1.
1897 in science
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The year 1897 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. April 30 – J. J. Thomson first describes his discovery of the electron, adolf Erik Nordenskiöld publishes Periplus, An Essay on the Early History of Charts and Sailing Directions in Stockholm. David Hilbert unifies the field of number theory with his treatise Zahlbericht. John Edward Campbell originates the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula for multiplication of exponentials in Lie algebras, raoul Bricard investigates and classifies flexible polyhedra, defining the Bricard octahedron. Henri Brocard begins publication of his book on geometric curves, Notes de Bibliographie des Courbes Géométriques. August 20 – Ronald Ross discovers the malaria Plasmodium in an Anopheles mosquito, october 10 – Chemists working at Bayer AG create a synthetically altered version of salicin which the company names Aspirin. Danish veterinarian Bernhard Bang isolates Brucella abortus as the agent of Brucellosis, epinephrine discovered by John Jacob Abel. L. Emmett Holt publishes the standard textbook The Diseases of Infancy, Émile Durkheim publishes his classic study Le Suicide. June 26 – At the British Fleet Review, Charles Parsons gives a display of the unprecedented speed attainable by his steam turbine-powered Turbinia. August 10 – Rudolf Diesel builds his first working prototype Diesel engine in Augsburg, august 31 – Thomas Edison is granted a patent for the Kinetoscope, a precursor of the movie projector. The Dahlander pole changing motor is patented, maxim develops the muffler in conjunction with the firearm silencer. Copley Medal, Albert von Kölliker Wollaston Medal, Wilfred Hudleston March 24 – Wilhelm Reich, july 20 – Tadeusz Reichstein, Polish-born Nobel Prize-winning chemist. August 12 – Otto Struve, Ukrainian-born astronomer, september 12 – Irène Joliot-Curie, French chemist. November 4 – C. B. van Niel, Dutch-born microbiologist, november 13 – Tilly Edinger, German-born paleoneurologist. December 22 – Vojtěch Jarník, Czech mathematician, january 25 – David Kirkaldy, Scottish-born engineer, pioneer of materials testing. February 19 – Karl Weierstrass, German mathematician, March 3 – John Peirce, American inventor. March 15 – James Joseph Sylvester, English mathematician, may 6 Edward James Stone, English astronomer. May 7 – Abraham Dee Bartlett, English zoologist, august 27 – Eduard von Hofmann, Austrian forensic pathologist
2.
1903 in science
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The year 1903 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. June 27 – 19-year-old American socialite Aida de Acosta becomes the first woman to fly an aircraft solo when she pilots Santos-Dumonts motorized dirigible. 9, from Paris to Château de Bagatelle in France, december 17 – First documented, successful, controlled, powered flight of a heavier-than-air aircraft with a petrol engine by Orville Wright in the Wright Flyer at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of papers discussing the use of liquid fuel rockets to reach space, space suits. The type specimen of the squid is described by Carl Chun. Fauna and Flora International is founded as the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire by a group of British naturalists, formal opening of the Johnston Laboratories at the University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England. Peter Cooper Hewitt demonstrates the mercury-vapour lamp, mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet invents chromatography, an important analytic technique. The International Committee of Atomic Weights publishes the inaugural atomic weights report, october – Frank Nelson Cole demonstrates that the Mersenne number 267-1, or M67, is composite by factoring it as 193,707,721 *761,838,257,287. Fast Fourier Transform algorithm presented by Carle David Tolmé Runge, edmund Georg Hermann Landau gives considerably simpler proof of the prime number theorem. March–April – David Bruce identifies the parasitic Trypanosoma protist as the source of African trypanosomiasis, may 10 – Antoni Leśniowski publishes the first article implicating what will later be known as Crohns disease, in the Polish weekly medical newspaper Medycyna. Ernest Fourneau synthesizes and patents Amylocaine, the first synthetic local anesthetic, George Darwin and John Joly claim that radioactivity is partially responsible for the Earths heat. Prosper-René Blondlot claims to have detected N rays, norwegian engineer Ægidius Elling builds the first gas turbine to generate power, using a centrifugal compressor. Laminated glass is invented by Edouard Benedictus, baker valve gear for steam locomotives is first patented in the United States. The Lune Valley boiler is patented by John G. A, january 27 – John Eccles, Australian-born psychologist. January 28 – Kathleen Lonsdale, née Yardley, Irish-born crystallographer, february 2 – Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, Dutch mathematician. February 22 – Frank P. Ramsey, English mathematician, april 6 – Doc Harold Eugene Edgerton, American electrical engineer. April 9 – Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist, co-inventor of the oral contraceptive pill. April 25 – Andrey Kolmogorov, Russian mathematician, may 2 – Benjamin Spock, American pediatrician and writer
3.
