1.
1902 in Norway
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Events in the year 1902 in Norway. Monarch, Oscar II Prime Minister, Johannes Steen, then Otto Blehr 15 November – The Ofoten Line opened,23 November – The Valdres Line opened. Football Association of Norway is founded,15 January - Olaug Hay, politician 24 January - Sigurd Lund Hamran, politician 30 January - Magnus Jensen, historian and educator
2.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
3.
1907 in Norway
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Events in the year 1907 in Norway. Monarch - Haakon VII Prime Minister - Christian Michelsen 14 June – Norway adopts female suffrage, norsk Hydro, having been founded in 1905, opens up its first plant at Notodden. Municipal and county elections are held throughout the country, the construction of the Bergen Line is completed. 25 December - Kristian Johansson, ski jumper and World Champion 30 December - Sigmund Ruud, ski jumper, Olympic silver medallist and World Champion
4.
Union between Sweden and Norway
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The Norwegian government was presided over by viceroys, Swedes until 1829, Norwegians until 1856. That office was vacant and then abolished in 1873. Foreign policy was conducted through the Swedish foreign ministry until the dissolution of the union in 1905, by the 1814 Treaty of Kiel, the King of Denmark-Norway was forced to cede Norway to the King of Sweden. But Norway refused to submit to the treaty provisions, declared independence, after the adoption of the new Constitution of Norway on 17 May 1814, Prince Christian Frederick was elected king. On 4 November the Storting elected Charles XIII as the King of Norway, Sweden accepted the unions dissolution on 26 October. After a plebiscite confirming the election of Danish Prince Carl as the new king of Norway, he accepted the Stortings offer of the throne on 18 November and took the regnal name of Haakon VII. After the establishment of absolutism in 1660, a centralised form of government was established. The united kingdoms are referred to as Denmark-Norway by later historians, the ambitious wars waged by king Charles XII, however, led to the loss of that status after the Great Northern War, 1700–1721. Sweden also invaded Norway in 1567,1644,1658 and 1716, to wrest the country away from the union with Denmark, the repeated wars and invasions led to popular resentment against Sweden among Norwegians. During the 18th century, Norway enjoyed a period of great prosperity, the biggest growth industry was the export of planks, with Great Britain as the chief market. Some members of the aristocracy saw Sweden as a more natural partner. Around 1800, many prominent Norwegians secretly favoured a break with Denmark and their undeclared leader was Count Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg. The Swedish policy during the period was to cultivate contacts in Norway. King Gustav III actively approached circles in Norway that might favour a union with Sweden instead of Denmark, such endeavours on both sides of the border toward a rapprochement were far from realistic before the Napoleonic Wars created conditions that caused political upheavals in Scandinavia. Sweden and Denmark-Norway tried to remain neutral during the Napoleonic wars, both countries joined Russia and Prussia in a League of Armed Neutrality in 1800. Denmark-Norway was forced to withdraw from the League after the British raid on the navy during the first Battle of Copenhagen in April 1801, the league collapsed after the assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia in 1801. Denmark-Norway was compelled into an alliance with France after the British preemptive second attack on the Danish navy, the defenceless capital had to surrender the navy after heavy bombardment, because the army was at the southern border to defend it against a possible French attack. As Sweden in the meantime had sided with the British, Denmark-Norway was forced by Napoleon to declare war on Sweden on 29 February 1808
5.
Scandinavia
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Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
6.
Kalmar Union
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The Union was not quite continuous, there were several short interruptions. Legally the countries remained separate sovereign states, but with their domestic, one main impetus for its formation was to block German expansion northward into the Baltic region. The main reason for its failure to survive was the struggle between the monarch, who wanted a strong unified state, and the Swedish and Danish nobility which did not. Diverging interests gave rise to a conflict that would hamper the union in several intervals from the 1430s until its breakup in 1523 when Gustav Vasa became king of Sweden. Norway continued to remain a part of the realm of Denmark–Norway under the Oldenburg dynasty for nearly three centuries until its dissolution in 1814. Then Union between Sweden and Norway lasted until 1905, when a grandson of the incumbent king of Denmark was elected its king, the union was the work of Scandinavian aristocracy wishing to counter the influence of the Hanseatic League. Margaret, a daughter of King Valdemar IV of Denmark, married King Haakon VI of Norway and Sweden, Margaret succeeded in having her son Olav recognized as heir to the throne of Denmark. In 1376 Olav inherited the crown of Denmark from his grandfather as King Oluf III, with his mother as guardian. The two kingdoms were united in a union under a child king, with the kings mother as his guardian, later. On 2 February the next year, she was recognized as regent of Norway. Their common enemy was the Hanseatic League and the growing German influence over the Scandinavian economy. The Nordic union was established on 17 June 1397 by the Treaty of Kalmar, signed in the Swedish castle of Kalmar on Swedens south-east coast, at each junction, installation of a new monarch tended to mean a break-up of the union for a while. Eric of Pomerania, however, became the monarch of all three kingdoms, at Kalmar, the 15-year-old Eric of Pomerania was crowned king of all three kingdoms by the archbishops of Denmark and Sweden, but Margaret managed to remain in control until her death in 1412. It is said that contemporaries of the Union would not recognize the term, Union of Kalmar—that they just understood that much of the time. While the term meaning Treaty of Kalmar was known already at the time, the Swedes were not happy with the Danes frequent wars on Schleswig, Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Pomerania, which were a disturbance to Swedish exports to the European continent. Furthermore, the centralization of government in Denmark raised suspicions, the Swedish Privy Council wanted to retain a fair degree of self-government. The unity of the union eroded after the Danish defeat against the German Hanseatic League in the 1430s, even to the point of armed rebellion, erik was deposed as the union king and was succeeded by his nephew, the childless Christopher of Bavaria. In the power vacuum that arose following Christophers death, Sweden elected Charles VIII king with the intent to reestablish the union under a Swedish king, during the next seven decades struggle for power and the wars between Sweden and Denmark would dominate the union
7.
