1.
1901 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1901. Data coutersy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
2.
1902 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1902. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
3.
1903 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1903. Data coutersy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list, sanders F, Manley K, Carpenter K. Gastroliths from the Lower Cretaceous sauropod Cedarosaurus weiskopfae. In, Tanke D. H, Carpenter K, editors, mesozoic vertebrate life, new research inspired by the paleontology of Philip J. Currie. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN,2001, north American Plesiosaurs, Field Columbian Museum Publication 73, Geological Series, II, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago
4.
1904 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1904. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list, stomach stones and food of plesiosaurs, Science, n. s. 20, 184-185 Sanders F, Manley K, Carpenter K. Gastroliths from the Lower Cretaceous sauropod Cedarosaurus weiskopfae, in, Tanke D. H, Carpenter K, editors. Mesozoic vertebrate life, new research inspired by the paleontology of Philip J. Currie, indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN,2001. Williston, Samuel Wendel,1904, The stomach stones of the plesiosaurs, Science,20 pp.565, American Association for the Advancement of Science
5.
1906 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1906. Wieland claims to have found stegosaur gastroliths, data coutersy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list. Sanders F, Manley K, Carpenter K. Gastroliths from the Lower Cretaceous sauropod Cedarosaurus weiskopfae, in, Tanke D. H, Carpenter K, editors. Mesozoic vertebrate life, new research inspired by the paleontology of Philip J. Currie, indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN,2001
6.
1907 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1907. Wieland claims to have found stegosaur gastroliths, brown argues that Wielands alleged stegosaur gastroliths were not associated with the stegosaur bones in question. Data coutersy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list, sanders F, Manley K, Carpenter K. Gastroliths from the Lower Cretaceous sauropod Cedarosaurus weiskopfae. In, Tanke D. H, Carpenter K, editors, mesozoic vertebrate life, new research inspired by the paleontology of Philip J. Currie. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN,2001
7.
1908 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1908. Data coutersy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
8.
1909 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1909. Data coutersy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list, death of Harry Govier Seeley, the paleontologist who invented the Saurischian/Ornithischian dinosaur dichotomy
9.
1910 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1910. AMNH5244, a braincase, was found isolated during an American Museum of Natural History Barnum Brown-led expedition. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
10.
1911 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1911. The Calgary Public Museum opened in Alberta, Canada, data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
11.
1912 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1912. William Edmund Cutler first began collecting fossils, choosing the mouth of Kneehills Creek in Alberta as a prospecting site, according to paleontologist Darren Tanke, Cutler was motivated by commercial gain. Charles H. Sternberg and his sons began working under a contract with the Geological Survey of Canada, the Calgary Public Museum of Alberta, Canada moved to occupy a single floor of the citys Memorial Park Library Building. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list, the Lost World by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was published. This novel was the first major portrayal of dinosaurs in the 20th century. It was also the first work of fiction to depict dinosaurs as surviving somewhere in a remote wilderness refuge, Conan Doyle depicted the novels dinosaurs as cold blooded and stupid. Nevertheless, Sarjeant also noted that while Conan Doyle underestimated pterosaur flying abilities, he anticipated the later scientific conclusion that they were social animals
12.
1913 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1913. April, William Edmund Cutler prospected in Dinosaur Provincial Park and his work was underwritten by the Calgary Syndicate for Prehistoric Research, a group of local philanthropist businessmen, and a small local museum, the Calgary Public Museum, which no long exists. Summer, The American Museum of Natural History dispatched a team of hunters to Dinosaur Provincial Park. Cutler joined the expedition but was asked to leave only a few months of involvement. Cutler excavated a juvenile Grypsaurus now catalogued by the Canadian Museum of Nature as CMN8784, the site of the excavation has since been designated quarry 252. Winter, Cutler partly prepared the young Gryposaurus specimen, possibly in Calgary while working on dinosaurs for Euston Sisely. A US Geological Survey crew headed by Eugene Stebinger and a US National Museum crew headed by Charles Gilmore worked together to excavate the first dinosaur discovery of the Two Medicine Formation, data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
13.