1905 in art
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Summer – Henri Matisse and André Derain work together in the French Mediterranean village of Collioure. October – Salon dAutomne in Paris, the colors used by Matisse and others lead the critic Louis Vauxcelles to describe their works derisively as les Fauves. Die Brücke group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden, léon Bonnat succeeds Paul Dubois as director of the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Steichen open the Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession photo art gallery on Fifth Avenue in New York City, opening of the Gibbes Museum of Art in Charleston, South Carolina. Jacob Epstein establishes his studio in London
4.
1905 in architecture
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The year 1905 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. October 18 - London County Councils new street at Kingsway and redevelopment of Aldwych are opened, work begins on Stoclet Palace, Brussels, designed by Josef Hoffmann. Formation of the Dresden Die Brücke expressionist architecture movement, february 27 - Berlin Cathedral in Berlin, Germany, is inaugurated. June 11 - National Theatre of Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela September 27 - Arcade du Cinquantenaire in Brussels, Belgium, november - The Plaza Grill and Cinema, Ottawa, Kansas, possibly the oldest movie theater in the United States that is still in operation. Darwin D. Martin House in Buffalo, New York, USA, zacherlhaus in Vienna, Austria, designed by Jože Plečnik. Land Administration Building in Brisbane, Australia, designed by Thomas Pye, st. Stephens Basilica in Budapest, Hungary, completed by József Kauser to an 1851 design by Miklós Ybl. Hôtel de ville in Sfax, Tunisia, designed by Raphaël Guy, voewood, High Kelling, Norfolk, UK, designed by E. S. Prior. Antwerpen-Centraal railway station in Belgium, designed by Louis Delacenserie, murry Guggenheim House in West Long Branch, New Jersey, designed by Carrère and Hastings. Royal Gold Medal - Aston Webb, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Albert Henry Krehbiel. C. August 2 - Cesar Castellani, Maltese architect working in British Guiana August 22 - Alfred Waterhouse, English architect of the Gothic Revival
5.
1905 in music
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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1905. January 6 - Premiere of Leoš Janáčeks piano cycle On an Overgrown Path at the Besední dům Hall in Brno, January 26 - Arnold Schoenbergs symphonic poem Pelleas und Melisande is premiered in Vienna. January 29 - Gustav Mahlers Kindertotenlieder is premiered in Vienna, september - The lyrics of Rabindranath Tagores song Amar Shonar Bangla are published in two magazines. They are later adopted as the anthem of Bangladesh. October - The opera house at Nancy, France, is destroyed by fire, october 15 - Claude Debussys La Mer is premiered in Paris. October 21 - Henry Wood first conducts a performance of his Fantasia on British Sea Songs at a Trafalgar Day concert in London, Otto Klemperer meets Mahler for the first time, while conducting one of his works. Hery Frantzen Come Clean by Paul Sarebresole Daddys Little Girl w. Edward Madden m. Theodore F. Morse Dearie w. m, clare Kummer Down Where The Silvry Mohawk Flows w. Monroe Rosenfeld m. John A. Heinzman & Otto Milton Heinzman Everybody Works But Father w. m, Jean Havez Farewell, Mister Abner Hemingway w. William Jerome m. Jean Schwartz Forty-Five Minutes From Broadway w. m, George M. Cohan from the musical of the same name. Friends That Are Good And True Eysler G. O. P. Bryan, Hoffman Gee, but This Is A Lonesome Town Gaston The Girl Who Cares For Me w. Gus Edwards Goodbye, Maggie Doyle Jean Schwartz Good-bye, Sweet Old Manhattan Isle w. William Jerome m. Jean Schwartz Goodbye, Sweetheart, Goodbye w. Arthur J. Lamb m. Harry von Tilzer Happy Heine m. J. Bodewalt Lampe Hes Me Pal w. Vincent P. Bryan m. Victor Herbert I Would Like To Marry You w. m. Edward Laska I Thought It Was My Birthday Come w. m, T. W. Connor If A Girl Like You Loved A Boy Like Me w. m. Gus Edwards If The Man In The Moon Were A Coon w. m, Fred Fisher Im Getting Sleepy w. Wilbur U. Gumm m. Joe Hollander Im The Only Star That Twinkles On Broadway w. Andrew B, sterling m. Harry von Tilzer Im Trying To Find A Sweetheart w. Jean Lenox m. Henry O. Sutton In Dear Old Georgia w. Harry Williams m. Egbert Van Alstyne In My Merry Oldsmobile w. Vincent P. Bryan m, gus Edwards In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree w. Harry H. Williams m. Egbert Van Alstyne The Irish Girl I Love w. George V. Hobart m, W. Frank Williams m. Ernest Hogan & Tom Lemonier It Aint All Honey And It Aint All Jam w. m. Fred Murray & George Everard Its Allus De Same In Dixie Cook Ive Got A Little Money And Ive Saved It All For You Farrell, Silver Ive Sweethearts In Every Port Keith Jolly Pickaninnies m
6.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
7.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
8.