Kingdom of Norway (1814)
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1814 was a pivotal year in the history of the Kingdom of Norway. It started with Norway in a union with Denmark, subject to a blockade by The British Empire. In May a constitutional convention declared Norway independent, by the end of the year the Norwegian parliament had agreed to join with Sweden in a personal union under the monarch of Sweden. Although nationalist aspirations were not to be realized until the events of 1905,1814 was the crisis. The year contains the story of one king and two future kings in Scandinavia who may have hoped to unite Sweden, Denmark. The Norwegian people and their leaders were caught in the middle of this rivalry, denmark–Norway had become entangled on the French side in the Napoleonic War through its participation in the Gunboat War. Having lost its fleet, it was virtually defenceless as the tides turned against France, the British Royal Navy had blocked all Norwegian ports effectively from 1808, thus breaking many bonds to Denmark, and leaving Norway to itself. Under those conditions, tension grew in Norway, and an independence movement was formed in 1809. The Swedish campaign against Norway in 1808-09 had been repulsed by the Norwegian army, the years of 1812 and 1813 were known for severe famine due to the blockade, and the hardships were long remembered in Norway. In addition, he was to join the allied powers in their fight against Napoleon, secret correspondence from the British government in the preceding days had put pressure on the negotiating parties to reach an agreement to avoid a full-scale invasion of Denmark. The letter instructed him to deliver the Norwegian fortresses to Swedish forces, the public were informed of the peace treaty on 26 January through a censored article in the newspaper Tiden, under the headline. It did not clearly convey the fact that the king had ceded his kingdom to the king of Sweden, historically the enemy of Norway. As there was the annual February market in Christiania at the time, a local priest observed that the entire marketplace swirled with rumours of the treaty. As news spread, it was apparent to many Norwegian intellectuals that the people were offended by the treaty, the King had been informed of these plans in a secret letter of December 1813. The Prince had also instructed to keep the union with Denmark intact. In Norway, the sentiment was that Norway had been out to Sweden. These so-called Prince notes were necessary to keep the wheels of government turning, but they contributed to the already chaotic monetary situation, the cause of the financial crisis was the refusal of King Frederick VI to establish a Bank of Norway. Christian Frederick decided to claim the throne of Norway as rightful heir, the week prior to January 30, the prince toured parts of Norway and found the same real or false willingness to fight everywhere he came
8.
Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden
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The dissolution of the union between the kingdoms of Norway and Sweden under the House of Bernadotte, was set in motion by a resolution of the Norwegian Parliament on 7 June 1905. Norwegian nationalistic aspirations in 1814 were frustrated by Swedens victory in a brief, the Norwegian constitution was largely kept intact, allowing for an independent Norwegian state with its own parliament, judiciary, and executive powers. Foreign relations were, however, conducted by the King through the Swedish ministry of foreign affairs, there were largely feelings of goodwill between the two peoples, and the common King generally tried to act in the interest of both Kingdoms. However over the years, a divergence of Norwegian and Swedish interests became apparent, in particular, Norwegians felt that their foreign policy interests were inadequately served by Swedens ministry of foreign affairs. Norway had trading and other links with the United Kingdom, whereas Sweden had closer links with Germany, Norway had greater interests outside Europe than Sweden. When free trade between the two countries was restricted in 1895 through the abolition of the Interstate laws, the reasons for the continued union were also diminished. Although both parties made efforts to resolve the issue through negotiations, Norwegian public opinion became more entrenched. In early 1905, Christian Michelsen formed a government consisting of liberals and conservatives. The law was passed by the Norwegian parliament, as expected and probably as planned, King Oscar II refused to accept the laws, and the Michelsen government resigned. When the king declared himself unable to form a cabinet under the present circumstances, initially reacting to this declaration as a rebellious act, the Swedish government indicated an openness to a negotiated end to the union, insisting among other things on a Norwegian plebiscite. However, the Norwegian government had anticipated this, and had scheduled a plebiscite for 13 August—thus avoiding the appearance that it had been called in response to demands from Sweden. Besides internal changes within Norway, a key factor that allowed Norway to break from Sweden was the emerging Swedish social democratic movement. In the early years of the 20th century, Hjalmar Branting led the Social Democrats in opposing a war to keep Norway united with Sweden, when the crisis came in 1905, he coined the slogan Hands off Norway, King. The Social Democrats organized resistance to a call-up of reserves and a strike against a war. The majority of Sweden supported a state of Norway as much as the people of Norway did. The plebiscite was held on 13 August and resulted in an overwhelming 368,208 votes in favour of confirming the dissolution of the union against only 184 opposed and it is one of the most lopsided referenda in history. The government thereby had confirmation of the dissolution,85 percent of Norwegian men had cast their votes, but no women as universal suffrage was not extended to women until 1913. Norwegian feminists however collected 279,878 signatures in favour of dissolution, polar explorer Fridtjof Nansen weighed in heavily for dissolving the union and travelled to the United Kingdom, where he successfully lobbied for British support for Norways independence movement
9.
Monarchy of Norway
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The Norwegian monarch is the monarchical head of state of Norway, which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system. The present monarch is King Harald V, who has reigned since 17 January 1991, succeeding his father, the heir apparent is his only son, Crown Prince Haakon. The crown prince undertakes various public functions, as does the kings wife. The crown prince also acts as regent in the kings absence, there are several other members of the Royal Family, including the kings daughter, grandchildren and siblings. Whilst the Constitution of Norway grants important executive powers to the King, formally the King appoints the government according to his own judgement, but parliamentary practice has been in place since 1884. Constitutional practice has replaced the meaning of the word King in most articles of the constitution from the king personally to the elected government. The powers vested in the monarch are significant, but are treated only as reserve powers, the King does not, by convention, have direct participation in government. He ratifies laws and royal resolutions, receives and sends envoys from and to foreign countries and he has a more tangible influence as the symbol of national unity. The annual New Years Eve speech is one occasion when the King traditionally raises negative issues, the King is also Supreme Commander of the Norwegian Armed Forces and Grand Master of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit. The King has no role in the Church of Norway. The position of King of Norway has been in existence since the unification of Norway in 872. In recent years members of the Socialist Left party have proposed the abolition of the monarchy during each new session of parliament and this gives the Norwegian monarchy the unique status of being a popularly elected royal family and receiving regular formal confirmations of support from the Storting. Prior to and in the phase of the Viking Age Norway was divided into several smaller kingdoms. Harald Fairhair was the first king of Norway, the boundaries of Fairhairs kingdom were not identical to those of present-day Norway, and upon his death the kingship was shared among his sons. Some historians emphasise the actual control over the country and assert that Olaf II, alias Saint Olaf. Olaf is generally held to have been the force behind Norways final conversion to Christianity. In the 12th and 13th centuries the Norwegian kingdom was at its geographical and cultural peak, the kingdom included Norway, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Shetland, Orkney and other smaller areas in the British Isles. The king had diplomatic relations with most of the European kingdoms and formed alliances with Scotland and Castile, large castles such as Haakons Hall and cathedrals, the foremost being Nidaros Cathedral, were built
10.