1914 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1914. Eugene Stebinger became the first to identify the Two Medicine Formation and to formally described its first fossil finds, data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list. Trexler, D.2001, Two Medicine Formation, Montana, geology and fauna, In, Mesozoic Vertebrate Life, edited by Tanke, D. H. and Carpenter, K. Indiana University Press, pp. 298–309
14.
1915 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1915. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
15.
1903 in science
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The year 1903 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. June 27 – 19-year-old American socialite Aida de Acosta becomes the first woman to fly an aircraft solo when she pilots Santos-Dumonts motorized dirigible. 9, from Paris to Château de Bagatelle in France, december 17 – First documented, successful, controlled, powered flight of a heavier-than-air aircraft with a petrol engine by Orville Wright in the Wright Flyer at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of papers discussing the use of liquid fuel rockets to reach space, space suits. The type specimen of the squid is described by Carl Chun. Fauna and Flora International is founded as the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire by a group of British naturalists, formal opening of the Johnston Laboratories at the University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England. Peter Cooper Hewitt demonstrates the mercury-vapour lamp, mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet invents chromatography, an important analytic technique. The International Committee of Atomic Weights publishes the inaugural atomic weights report, october – Frank Nelson Cole demonstrates that the Mersenne number 267-1, or M67, is composite by factoring it as 193,707,721 *761,838,257,287. Fast Fourier Transform algorithm presented by Carle David Tolmé Runge, edmund Georg Hermann Landau gives considerably simpler proof of the prime number theorem. March–April – David Bruce identifies the parasitic Trypanosoma protist as the source of African trypanosomiasis, may 10 – Antoni Leśniowski publishes the first article implicating what will later be known as Crohns disease, in the Polish weekly medical newspaper Medycyna. Ernest Fourneau synthesizes and patents Amylocaine, the first synthetic local anesthetic, George Darwin and John Joly claim that radioactivity is partially responsible for the Earths heat. Prosper-René Blondlot claims to have detected N rays, norwegian engineer Ægidius Elling builds the first gas turbine to generate power, using a centrifugal compressor. Laminated glass is invented by Edouard Benedictus, baker valve gear for steam locomotives is first patented in the United States. The Lune Valley boiler is patented by John G. A, january 27 – John Eccles, Australian-born psychologist. January 28 – Kathleen Lonsdale, née Yardley, Irish-born crystallographer, february 2 – Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, Dutch mathematician. February 22 – Frank P. Ramsey, English mathematician, april 6 – Doc Harold Eugene Edgerton, American electrical engineer. April 9 – Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist, co-inventor of the oral contraceptive pill. April 25 – Andrey Kolmogorov, Russian mathematician, may 2 – Benjamin Spock, American pediatrician and writer
16.
1905 in science
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The year 1905 in science and technology involved some significant events, particularly in physics, listed below. January 2 – Charles Dillon Perrine at Lick Observatory discovers Elara, the Dominion Observatory opens in Ottawa. Various astronomers discover the minor planets 554 Peraga through 583 Klotilde, the nova V604 Aquilae appears in the constellation Aquila. The Umov effect is noted by Nikolay Umov, april 18 – William Bateson coins the term genetics in a letter to Adam Sedgwick. Reginald Punnetts Mendelism is published in Cambridge, probably the first popular book on genetics. Frederick Blackman proposes his law of limiting factors in relation to photosynthesis, nettie Stevens and Edmund Beecher Wilson independently describe the XY sex-determination system. Stamen Grigorov identifies the bacterium Lactobacillus bulgaricus, an agent in the creation of yogurt. Maltese doctor and archaeologist Themistocles Zammit identifies unpasteurized milk as the source of the pathogen causing Brucellosis. National Association of Audubon Societies for the Protection of Wild Birds, Carl von Linde obtains pure liquid oxygen and nitrogen by cooling air. Alfred Einhorn synthesises the local anesthetic novocaine, the first commercial use of the Frank–Caro process for the nitrogen fixation reaction of calcium carbide and atmospheric nitrogen to produce calcium nitrate as a fertilizer. Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch develop the Haber process for making ammonia from its elements, pierre Fatou defines the Mandelbrot set. Oswald Veblen proves the Jordan curve theorem, martin Kutta describes the popular fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. James Cullen, S. J. begins the study of Cullen numbers, emanuel Lasker proves the Lasker–Noether theorem for the special case of polynomial rings. The Saurian Expedition led by John C, merriam recovers many specimens of ichthyosaur. Tyrannosaurus rex is described and named by Henry Fairfield Osborn, albert Einstein publishes his four Annus Mirabilis papers. In particular, he formulates the theory of relativity and states the law of mass-energy conservation. He also explains the effect by quantization and mathematically analyzes Brownian motion. Because of this,1905 is said to be the year for physics
17.