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics, Einsteins work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Briefly before, he aquired the Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for his whole life and he continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe. He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany and he settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1940. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project, Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works, on 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einsteins papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einsteins intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein synonymous with genius, Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, the Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, the loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan, when the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the schools regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning, at the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctors note. During his time in Italy he wrote an essay with the title On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field
9.
Charles Dillon Perrine
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Charles Dillon Perrine was an American astronomer living in Argentina. He won the Lalande Prize in 1897, between 1900 and 1908, Perrine accompanied four eclipse expeditions and was in charge of the one sent from Lick Observatory to Sumatra in 1901. Also in 1901, he and George Ritchey observed the apparent superluminal motion in the nebulosity surrounding Nova Persei 1901 and he discovered two moons of Jupiter, today known as Himalia and Elara. They were simply designated Jupiter VI and Jupiter VII and were not given their present names until 1975, Perrine co-discovered the lost periodic comet 18D/Perrine-Mrkos and several other comets. Antonín Mrkos later named the asteroid 6779 Perrine after him, the lunar crater Perrine is also named after him. He promoted the study of astrophysics in Argentina and pushed for the construction of a large telescope and he remained in Argentina after retirement and died there, in Villa General Mitre. He is buried in the Cementerio de Disidentes in the city of Córdoba, c/1895 W1 C/1896 C1 C/1896 V1 18D/Perrine-Mrkos C/1897 U1 C/1898 L2 C/1898 R1 C
10.
Lick Observatory
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The Lick Observatory is an astronomical observatory, owned and operated by the University of California. It is situated on the summit of Mount Hamilton, in the Diablo Range just east of San Jose, California, US. The observatory is managed by the University of California Observatories, with headquarters on the University of California, Santa Cruz, campus, Lick Observatory is the worlds first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory. The observatory, in a Classical Revival style structure, was constructed between 1876 and 1887, from a bequest from James Lick of $700,000, Lick additionally requested that Santa Clara County construct a first-class road to the summit, completed in 1876. Lick chose John Wright, of San Franciscos Wright & Sanders firm of architects, all of the construction materials had to be brought to the site by horse and mule-drawn wagons, which could not negotiate a steep grade. To keep the grade below 6. 5%, the road had to take a winding and sinuous path. Tradition maintains that this road has exactly 365 turns, the road is closed when there is snow at Lick Observatory. The first telescope installed at the observatory was a 12-inch refractor made by Alvan Clark, astronomer E. E. Barnard used the telescope to make exquisite photographs of comets and nebulae, according to D. J. Warner of Warner & Swasey Company, Warner & Swasey designed and built the telescope mounting, with the 36-inch lens manufactured by one of the Clark sons, Alvan Graham. E. E. Barnard used the telescope in 1892 to discover a fifth moon of Jupiter and this was the first addition to Jupiters known moons since Galileo observed the planet through his parchment tube and spectacle lens. The telescope provided spectra for W. W. Campbells work on the velocities of stars. In May 1888, the observatory was turned over to the Regents of the University of California, edward Singleton Holden was the first director. When low cloud cover is present below the peak, light pollution is cut to almost nothing, on May 21,1939, during a nighttime fog that engulfed the summit, a U. S. Army Air Force Northrop A-17 two-seater attack plane crashed into the main building. Because a scientific meeting was being held elsewhere, the staff member present was Nicholas Mayall. Nothing caught fire and the two individuals in the building were unharmed, the pilot of the plane, Lt. Richard F. Lorenz, and passenger Private W. E. Scott were killed instantly. The telephone line was broken by the crash, so no help could be called for at first, eventually help arrived together with numerous reporters and photographers, who kept arriving almost all night long. Evidence of their numbers could be seen the day by the litter of flash bulbs carpeting the parking lot. Perhaps more notable was the lack of fire or damage to a telescope dome, in 1950, the California state legislature appropriated funds for a 120-inch reflector telescope, which was completed in 1959
11.