Oscar II of Sweden
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Oscar II was King of Sweden from 1872 until his death and King of Norway from 1872 until his dethronement in 1905. He was the third of four sons of King Oscar I, as his eldest brother Charles XV was without heirs and his brother Prince Gustaf died in 1852, it was he who succeeded his brother as king. Oscar II was king during a period when Sweden was undergoing a period of industrialization, the declining Union of Sweden and Norway was finally dissolved in 1905 and Oscar became the last Bernadotte king of Norway. He died in 1907 and was succeed as King of Sweden by his son, at his birth in Stockholm, Oscar Fredrik was created Duke of Östergötland. He entered the navy at the age of eleven, and was appointed lieutenant in July 1845. Later he studied at Uppsala University, where he distinguished himself in mathematics, on 13 December 1848, he was made an honorary member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. On 6 June 1857 he married in Wiesbaden-Biebrich, Germany, Princess Sophia Wilhelmina, from 1859, when his father died, he was first in line to the Swedish throne after his oldest brother King Charles, who then had no male heirs. His middle brother Gustaf had died in 1852 and he succeeded his brother Charles XV / IV on 18 September 1872. At the accession he adopted as his motto Brödrafolkens väl / Broderfolkenes Vel, the political events which led up to the peaceful dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905 could hardly have been attained but for the tact and patience of the king himself. He was dethroned on 7 June 1905 by the Norwegian Parliament and he declined, indeed, to permit any prince of his house to become king of Norway, but better relations between the two countries were restored before his death. He died in Stockholm on 8 December 1907 at 9,10 AM and his acute intelligence and his aloofness from the dynastic considerations affecting most European sovereigns gave the king considerable weight as an arbitrator in international questions. At the request of Great Britain, Germany and the United States in 1889 he appointed the justice of Samoa. He was the 1, 027th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain, the office of prime minister was instituted in 1876. Louis De Geer became the first head of government in Sweden to use this title, the most known and powerful first minister of the Crown during the reign of Oscar was the conservative estate owner Erik Gustaf Boström. Boström served as Prime Minister in 1891-1900 and 1902-1905 and he was trusted and respected by the king, who had much difficulty approving someone else as prime minister. Over a period of time, the king gave Boström a free hand to select his own ministers without much royal involvement and it was an arrangement that furthered the road to parliamentarism. Himself a distinguished writer and musical amateur, King Oscar proved a friend of learning. In 1858 a collection of his lyrical and narrative poems, Memorials of the Swedish Fleet, published anonymously, obtained the second prize of the Swedish Academy
11.
Haakon VII of Norway
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Haakon VII, known as Prince Carl of Denmark until 1905, was a Danish prince who became the first king of Norway after the 1905 dissolution of the union with Sweden. He reigned from November 1905 until his death in September 1957, as one of the few elected monarchs, Haakon quickly won the respect and affection of his people. He played a role in uniting the Norwegian nation in its resistance to the Nazi invasion. He became King of Norway before his father and older brother became kings of Denmark, during his reign, he saw his father, his brother and his nephew, Frederick IX, ascend the throne of Denmark, respectively in 1906,1912 and 1947. He died at the age of 85 on 21 September 1957 and he was succeeded by his only son, Olav V. Prince Carl of Denmark was the son of King Frederik VIII of Denmark. Furthermore, he was a brother of Christian X, a paternal grandson of King Christian IX of Denmark. Prince Carl was born at Charlottenlund Palace near Copenhagen and he belonged to the Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg branch of the House of Oldenburg. The House of Oldenburg had been the Danish royal family since 1448, the house was originally from northern Germany, where the Glucksburg branch held their small fief. The family had permanent links with Norway beginning from the late Middle Ages, several of his paternal ancestors had been kings of independent Norway. Christian Frederick, who was King of Norway briefly in 1814, Prince Carl was raised in the royal household in Copenhagen and educated at the Royal Danish Naval Academy. Their son, Prince Alexander, the future Crown Prince Olav, was born on 2 July 1903, gradually, Prince Carl became the leading candidate, largely because he was descended from independent Norwegian kings. The new royal family of Norway left Denmark on the Danish royal yacht Dannebrog, at Oscarsborg Fortress, they boarded the Norwegian naval ship Heimdal. After a three-day journey, they arrived in Kristiania early on the morning of 25 November 1905, two days later, Haakon took the oath as Norways first independent king in 518 years. The coronation of Haakon and Maud took place in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim on 22 June 1906, King Haakon gained much sympathy from the Norwegian people. Although the Constitution of Norway vests the King with considerable executive powers, Haakon confined himself to non-partisan roles without interfering in politics, a practice continued by his son and grandson. However, his long rule gave him moral authority as a symbol of the countrys unity. Haakon, Maud and Crown Prince Olav became interested in skiing and this sport is often viewed as typically Norwegian
12.