1905 in art
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Summer – Henri Matisse and André Derain work together in the French Mediterranean village of Collioure. October – Salon dAutomne in Paris, the colors used by Matisse and others lead the critic Louis Vauxcelles to describe their works derisively as les Fauves. Die Brücke group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden, léon Bonnat succeeds Paul Dubois as director of the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Steichen open the Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession photo art gallery on Fifth Avenue in New York City, opening of the Gibbes Museum of Art in Charleston, South Carolina. Jacob Epstein establishes his studio in London
18.
1905 in architecture
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The year 1905 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. October 18 - London County Councils new street at Kingsway and redevelopment of Aldwych are opened, work begins on Stoclet Palace, Brussels, designed by Josef Hoffmann. Formation of the Dresden Die Brücke expressionist architecture movement, february 27 - Berlin Cathedral in Berlin, Germany, is inaugurated. June 11 - National Theatre of Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela September 27 - Arcade du Cinquantenaire in Brussels, Belgium, november - The Plaza Grill and Cinema, Ottawa, Kansas, possibly the oldest movie theater in the United States that is still in operation. Darwin D. Martin House in Buffalo, New York, USA, zacherlhaus in Vienna, Austria, designed by Jože Plečnik. Land Administration Building in Brisbane, Australia, designed by Thomas Pye, st. Stephens Basilica in Budapest, Hungary, completed by József Kauser to an 1851 design by Miklós Ybl. Hôtel de ville in Sfax, Tunisia, designed by Raphaël Guy, voewood, High Kelling, Norfolk, UK, designed by E. S. Prior. Antwerpen-Centraal railway station in Belgium, designed by Louis Delacenserie, murry Guggenheim House in West Long Branch, New Jersey, designed by Carrère and Hastings. Royal Gold Medal - Aston Webb, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Albert Henry Krehbiel. C. August 2 - Cesar Castellani, Maltese architect working in British Guiana August 22 - Alfred Waterhouse, English architect of the Gothic Revival
19.
1905 in music
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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1905. January 6 - Premiere of Leoš Janáčeks piano cycle On an Overgrown Path at the Besední dům Hall in Brno, January 26 - Arnold Schoenbergs symphonic poem Pelleas und Melisande is premiered in Vienna. January 29 - Gustav Mahlers Kindertotenlieder is premiered in Vienna, september - The lyrics of Rabindranath Tagores song Amar Shonar Bangla are published in two magazines. They are later adopted as the anthem of Bangladesh. October - The opera house at Nancy, France, is destroyed by fire, october 15 - Claude Debussys La Mer is premiered in Paris. October 21 - Henry Wood first conducts a performance of his Fantasia on British Sea Songs at a Trafalgar Day concert in London, Otto Klemperer meets Mahler for the first time, while conducting one of his works. Hery Frantzen Come Clean by Paul Sarebresole Daddys Little Girl w. Edward Madden m. Theodore F. Morse Dearie w. m, clare Kummer Down Where The Silvry Mohawk Flows w. Monroe Rosenfeld m. John A. Heinzman & Otto Milton Heinzman Everybody Works But Father w. m, Jean Havez Farewell, Mister Abner Hemingway w. William Jerome m. Jean Schwartz Forty-Five Minutes From Broadway w. m, George M. Cohan from the musical of the same name. Friends That Are Good And True Eysler G. O. P. Bryan, Hoffman Gee, but This Is A Lonesome Town Gaston The Girl Who Cares For Me w. Gus Edwards Goodbye, Maggie Doyle Jean Schwartz Good-bye, Sweet Old Manhattan Isle w. William Jerome m. Jean Schwartz Goodbye, Sweetheart, Goodbye w. Arthur J. Lamb m. Harry von Tilzer Happy Heine m. J. Bodewalt Lampe Hes Me Pal w. Vincent P. Bryan m. Victor Herbert I Would Like To Marry You w. m. Edward Laska I Thought It Was My Birthday Come w. m, T. W. Connor If A Girl Like You Loved A Boy Like Me w. m. Gus Edwards If The Man In The Moon Were A Coon w. m, Fred Fisher Im Getting Sleepy w. Wilbur U. Gumm m. Joe Hollander Im The Only Star That Twinkles On Broadway w. Andrew B, sterling m. Harry von Tilzer Im Trying To Find A Sweetheart w. Jean Lenox m. Henry O. Sutton In Dear Old Georgia w. Harry Williams m. Egbert Van Alstyne In My Merry Oldsmobile w. Vincent P. Bryan m, gus Edwards In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree w. Harry H. Williams m. Egbert Van Alstyne The Irish Girl I Love w. George V. Hobart m, W. Frank Williams m. Ernest Hogan & Tom Lemonier It Aint All Honey And It Aint All Jam w. m. Fred Murray & George Everard Its Allus De Same In Dixie Cook Ive Got A Little Money And Ive Saved It All For You Farrell, Silver Ive Sweethearts In Every Port Keith Jolly Pickaninnies m