Elara (moon)
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Elara is a prograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at Lick Observatory in 1905 and it is the eighth largest moon of Jupiter and is named after Elara, one of Zeuss lovers and the mother of the giant Tityos. Elara did not receive its present name until 1975, before then and it was sometimes called Hera between 1955 and 1975. It has a radius of just 43 km, thus it is 2% of the size of Europa. However it is half the size of Himalia, so it is the second biggest moon in the Himalia group and it might be a captured type C or D asteroid, for it reflects very little light. Elara belongs to the Himalia group, five moons orbiting between 11 and 13 Gm from Jupiter at an inclination of about 27. 5° and its orbital elements are as of January 2000. They are continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations, in February and March 2007, the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto captured Elara in several LORRI images from a distance of five million miles
12.
Moons of Jupiter
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There are 67 known moons of Jupiter. This gives Jupiter the largest number of moons with reasonably stable orbits of any planet in the Solar System. The Galilean moons are by far the largest and most massive objects to orbit Jupiter, with the remaining 63 moons, of Jupiters moons, eight are regular satellites with prograde and nearly circular orbits that are not greatly inclined with respect to Jupiters equatorial plane. The Galilean satellites are nearly spherical in shape due to their planetary mass, the other four regular satellites are much smaller and closer to Jupiter, these serve as sources of the dust that makes up Jupiters rings. The remainder of Jupiters moons are irregular satellites whose prograde and retrograde orbits are farther from Jupiter and have high inclinations. These moons were probably captured by Jupiter from solar orbits, sixteen irregular satellites have been discovered since 2003 and have not yet been named. The physical and orbital characteristics of the moons vary widely, all other Jovian moons are less than 250 kilometres in diameter, with most barely exceeding 5 kilometres. Their orbital shapes range from perfectly circular to highly eccentric and inclined. Orbital periods range from seven hours, to three thousand times more. Jupiters regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk and they may be the remnants of a score of Galilean-mass satellites that formed early in Jupiters history. Simulations suggest that, while the disk had a high mass at any given moment. However, only 2% the proto-disk mass of Jupiter is required to explain the existing satellites, thus there may have been several generations of Galilean-mass satellites in Jupiters early history. Each generation of moons might have spiraled into Jupiter, due to drag from the disk, by the time the present generation formed, the disk had thinned to the point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons orbits. The current Galilean moons were still affected, falling into and being protected by an orbital resonance with each other, which still exists for Io, Europa. Ganymedes larger mass means that it would have migrated inward at a faster rate than Europa or Io, many broke up due to the mechanical stresses of capture, or afterward by collisions with other small bodies, producing the moons we see today. The first claimed observation of one of Jupiters moons is that of Chinese astronomer Gan De around 364 BC, however, the first certain observations of Jupiters satellites were those of Galileo Galilei in 1609. By January 1610, he had sighted the four massive Galilean moons with his 30× magnification telescope, no additional satellites were discovered until E. E. Barnard observed Amalthea in 1892. With the aid of photography, further discoveries followed quickly over the course of the twentieth century
13.
