation. Since the temperature on the outside of the suit varies greatly between sunlight and shadow, the suit is heavily insulated, and air temperature is maintained at a comfortable level. Experience has shown the greatest chance of exposure occurs near the field of a moon or planet. As part of astronautical hygiene control, a suit is essential for extravehicular activity. This space suit is capable of protecting the astronaut from temperatures ranging from −156 °C to 121 °C, during exploration of the moon or Mars, there will be the potential for lunar/Martian dust to be retained on the space suit