20.
Paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms evolution and interactions with each other, paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuviers work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός, palaios, i. e. old, ancient, ὄν, on, i. e. being, creature and λόγος, logos, i. e. speech, thought, study. Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of modern humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics. The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend. The simplest definition is the study of ancient life, paleontology is one of the historical sciences, along with archaeology, geology, astronomy, cosmology, philology and history itself. This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past, hence it has three main elements, description of the phenomena, developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change, and applying those theories to specific facts. Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by an accident during other research. Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life but its source of evidence is fossils. In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences, including biology, osteology, ecology, chemistry, techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked, for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions, vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates, from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of such as molluscs, arthropods. Paleobotany focuses on the study of plants, but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae. Palynology, the study of pollen and spores produced by plants and protists. Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong, one example is the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria, which hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems. This also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere, together, these were a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built
21.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
22.
Prehistory
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Prehistory means literally before history, from the Latin word for before, præ, and Greek ιστορία. Neighbouring civilisations were the first to follow, most other civilisations reached the end of prehistory during the Iron Age. The period when a culture is written about by others, but has not developed its own writing is known as the protohistory of the culture. By definition, there are no records from human prehistory. Clear techniques for dating were not well-developed until the 19th century and this article is concerned with human prehistory as defined here above. There are separate articles for the history of the Earth. However, for the race as a whole, prehistory ends when recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC. For example, in Egypt it is accepted that prehistory ended around 3200 BC, whereas in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently. The three-age system is the periodization of prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for their respective predominant tool-making technologies, Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age. The notion of prehistory began to surface during the Enlightenment in the work of antiquarians who used the word primitive to describe societies that existed before written records, the first use of the word prehistory in English, however, occurred in the Foreign Quarterly Review in 1836. The main source for prehistory is archaeology, but some scholars are beginning to more use of evidence from the natural and social sciences. This view has been articulated by advocates of deep history, human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight for these questions. Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology, restricted to material processes, remains and artifacts rather than written records, prehistory is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that use, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. Palaeolithic means Old Stone Age, and begins with the first use of stone tools, the Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The early part of the Palaeolithic is called the Lower Palaeolithic, evidence of control of fire by early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic Era is uncertain and has at best limited scholarly support. The most widely accepted claim is that H. erectus or H. ergaster made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP in a site at Bnot Yaakov Bridge, Israel. The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food, provide warmth, Early Homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic
23.