Prime Minister of Norway
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For a list, see List of heads of government of Norway. The Prime Minister of Norway is the leader of Norway. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to the Storting, to their political party, and ultimately the electorate. In practice, since it is impossible for a government to stay in office against the will of the Storting. Norway has a Constitution, which was adopted on 17 May 1814, the position of Prime Minister is the result of legislation. As of 2017, the Prime Minister of Norway is Erna Solberg, unlike their counterparts in the rest of Europe, Norwegian Prime Ministers do not have the option of advising the King to dissolve the Storting and call a snap election. The Constitution requires that the Storting serve out its full four-year term, if the Prime Minister loses the confidence of the Storting, he or she must resign. As of 2015 six former Prime Ministers are alive, Odvar Nordli born 3 November 1927, kåre Willoch born 3 October 1928, served 1981–1986. Gro Harlem Brundtland born 20 April 1939, served 1981, 1986–1989, kjell Magne Bondevik born 3 September 1947, served 1997–2000 and 2001–2005. Thorbjørn Jagland born 5 November 1950, served 1996–1997, jens Stoltenberg born 16 March 1959, served 2000–2001 and 2005–2013. List of Prime Ministers of Norway Regjeringskvartalet Government Official Homepage
13.
Francis Hagerup
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George Francis Hagerup was a Norwegian law professor, diplomat and politician for the Conservative Party. He was Prime Minister of Norway from 14 October 1895 to 17 February 1898, as a legal scholar, he is known for his contributions to the development of public international law, and was chairman of the Institut de Droit International. Francis Hagerup grew up in Trondheim and he was a son of admiral and cabinet minister Henrik Steffens Hagerup and Nicoline Christine Jenssen. Degree at the Royal Frederick University in 1876, received a grant to study abroad and he obtained the dr. juris degree in 1885, and was professor of law at the Royal Frederick University from 1887 to 1906. He was minister of justice in the Second cabinet Stang from 2 May 1893 to 14 October 1895, in August 1895 he was Finance minister. He was a member of the Storting from 1901 to 1906, in social policy, Hagerups time as Prime Minister saw the passage of a child care law in 1896 that increased the power of local authorities and courts over neglected and abused children. Following his two bouts as Prime Minister, he entered the diplomacy in 1906, as ambassador to Copenhagen, The Hague, from 1916 he was ambassador in Stockholm. Hagerup was passionately involved in the development of international law. From 1897 he was member of the Institut de Droit International, in 1907 he headed the Norwegian delegation at the second peace conference in The Hague. He was also delegate at international conferences regarding admiralty law, in 1920 he led the Norwegian delegation when the League of Nations convened for the first time in Geneva. The same year he was elected to the Law committee under the League council, in 1888, he founded Tidsskrift for Retsvidenskab, and served as its editor until his death. Hagerup was also member of the Norwegian Nobel Committee from 1 January 1907 until his death, george Francis Hagerup biography at government. no Foundations of the Welfare State, 2nd Edition by Pat Thane, published 1996
14.
Christian Michelsen
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Peter Christian Hersleb Kjerschow Michelsen was a Norwegian shipping magnate and statesman. He was the first Prime Minister of independent Norway from 1905 to 1907, Michelsen is most known for his central role in the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905, and was one of Norways most influential politicians of his time. Born in Bergen, he was named after his grandfather, bishop Peder Christian Hersleb Kjerschow and he was the eldest of five siblings born into a merchant family. Michelsen attended the Bergen Cathedral School and he studied law at the University of Christiana and went on to become a lawyer. He later established the company, Chr. Michelsen & Co. which became one of the largest in Norway and he became a member of the Norwegian Parliament in 1891, representing the Liberal Party of Norway. He served as Finance Minister in the second cabinet Hagerup, and was one of the strongest proponents of a firm policy towards the union between Sweden and Norway. In March 1905, Michelsen replaced Francis Hagerup as Prime Minister, the formal basis for the dissolution was King Oscar IIs refusal to accept the Norwegian consular laws. This, the Norwegians felt, acknowledged Sweden as having the hand in the Union. While this supremacy existed in reality, Norwegians were unwilling to accept the relationship on a formal, legal basis. On 27 May 1905 King Oscar refused to sign the bill and this strategic move gave the dissolution a somewhat legal basis, and was primarily the work of Christian Michelsen. He knew that the Norwegian people, after months of well-directed information in a press, was united in a way that is extremely rare in a democracy. In the referendum that proved the Norwegian will to dissolve the union, retention of the union garnered a mere 184 votes nationwide, which represented only one vote out of every 2000 cast. Michelsen, though a believer in a republic in Norway, accepted that a democratic monarchy would have the greatest chances to be accepted abroad. Prince Carl of Denmark became King Haakon VII of Norway after a new referendum had given the monarchy proponents approximately 79% of the votes cast, in 1906 Michelsen won the election on an above-the-parties ticket, which quickly alienated the leading Liberals from him. In 1907 he resigned, having tired of petty squabbles among the political leaders, jørgen Løvland carried on Michelsens work, but lacked the will to force the coalition to stand united, and in 1908 the coalition broke down. In social policy, Michelsens time as prime minister saw the passage of the 1906 Law on Central and Local Government Contributions to Unemployment Funds, in 1925, he, along with the polar explorer Fridtjof Nansen and the industrialist Joakim Lehmkuhl, founded the Fatherland League. He was married in 1881 to Johanne Benedicte Wallendahl, in 1905, he was awarded the Grand Cross of The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and in 1907 he received the Collar as well
15.