Organism
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In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, protist, archaeon, or bacterium. All known types of organisms are capable of some degree of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development and homeostasis. An organism consists of one or more cells, when it has one cell it is known as an organism. Most unicellular organisms are of microscopic scale and are thus described as microorganisms. Humans are multicellular organisms composed of trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues. An organism may be either a prokaryote or a eukaryote, prokaryotes are represented by two separate domains—bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic organisms are characterized by the presence of a cell nucleus. Fungi, animals and plants are examples of kingdoms of organisms within the eukaryotes, estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been documented. More than 99% of all species, amounting to five billion species. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all living organisms living was identified. The term organism first appeared in the English language in 1703 and it is directly related to the term organization. There is a tradition of defining organisms as self-organizing beings. An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using such as any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth. Many definitions exclude viruses and possible man-made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of individuals working together as a single functional or social unit. There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism, several contributions are responses to the suggestion that the category of organism may well not be adequate in biology. Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction and this controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of independent survival and live as obligatory intracellular parasites
24.
Earth
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Earth, otherwise known as the World, or the Globe, is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life. It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets, according to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earths gravity interacts with objects in space, especially the Sun. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times, thus, Earths axis of rotation is tilted, producing seasonal variations on the planets surface. The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides, stabilizes the Earths orientation on its axis, Earths lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of Earths surface is covered with water, mostly by its oceans, the remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes, rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of Earths polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet, Earths interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earths magnetic field, and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics. Within the first billion years of Earths history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earths atmosphere and surface, some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earths distance from the Sun, physical properties, in the history of the Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events. Over 99% of all species that lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely, over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival. Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures, politically, the world has about 200 sovereign states, the modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms, which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their proto-Germanic root has been reconstructed as *erþō, originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as the globe was expressed as the earth. By early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the became the Earth. More recently, the name is simply given as Earth. House styles now vary, Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the. It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as what on earth are you doing, the oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672±0.0006 billion years ago. By 4. 54±0.04 Gya the primordial Earth had formed, the formation and evolution of Solar System bodies occurred along with the Sun
25.
Fossil
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Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous rock formations and sedimentary layers is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, such a preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than some minimum age, most often the arbitrary date of 10,000 years. The observation that fossils were associated with certain rock strata led early geologists to recognize a geological timescale in the 19th century. The development of dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or absolute age of the various strata. Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, even single bacterial cells one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs, Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces. These types of fossil are called trace fossils, as opposed to body fossils, finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals, these are known as chemofossils or biosignatures. The process of fossilization varies according to type and external conditions. Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried, the empty spaces within an organism become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces and this process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils, for permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decay process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil, some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth, other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues. This is a form of diagenesis, in some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold, if this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An endocast or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the cavity of an organism. This is a form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, if this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization, replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral
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Animal track
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An Animal track is the imprint left behind in soil, snow, mud, or other ground surfaces that an animal walks across. Animal tracks are used by hunters in tracking their prey and by naturalists to identify animals living in a given area. Books are commonly used to identify animal tracks, which may look different based on the weight of the particular animal, tracks can be fossilized over millions of years. It is for this reason we are able to see fossilized dinosaur tracks in some types of rock formations and these types of fossils are called trace fossils since they are a trace of an animal left behind rather than the animal itself. In paleontology, tracks often preserve as sandstone infill, forming a mold of the track
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Burrow
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A burrow is a hole or tunnel excavated into the ground by an animal to create a space suitable for habitation, temporary refuge, or as a byproduct of locomotion. Burrows provide a form of shelter against predation and exposure to the elements and can be found in nearly every biome, a wide variety of vertebrates construct or use burrows in many different types of substrate and can range widely in complexity. Mammals are perhaps most well known for burrowing, especially Insectivora like the voracious mole, the rabbit, a member of the family Lagomorpha, is a well-known burrower. There are estimates that a single burrow can occupy a full cubic metre. Great gerbils live in groups in extensive burrows, which can be seen on satellite images. Even the unoccupied burrows can remain visible in the landscape for years, the burrows are distributed regularly, although the occupied burrows appear to be clustered in space. Even Carnivora like the meerkat, and marsupials, are burrowers, the largest burrowing animal is probably the polar bear when it makes its maternity den in snow or earth. Burrows by birds are made in soft soils, some penguins. The Magellanic penguin is an example, constructing burrows along coastal Patagonian regions of Chile, other burrowing birds are puffins, kingfishers, and bee-eaters. Kangaroo mice construct burrows in fine sand, examples of vertebrate burrowing animals include a number of mammals, amphibians, fish, reptiles, and birds. Scabies mites construct their burrows in the skin of the animal or human. Some sea urchins and clams can burrow into rock, the burrows produced by invertebrate animals can be filled actively or passively. Dwelling burrows which remain open during occupation by an organism are filled passively, actively filled burrows, on the other hand, are filled with material by the burrowing organism itself. The establishment of an invertebrate burrow often involves the soaking of surrounding sediment in mucus in order to prevent collapse, examples of burrowing invertebrates are insects, spiders, sea urchins, crustaceans, clams and worms. Burrows are also preserved in the fossil record as a type of trace fossil. Holt Maternity den Sett- a network of badger tunnels
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Feces
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Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animals digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta, collected feces has various uses, namely as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture, as a fuel source, or for medicinal purposes. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy and this means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. Feces and urine, which reflect light, are important to raptors such as kestrels. Seeds also may be found in feces, animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and this mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle, the distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols and these are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods prepared with spices may result in the spices being undigested, the perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Human perception of the odor may be contrasted by an animals perception of it, for example. In humans and depending on the individual and the circumstances, defecation may occur daily, extensive hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. The brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, in newborn babies, initially fecal matter is yellow-green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone, throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces
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Coprolite
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Coprolites are classified as trace fossils as opposed to body fossils, as they give evidence for the animals behaviour rather than morphology. The name is derived from the Greek words κόπρος and λίθος and they were first described by William Buckland in 1829. Prior to this they were known as fir cones and bezoar stones. They serve a purpose in paleontology because they provide direct evidence of the predation. Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to over 60 centimetres, coprolites, distinct from paleofaeces, are fossilized animal dung. Like other fossils, coprolites have had much of their original composition replaced by mineral deposits such as silicates, in the same context, there are the urolites, erosions caused by evacuation of liquid wastes and nonliquid urinary secretions. The fossil hunter Mary Anning had noticed that bezoar stones were found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons found in the Lias formation at Lyme Regis. She also noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilized fish bones and scales as well as sometimes bones from smaller ichthyosaurs. It was these observations by Anning that led the geologist William Buckland to propose in 1829 that the stones were fossilized feces and named them coprolites. In one example these fossils can be analyzed for certain minerals that are known to exist in trace amounts in certain species of plant that can still be detected millions of years later. In another example, the existence of proteins in coprolites can be used to pinpoint the existence of cannibalistic behavior in an ancient culture. The recognition of coprolites is aided by their structural patterns, such as spiral or annular markings, by their content, such as undigested food fragments, the smallest coprolites are often difficult to distinguish from inorganic pellets or from eggs. Most coprolites are composed chiefly of calcium phosphate, along with quantities of organic matter. By analyzing coprolites, it is possible to infer the diet of the animal which produced them, coprolites have been recorded in deposits ranging in age from the Cambrian period to recent times and are found worldwide. Some of them are useful as index fossils, such as Favreina from the Jurassic period of Haute-Savoie in France, some marine deposits contain a high proportion of fecal remains. However, animal excrement is easily fragmented and destroyed, so usually has little chance of becoming fossilized, realising their potential as a source of available phosphate once they had been treated with sulphuric acid, he patented an extraction process and set about finding new sources. Very soon, coprolites were being mined on a scale for use as fertiliser due to their high phosphate content. The major area of extraction occurred over the east of England, centred on Cambridgeshire, there is a Coprolite Street near Ipswich docks where the Fisons works once stood
30.