Rockfall
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A rockfall or rock-fall refers to quantities of rock falling freely from a cliff face. The term is used for collapse of rock from roof or walls of mine or quarry workings. Alternatively, a rockfall is the downward motion of a detached block or series of blocks with a small volume involving free falling, bouncing, rolling. The mode of failure differs from that of a rockslide, a tree may be blown by the wind, and this causes a pressure at the root level and this loosens rocks and can trigger a fall. The pieces of rock collect at the bottom creating a talus or scree, rocks falling from the cliff may dislodge other rocks and serve to create another mass wasting process, for example an avalanche. A cliff that has favorable geology to a rockfall may be said to be incompetent, one that is not favorable to a rockfall, which is better consolidated, may be said to be competent. Typically, rockfall events are mitigated in one of two ways, either by passive mitigation or active mitigation, the rockfall still takes place but an attempt is made to control the outcome. In contrast, active mitigation is carried out in the initiation zone, some examples of these measures are rock bolting, slope retention systems, shotcrete, etc. Other active measures might be by changing the geographic or climatic characteristics in the zone, e. g. altering slope geometry, dewatering the slope, revegetation. Design guides of passive measures have been proposed by Ritchie, Pierson et al, the effect of rockfalls on trees can be seen in several ways. The tree roots may rotate, via the energy of the rockfall. The tree may move via the application of translational energy, and lastly deformation may occur, either elastic or plastic. Dendrochronology can reveal a past impact, with missing tree rings, as the tree rings grow around and close over a gap, a macroscopic section can be used for dating of avalanche and rockfall events. Earthquake Kinetic energy Landslide Potential energy Protection forest Rockslide Slope stability SMR classification Q-slope
16.
Lovatnet
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Lovatnet is a lake in the municipality of Stryn in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. It is located about 2 kilometres southeast of the village of Loen, the lake lies just 2 kilometres southwest of the mountain Skåla. The water from the lake flows down from the mountains, especially from the Jostedalsbreen and Tindefjellbreen glaciers and it then flows out through the Loelva river into the Nordfjorden
17.
Sogn og Fjordane
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Sogn og Fjordane is a county in western Norway, bordering Møre og Romsdal, Oppland, Buskerud, and Hordaland. The county administration is in the village of Hermansverk in Leikanger municipality, the largest town in the county is Førde. Although Sogn og Fjordane has some industry, predominantly hydroelectricity and aluminium, Sogn og Fjordane is also home to the Urnes Stave Church and the Nærøyfjord, which are both listed by UNESCO as world heritage sites. The Sogn og Fjordane University College has campuses in Sogndal, Sandane, the name Sogn og Fjordane was created in 1919, a literal translation is, Sogn and the fjords. The first element is the name of the region of Sogn, the last element is the plural definite form of fjord, which refers to the two regions in the county called Nordfjord and Sunnfjord in the northern and central parts of the county. Prior to 1919, the name of the county was Nordre Bergenhus amt which meant northern Bergenhus amt, the coat of arms of Sogn og Fjordane was granted on 23 September 1983. The arms show the layout of the county, three large blue fjords protruding into the white colored land. The three fjords represent the three regions of the county, Nordfjord, Sunnfjord, and Sogn, nearly all villages and towns are situated along one of these fjords and the name of the county is based on the fjords. The county is divided into three traditional districts. These are Sogn, Sunnfjord, and Nordfjord, Sogn surrounds Sognefjorden from Solund on the offshore island of Sula in the North Sea to the village of Skjolden in Luster along Lustrafjorden, a branch of the Sognefjord. The total length is 204 kilometres, the middle district of Sunnfjord actually has two main fjords, Førdefjorden and Dalsfjorden. Sogn og Fjordane is the county in Norway in which all municipalities have declared Nynorsk to be their official written form of the Norwegian language. The county currently consists of the two counties, Firdafylke and Sygnafylke. These both were formed in the Middle Ages under the Gulating government and they were merged with Hordafylke and Sunnmørafylke to form the Bergenhus len in the late Middle Ages. The Bergenhus len was one of four len in Norway and it was administered from the Bergenhus Fortress in the city of Bergen. On 19 February 1662, a decree changed the name to Bergenhus amt. The Sunnmøre region was moved to Romsdalen amt in 1689, later, in 1763, the amt was divided in half creating, Nordre Bergenhus and Søndre Bergenhus. Later, on 1 January 1919, Nordre Bergenhus amt was renamed Sogn og Fjordane fylke during a period of time when many location names in Norway were changed, a county is the chief local administrative area in Norway
18.
Storting
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The Storting is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. The unicameral parliament has 169 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation in nineteen plural member constituencies, a member of the Storting is known in Norwegian as a Stortingsrepresentant, literally Storting representative. The assembly is led by a president and, since 2009 five vice presidents — the presidium, the members are allocated to twelve standing committees, as well as four procedural committees. Three ombudsmen are directly subordinate to parliament, the Parliamentary Intelligence Oversight Committee, in 2009, qualified unicameralism was replaced by unicameralism, through the dissolution of the two chambers, the Lagting and the Odelsting. Since 2013 Olemic Thommessen has been president, the alltings were where legal and political matters were discussed. As oral laws became codified and Norway unified as an entity in the 10th century. The Parliament of Norway Building opened in 1866, on 27 June 1940 the presidium signed an appeal to King Haakon, about his abdication. In September 1940 the representatives were summoned to Oslo, and voted in favour of the results of the negotiations between the presidium and the authorities of the German invaders, however, directives from Adolf Hitler resulted in the obstruction of the agreement of cooperation between parliament and occupation force. Although the Storting has always been unicameral, until 2009 it would divide itself into two departments in legislative matters. After elections, the Storting would elect a quarter of its membership to form the Lagting a sort of upper house, the division was also used on very rare occasions in cases of impeachment. The original idea in 1814 was probably to have the Lagting act as an upper house. Bills were submitted by the Government to the Odelsting or by a member of the Odelsting, a standing committee, with members from both the Odelsting and Lagting, would then consider the bill, and in some cases hearings were held. If passed by the Odelsting, the bill would be sent to the Lagting for review or revision, most bills were passed unamended by the Lagting and then sent directly to the king for royal assent. If the Lagting amended the Odelstings decision, the bill would be sent back to the Odelsting, if the Odelsting approved the Lagtings amendments, the bill would be signed into law by the King. If it did not, then the bill would return to the Lagting, if the Lagting still proposed amendments, the bill would be submitted a plenary session of the Storting. In order to be passed, the bill should have then had the approval of a majority of the plenary session. In all other cases a majority would suffice. Three days had to pass between each time a department voted on a bill, in all other cases, such as taxes and appropriations, the Storting would meet in plenary sessions
19.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
20.
Karlstad
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Karlstad is a city, the seat of Karlstad Municipality, the capital of Värmland County, and the largest city in the province Värmland in Sweden. The city had 61,685 inhabitants in 2010 with 89,245 inhabitants in the municipality in 2015. Karlstad has a university and a cathedral, Karlstad is built on the river delta where Swedens longest river, Klarälven, runs into Swedens largest lake, Vänern. It has the second largest lake port in the country after Västerås, Karlstad is often associated with sunshine and the symbol for Karlstad is a smiling sun. Karlstad is reputed to be one of the sunniest towns in Sweden, on Karlstads largest islet, there was a place of counsel called Tingvalla in the medieval age, which had roots from the Viking Age before 1000 AD. It was also used as a market place, Karlstad was granted its city charter on March 5,1584 by the Swedish Duke Charles, who would later be crowned King Charles IX of Sweden. The city derives its name from the King – Karlstad literally means Charles city, the Duke also granted Karlstad the right as a governmental seat in the region, and gave it a substantial amount of land. The Duke built his own house in the city, which is referred to as Kungsgården, Karlstads Cathedral was built on the location Kungsgården in 1724–1730 by Christian Haller. Then most significant coup détat in modern Swedish history had its beginning in Karlstad, during the night of 7 March 1809, lieutenant-colonel Georg Adlersparre used the part of the western army that was stationed in Värmland to occupy Karlstad. From there officially proclaimed a revolution, and during 9 March, he, Karlstad has suffered four major fires. Only the cathedral and a few houses remained after the last fire on July 2,1865, Karlstad was thereafter rebuilt according to a grid pattern with wide streets surrounded by trees. In 1905, the agreement to dissolve the union between Norway and Sweden was negotiated and signed in Karlstad, the official language, Swedish, is the native language of a big majority and also spoken by most people in Karlstad. The majority of students in Värmland need to commute or move to Karlstad for their secondary education. Tertiary education is offered by Karlstad University, which was granted university status in 1999, värmlands Folkblad and NWT are the two local newspapers. Ice hockey is a popular spectator sport in Karlstad. The most popular club is Färjestad BK, the team plays in the Swedish Hockey League and their home arena is Löfbergs Arena. The club has won the Swedish Championship several times, most recently in 2011, several other ice hockey clubs exist and Karlstad is also represented in the 1st Division of ice hockey by the team Skåre BK. The 2010 Mens World Inline Hockey Championships was also hosted by Karlstad, traditionally, bandy has been the most popular winter sport in Karlstad, and the city is the home of two of the historically most successful clubs in Sweden, IF Boltic and IF Karlstad-Göta
21.
Constitutional monarchy
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A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
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Monarchy
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The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
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Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
24.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
25.
Norsk Hydro
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Norsk Hydro ASA is a Norwegian aluminium and renewable energy company, headquartered in Oslo. Hydro is one of the largest aluminium companies worldwide and it has operations in some 50 countries around the world and is active on all continents. The Norwegian state owns 43. 8% of the company through the Ministry of Trade, a further 6. 5% is owned by Folketrygdfond, which administers the Government Pension Fund of Norway. Norsk Hydro employs approximately 12,500 people, Svein Richard Brandtzæg has been the CEO since 2009. The company had a significant presence in the oil and gas industry until October 2007, the technology had been developed by the Norwegian scientist Kristian Birkeland. The method is known as the Birkeland–Eyde process. The process required large amounts of energy, and for this. Later also Rjukan Falls was developed and its power harnessed, in the establishing the city of Rjukan. Hydros first factory was built at Notodden followed up another at Rjukan. Then in 1912 production is established at Glomfjord in Nordland, in 1930 Norsk Hydro opened a plant at Herøya outside Porsgrunn. To begin with it was to function as a port for the fertilizer as well as a point to import limestone. From 1936 Hydro also started producing fertilizer at Herøya, there was also opened a railway, Rjukanbanen, connecting Rjukan with Hærøy. The railway opened in 1909 and consisted of a ferry across Lake Tinn, railway again with the Tinnoset Line. The canal was superseded by the Bratsberg Line in 1916, by 1945, IG Farben had become a majority shareholder in Norsk Hydro. The plant at Herøya was a result of no longer being dependent on immediate proximity to the power sources. This provided the advantage of being able to have the plants, the first steps towards light metal production came in 1940 when Hydro started construction of a magnesium carbonate plant at Herøya, but the German invasion of Norway stopped the plans. In 1941 the Oslo Consortium invested money equivalent to year 2014 Norwegian kroner 172 million, collaboration with the Nazi-German regime, did not result in any company employees being convicted after the war. During the Second World War Norsk Hydro collaborated with IG Farben, the construction was however ended on July 24,1943 when an allied bombardment completely destroyed the facilities, killing 55 construction workers
26.
Olav V of Norway
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Olav V was King of Norway from 1957 until his death. Olav was the child of Haakon VII and Maud of Wales. He became heir apparent to the Norwegian throne when his father was elected King of Norway in 1905. He was the first heir to the Norwegian throne to be brought up in Norway since Olav IV, in preparation for his future role, he attended both civilian and military schools. In 1929, he married his first cousin Princess Märtha of Sweden, during World War II his leadership was much appreciated and he was appointed Norwegian Chief of Defence in 1944. At his death in 1991, he was the last surviving grandchild of Edward VII of the United Kingdom, due to his considerate, down-to-earth style, King Olav was immensely popular, resulting in the nickname Folkekongen. In a 2005 poll by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, Olav was voted Norwegian of the century, Olav was a Danish prince born in Appleton House on the royal Sandringham Estate, Flitcham, United Kingdom. He was named Alexander Edward Christian Frederik, when his father was elected king of Norway, he took the Norwegian name Haakon VII, and on the day he was inaugurated, he gave his son the Norwegian name Olav. Olav was the first heir to the throne since medieval times to have raised in Norway. Unlike his father, who was an officer, Olav chose to complete his main military education in the army. He graduated from the three-year Norwegian Military Academy in 1924, with the fourth best score in his class, Olav then went on to study jurisprudence and economics for two years at Balliol College, Oxford. During the 1930s, Crown Prince Olav was a naval cadet serving on the training ship Olav Tryggvason. Olav moved upwards in the ranks of the Norwegian armed forces, rising in the army from a rank of first lieutenant, to captain in 1931. Olav jumped from the Holmenkollen ski jump in Oslo, and also competed in sailing regattas and he won a gold medal in sailing at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam and remained an active sailor into old age. On 21 March 1929 in Oslo, he married his first cousin Princess Märtha of Sweden with whom he had two daughters, Ragnhild and Astrid and one son, Harald. As exiles during World War II, Crown Princess Märtha and the children lived in Washington. She died in 1954, before her husband ascended the throne, as Crown Prince, Olav had received extensive military training and had participated in most major Norwegian military exercises. Because of this he was one of the most knowledgeable Norwegian military leaders and was respected by other Allied leaders for his knowledge
27.