Palynology
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Palynology is the study of dust or particles that are strewn. A classic palynologist analyses particulate samples collected from the air, from water, the condition and identification of those particles, organic and inorganic, give the palynologist clues to the life, environment, and energetic conditions that produced them. Palynology does not include diatoms, foraminiferans or other organisms with siliceous or calcareous exoskeletons, palynology is an interdisciplinary science and is a branch of earth science and biological science, particularly plant science. Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeontology and paleobotany, which studies fossil palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene, early investigators include Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Gideon Mantell and Henry Hopley White. Quantitative analysis of pollen began with Lennart von Posts published work, although he published in the Swedish language, his methodology gained a wide audience through his lectures. In particular, his Kristiania lecture of 1916 was important in gaining a wider audience, because the early investigations published in the Nordic languages or Scandinavian languages the field of pollen analysis was confined to those countries. The isolation ended with the German publication of Gunnar Erdtmans 1921 thesis, the methodology of pollen analysis became widespread throughout Europe and North America and revolutionized Quaternary vegetation and climate change research. Earlier pollen researchers were Früh, who enumerated many common tree types. There is a study of samples taken from sediments of Swedish lakes by Trybom, Pinus. Georg F. L. Sarauw studied fossil pollen of middle Pleistocene age from the harbour of Copenhagen, a. Weber appear to be among the first to undertake percentage frequency calculations. The term palynology was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish geologist Antevs, Hyde and Williams chose palynology on the basis of the Greek words paluno meaning to sprinkle and pale meaning dust. Pollen analysis advanced rapidly in this due to advances in optics. Much of the science was revised by Johannes Iversen and Knut Fægri in their textbook on the subject, palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic-walled microfossils between 5 and 500 micrometres in size. They are extracted from sedimentary rocks and sediment cores both physically, by treatment and wet sieving, and chemically, by chemical digestion to remove the non-organic fraction. Palynomorphs may be composed of material such as chitin, pseudochitin and sporopollenin. Palynomorphs that have a taxonomy description are sometimes referred to as palynotaxa, palynomorphs form a geological record of importance in determining the type of prehistoric life that existed at the time the sedimentary formation was laid down. As a result, these microfossils give important clues to the climatic conditions of the time. Their paleontological utility derives from an abundance numbering in millions of cells per gram in organic marine deposits, palynomorphs, however, generally have been destroyed in metamorphic or recrystallized rocks
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Residue (chemistry)
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In chemistry residue is whatever remains or acts as a contaminant after a given class of events. Residue may be the material remaining after a process of preparation, separation, or purification, such as distillation, evaporation and it may also denote the undesired by-products of a chemical reaction. Toxic chemical residues, wastes or contamination from other processes, are a concern in food safety, for example, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency have guidelines for detecting chemical residues that are possibly dangerous to consume. Residue may refer to an atom or a group of atoms that forms part of a molecule, in biochemistry and molecular biology, a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid. One might say, This protein consists of 118 amino acid residues or The histidine residue is considered to be basic because it contains an imidazole ring. Note that a residue is different from a moiety, which, a residue might be one amino acid in a polypeptide or one monosaccharide in a starch molecule
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Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
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Albertosaurus
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Albertosaurus is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaurs that lived in western North America during the Late Cretaceous Period, about 70 million years ago. The type species, A. sarcophagus, was restricted in range to the modern-day Canadian province of Alberta. Scientists disagree on the content of the genus, with some recognizing Gorgosaurus libratus as a second species, as a tyrannosaurid, Albertosaurus was a bipedal predator with tiny, two-fingered hands and a massive head that had dozens of large, sharp teeth. It may have been at the top of the chain in its local ecosystem. The discovery of 26 individuals at one site provides evidence of behaviour and allows studies of ontogeny and population biology. Albertosaurus was smaller than