Storting building
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The Storting building is the seat of the Storting, the parliament of Norway, located in central Oslo. Located at 22 Karl Johans gate, it was taken into use on 5 March 1866 and was designed by the Swedish architect Emil Victor Langlet, from 1854, the legislature started using the grand hall at the Royal Frederick University. However, proposals of an own parliament building had arisen, the parliament voted down a government proposal to create such a building in 1833, but in 1836, the work to establish a permanent building started. Twelve lots in central Oslo, located between the Royal Palace and Oslo East Station, the government decided to build in the Palace Park, and this was passed by the parliament. However, instead the government chose to purchase the current lot instead and this was approved by parliament in 1857. The next discussion was related to the architecture, several proposals were made, and twelve of these have been preserved. A design competition was initiated in 1856, and this was won by the architects Heinrich Ernst Schirmer, however, the Storting decided to reject the proposal because it looked too much like a church. Instead, a proposal from the Swedish architect Emil Victor Langlet was chosen with 59 against 47 votes on 18 May 1860, construction started on 3 August 1860, and the cornerstone was laid on 10 October 1861. The parliament moved in on 5 March 1866, as the parliament has expanded, these various agencies have moved out. During the German invasion of Norway on 9 April 1940, the Storting relocated, the remaining meetings during World War II were held abroad. During the war, the building was taken over by the German forces, later, Reichskommissar Josef Terboven with administration moved into the building. The Lagting Chamber was refurnished, with the lowered and the interior redecorated with mahogany panels. From 1951 to 1959, an office building was built at the back of the building. The courtyard was filled in, and the chamber expanded and this work was led by architect Nils Holter. In 1872, parliament bought Prinsens gate 26, in 1988 they bought Akersgata 21, in 1993 Nedre Vollgate 20, in 1997 Nedre Vollgate 18, the parliament also rents offices in Akersgata 18. The building is built in brick with details and basement in light gray granite. It is a combination of styles, including inspirations from France. A characteristic feature of Stortingsbygningen is the way the plenary chamber is located in the section in the front of the building
28.
Knut Hamsun
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Knut Hamsun was a major Norwegian writer, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1920. Hamsuns work spans more than 70 years and shows variation with regard to the subject, perspective and he published more than 20 novels, a collection of poetry, some short stories and plays, a travelogue, and some essays. The young Hamsun objected to realism and naturalism and he argued that the main object of modernist literature should be the intricacies of the human mind, that writers should describe the whisper of blood, and the pleading of bone marrow. Hamsun is considered the leader of the Neo-Romantic revolt at the turn of the 20th century, with such as Hunger, Mysteries, Pan. His later works—in particular his Nordland novels—were influenced by the Norwegian new realism, portraying life in rural Norway and often employing local dialect, irony. Hamsun is considered to be one of the most influential and innovative literary stylists of the past hundred years, isaac Bashevis Singer called Hamsun the father of the modern school of literature in his every aspect—his subjectiveness, his fragmentariness, his use of flashbacks, his lyricism. The whole modern school of fiction in the twentieth century stems from Hamsun, on August 4,2009, the Knut Hamsun Centre was opened in Hamarøy. Since 1916, several of Hamsuns works have been adapted into motion pictures, Knut Hamsun was born as Knud Pedersen in Lom in the Gudbrandsdal valley of Norway. He was the son of Tora Olsdatter and Peder Pedersen. When he was three, the moved to Hamsund, Hamarøy in Nordland. They were poor and an uncle had invited them to farm his land for him, at nine Knut was separated from his family and lived with his uncle Hans Olsen, who needed help with the post office he ran. Olsen used to beat and starve his nephew, and Hamsun later stated that his chronic nervous difficulties were due to the way his uncle treated him. In 1874 he finally escaped back to Lom, for the five years he did any job for money, he was a store clerk, peddler, shoemakers apprentice, sheriffs assistant. At 17 he became an apprentice, at about the same time he started to write. He asked businessman Erasmus Zahl to give him significant monetary support, Hamsun later used Zahl as a model for the character Mack appearing in his novels Pan, Dreamers, and Benoni and Rosa. He spent several years in America, traveling and working at various jobs, working all those odd jobs paid off, and he published his first book about it, Den Gaadefulde, En Kjærlighedshistorie fra Nordland. In his second novel Bjørger, he attempted to imitate Bjørnstjerne Bjørnsons writing style of the Icelandic saga narrative, the melodramatic story follows a poet Bjørger and his love for Laura. This book was published under the pseudonym Knud Pedersen Hamsund and this book later served as the basis for Victoria, En Kærligheds Historie
29.
Alexander Kielland
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Alexander Lange Kielland was one of the most famous Norwegian realistic writers of the 19th century. He is one of the so-called The Four Greats of Norwegian literature, along with Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, born in Stavanger, Norway, he grew up in a rich merchant family. He was the son of consul Jens Zetlitz Kielland and great-grandson of Gabriel Schanche Kielland, Kielland was the younger brother of Norwegian landscape painter Kitty Lange Kielland. His great niece Axeliane Christiane Zetlitz Kielland married Agnar Mykle, despite being born wealthy, he had a sincere affection for the less fortunate, treating his workers well when he was a factory owner. He remained a spokesman for the weak and a critic of society throughout his time as a writer and his best known plays were the satirical comedies Tre Par and Professoren. He was also known for his short stories. Among his most famous works are the novels Gift, Skipper Worse, Gift is the first of a trilogy including Fortuna and St. Hans Fest. In this trilogy, Kielland satirizes the hypocrisy of Norways clergy, in Gift, Kielland debates the preference for Latin that Norwegian teachers had during his time. The story features a boy called Marius, lying on his deathbed while repeating Latin grammar. From 1889 to 1890, Kielland worked as a journalist for the newspaper Stavanger Avis, Kielland virtually stopped writing fiction in 1891 and published only stories which had been published earlier. In 1891 he was designated the mayor of his hometown, Stavanger and it has been debated why Kielland ended his career as a writer so early. Some believe that he was so much of a realist that he could not deal with the tendencies of Norwegian literature at the end of the 19th century. A more probable reason is that he chose to focus on his political career, the biography of Alexander L. Kielland by Tor Obrestad includes thoughts about Kielland dying from obesity. Already from the mid-1880s, Kielland had suffered from shortness of breath and he had several heart attacks, constantly gained weight, and couldnt control his great passion for food. Novelletter,1879 Nye novelletter,1880 To Novelletter fra Danmark,1882 Garman & Worse,1880 - Arbeidsfolk,1881 Else,1881 Skipper Worse,1882
30.
1945 in Norway
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Events in the year 1945 in Norway. 9 February -29 Norwegians were executed by the Nazi regime in Norway as reprisal of Marthinsens death, among others Jon Vislie, Kaare Sundby and Haakon Sæthre. The extent and severity of the reprisals shocked the Norwegian population and government-in-exile,9 February - Black Friday, a large air battle between German and British aircraft over Sunnfjord. It was the largest aerial clash over Norway during World War II,7 May - Knut Hamsun released his obituary of Adolf Hitler. 8 May - The occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany ended as German forces agreed to an unconditional surrender,8 May - Grini concentration camp was liberated, only to be used later for treason suspects under the name Ilebu. 8 May - Josef Terboven and Wilhelm Rediess committed suicide,9 May - Vidkun Quisling was arrested. 11 May - Sverre Riisnæs gave up his entrenchment at Skallum farm, jonas Lie died during the entrenchment. 11 May - Akershus Fortress surrendered by the Germans to Terje Rollem acting on behalf of the resistance,13 May - Heinrich Fehlis was arrested and committed suicide. 14 May - Henry Rinnan was arrested,31 May - Government returned from exile in London. 6 June - King Haakon VII of Norway returned to Norway,14 June - Knut Hamsun was apprehended. 20 June - Paal Berg gave up plans to form a broad,25 June - Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold resigned as Haakon VII appointed Einar Gerhardsen to head an interim government composed of all political parties. 6 July - Norway declares war on Japan,25 July – Gerhardsens First Cabinet was appointed. 17 August - Reidar Haaland was executed,8 October - The 1945 Parliamentary election takes place. 24 October - Vidkun Quisling was executed by firing squad at Akershus Fortress,5 November – Gerhardsens Second Cabinet was appointed. 24 December - Henry Rinnan escaped from prison, only to be apprehended later, IG Farben was the largest stock-holder in Norsk Hydro. The two companies first formed a partnership in 1927. The newspaper Verdens Gang was founded, the periodical Kvinnen og Tiden is founded. Municipal and county elections are held throughout the country
31.
1961 in Norway
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Events in the year 1961 in Norway. Monarch - Olav V Prime Minister - Einar Gerhardsen 12 January - Princess Astrid marries Johan Martin Ferner, march - Ingrid Bjerkås, ordained as first female minister in the Church of Norway 15 April - The Socialist Peoples Party was founded. 9 August - Holtaheia Accident, A British passenger plane crashes in Strand, all 39 passengers aboard, including 34 children, are killed. 11 September - The 1961 Parliamentary election takes place
32.
1981 in Norway
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Events in the year 1981 in Norway. Monarch - Olav V Prime Minister - Odvar Nordli until 4 February, Gro Harlem Brundtland until 14 October, Gro Harlem Brundtland becomes the first female Prime Minister of Norway 14 October - The government of Gro Harlem Brundtland resigns 14 October – Willochs First Cabinet was appointed. 5 November - Five people are killed when a seaplane crashes in the Forsand municipality,6 December – The 1981 Parliamentary election takes place. Norway becomes the first country in the world to enact a law to prevent discrimination against homosexuals, the Hessdalen light UFO phenomenon emerged in December and occurred with high frequency for the next several years. 1 February - Geirr Tveitt, composer and pianist 11 February - Haakon Olsen Wika, politician 11 March - Jonas Enge, politician 4 April - Aanund Bjørnsson Berdal, engineer. 11 May - Odd Hassel, physical chemist and Nobel Laureate 7 June - Asbjørn Listerud, politician 2 August – Kåre Norum, educator
33.
1989 in Norway
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Events in the year 1989 in Norway. Monarch - Olav V Prime Minister - Gro Harlem Brundtland until 16 October, Jan P. Syse 30 March – The Oseberg oil field,1 June – Pope John Paul II visited Norway for the first time. This was the first time a pope has ever visited Norway,9 May - the ban on Skateboarding in Norway, which was in act since 1978, is removed. 7 July – The opening of the Atlanterhavsveien Road,8 September – A Norwegian passenger plane crashed outside Hirtshals. All the 55 on board died,11 September – The 1989 Parliamentary election takes place. 9 October – The opening of the Sami Parliament of Norway,16 October – Gro Harlem Brundtland resigns, with her cabinet, as Prime Minister of Norway for the second time. 16 October – Syses Cabinet was appointed,3 November - Torgeir Bryn becomes the first Norwegian to play in the NBA, when he played 2 minutes for the Los Angeles Clippers against Houston Rockets