other tyrannosaurids, such as Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus. Typical Albertosaurus adults measured up to 9 m long, while individuals of great age could grow to be over 10 metres long. Several independent mass estimates, obtained by different methods, suggest that an adult Albertosaurus weighed between 1.3 tonnes and 1.7 tonnes, Albertosaurus shared a similar body appearance with all other tyrannosaurids. Typically for a theropod, Albertosaurus was bipedal and balanced the heavy head, however, tyrannosaurid forelimbs were extremely small for their body size and retained only two digits. The hind limbs were long and ended in a foot on which the first digit, called the hallux, was short. The third digit was longer than the rest, Albertosaurus may have been able to reach walking speeds of 14−21 km/hour. At least for the individuals, a high running speed is plausible. The massive skull of Albertosaurus, which was perched on a short, wide openings in the skull reduced the weight of the head while also providing space for muscle attachment and sensory organs. Its long jaws contained, both combined,58 or more banana-shaped teeth, larger tyrannosaurids possessed fewer teeth, Gorgosaurus at least 62. Unlike most theropods, Albertosaurus and other tyrannosaurids were heterodont, with teeth of different forms depending on their position in the mouth. The premaxillary teeth at the tip of the jaw, four per side, were much smaller than the rest, more closely packed. Like with Tyrannosaurus, the teeth of Albertosaurus were adapted in general form to resist lateral forces exerted by a struggling prey. The bite force of Albertosaurus was less formidable, however, with the force, by the hind teeth
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Henry Fairfield Osborn
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Henry Fairfield Osborn, Sr. ForMemRS was an American geologist, paleontologist, and eugenist, and the president of the American Museum of Natural History for 25 years. Son of the prominent railroad tycoon William Henry and Virginia Reed Osborn, Henry Fairfield Osborn was born in Fairfield and he studied at Princeton University, obtaining a B. A. in geology and archaeology, where he was mentored by paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope. In 1880, Osborn obtained a Sc. D. in paleontology from Princeton, becoming a Lecturer in Biology, knight, who made murals of dinosaurs in their habitats and sculptures of the living creatures. On November 23,1897 he was elected member of the Boone and Crockett Club, additionally, Osborn served as President of the New York Zoological Society from 1909 to 1925. Long a member of the US Geological Survey, Osborn became its senior vertebrate paleontologist in 1924 and he led many fossil-hunting expeditions into the American Southwest, starting with his first to Colorado and Wyoming in 1877. Osborn conducted research on Tyrannosaurus brains by cutting open fossilized braincases with a diamond saw and he accumulated a number of prizes for his work in paleontology. In 1901, Osborn was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and he described and named Ornitholestes in 1903, Tyrannosaurus rex in 1905, Pentaceratops in 1923, and Velociraptor in 1924. In 1929 Osborn was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences and his legacy at the American Museum has proved more enduring. Biographer Ronald Rainger has described Osborn as a science administrator. Indeed, Osborns greatest contributions to science ultimately lay in his efforts to popularize it through visual means, the murals, habitat dioramas, and dinosaur mounts executed during his tenure at the museum attracted millions of visitors, and inspired other museums to imitate his innovations. But his decision to invest heavily in exhibition also alienated certain members of the scientific community, additionally, his efforts to imbue the museum’s exhibits and educational programs with his own racist and eugenist beliefs disturbed many of his contemporaries and have marred his legacy. An African dwarf crocodile, Osteolaemus osborni, was named in his honor by Karl Patterson Schmidt in 1919, Osborn developed his own evolution theory of mans origins called the Dawn Man Theory. His theory was founded on the discovery of Piltdown Man which was dated to the Late Pliocene, therefore, Osborn argued that all apes following the pre-Darwinian classification of Linnaeus had evolved entirely parallel to the ancestors of man. While believing in common ancestry between man and ape, Osborn denied that this ancestor was ape-like, the common ancestor between man and ape Osborn always maintained was more Human than ape. Writing to Arthur Keith in 1927, he remarked when our Oligocene ancestor is found it not be an ape. His student William K. Osborn was originally a supporter of Edward Drinker Copes neo-Lamarckism, however, Osborn became a proponent of organic selection, also known as the Baldwin effect. Osborn was a believer in orthogenesis, he coined the term aristogenesis for his theory and his aristogenesis was based on a physicochemical approach to evolution. He believed that aristogenes operate as biomechanisms in the geneplasm of the organism and he also held the view that mutations and natural selection play no creative role in evolution and that aristogenesis was the origin of new novelty