Dominion Observatory
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The Dominion Observatory was an astronomical observatory in Ottawa, Ontario that operated from 1902 to 1970. The Observatory was also an institution within the Canadian Federal Government, the observatory grew out of the Department of the Interiors need for the precise coordinates and timekeeping that at that time could only come from an observatory. For several years they had used an observatory on the Ottawa River for this purpose. In 1902, it was decided that Canada needed a national observatory similar to the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Britain. Chief Dominion Architect David Ewart designed the Dominion Observatory in 1902, the new building was then erected near Dows Lake on the Agriculture Departments Central Experimental Farm land. This Romanesque Revival building was completed in 1905 and its main instrument was a 15-inch refracting telescope, the largest refracting telescope ever installed in Canada. While the building and institution were primarily dedicated to astronomical timekeeping in support of surveying, the Dominion Observatory was Canadas leading institution in Geophysics for many decades, which included the operation of Canadas national seismometer network. In 1917, the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory was opened in Victoria, B. C. for many years the Dominion Observatory was best known to Canadians as the source of Canadas official time signal. The observatory continued in operation until 1970 at which time Canadas science institutions were reorganized, the Geophysics work was later merged into the Geological Survey of Canada, now part of Natural Resources Canada. The building became home to NRCan offices, the telescope had been open for public viewing from 1905 until 1970. In 1974, the telescope was moved from the Dominion Observatory to the Helen Sawyer Hogg Observatory at the Canada Science, in the mid-1990s, the rumour within Natural Resources was that consideration was given to demolish the building to save money in a time of budgetary cutbacks. However, these plans did not come to fruition, as of 2008, the building is the home to the Office of Energy Efficiency, a part of the Energy Branch, Natural Resources Canada. Http, //www. sciencetech. technomuses. ca/english/collection/dominion_observatory. cfm The Dominion Observatory – 100th Anniversary
14.
Ottawa
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Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock
15.
Minor planet
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A minor planet is an astronomical object in direct orbit around the Sun that is neither a planet nor exclusively classified as a comet. Minor planets can be dwarf planets, asteroids, trojans, centaurs, Kuiper belt objects, as of 2016, the orbits of 709,706 minor planets were archived at the Minor Planet Center,469,275 of which had received permanent numbers. The first minor planet to be discovered was Ceres in 1801, the term minor planet has been used since the 19th century to describe these objects. The term planetoid has also used, especially for larger objects such as those the International Astronomical Union has called dwarf planets since 2006. Historically, the asteroid, minor planet, and planetoid have been more or less synonymous. This terminology has become complicated by the discovery of numerous minor planets beyond the orbit of Jupiter. A Minor planet seen releasing gas may be classified as a comet. Before 2006, the IAU had officially used the term minor planet, during its 2006 meeting, the IAU reclassified minor planets and comets into dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies. Objects are called dwarf planets if their self-gravity is sufficient to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium, all other minor planets and comets are called small Solar System bodies. The IAU stated that the minor planet may still be used. However, for purposes of numbering and naming, the distinction between minor planet and comet is still used. Hundreds of thousands of planets have been discovered within the Solar System. The Minor Planet Center has documented over 167 million observations and 729,626 minor planets, of these,20,570 have official names. As of March 2017, the lowest-numbered unnamed minor planet is 1974 FV1, as of March 2017, the highest-numbered named minor planet is 458063 Gustavomuler. There are various broad minor-planet populations, Asteroids, traditionally, most have been bodies in the inner Solar System. Near-Earth asteroids, those whose orbits take them inside the orbit of Mars. Further subclassification of these, based on distance, is used, Apohele asteroids orbit inside of Earths perihelion distance. Aten asteroids, those that have semi-major axes of less than Earths, Apollo asteroids are those asteroids with a semimajor axis greater than Earths, while having a perihelion distance of 1.017 AU or less. Like Aten asteroids, Apollo asteroids are Earth-crossers, amor asteroids are those near-Earth asteroids that approach the orbit of Earth from beyond, but do not cross it
16.
Nova
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A nova or classical nova is an astronomical event that causes the sudden appearance of a bright new star, that slowly fades from view over several weeks or many months. Novae should not be confused with more energetic astronomical phenomena known as supernovae. Several main sub-classes of novae exist, based on their many different scenarios, being classical novae, recurrent novae, dwarf novae and they are together under a group of variable stars collectively known as cataclysmic variable stars, which share some common properties as close binary systems. Classical novae eruptions are the most common type of novae and they are likely created in a close binary star system consisting of a white dwarf and either a main sequence, sub-giant or red giant star. This mostly hydrogen atmosphere is heated from the hot white dwarf star, which eventually reaches a critical temperature. A few novae produce short-lived nova remnants, lasting several centuries. Recurrent nova processes are the same as the classical nova, except that the ignition can be repeated because the companion star can again feed the dense atmosphere of the white dwarf. Occurrences of novae mostly occur in the sky along the path of the Milky Way, however, it is also quite possible for them to appear anywhere in the sky. They are far more frequent than galactic supernovae, presently averaging about ten per year, the majority are found telescopically, with few reaching naked-eye visibility, perhaps averaging about once every year to eighteen months. Novae reaching 1st or 2nd magnitude occur only several times per century, the last bright nova was V1369 Centauri reaching 3.3 magnitude on 14 December 2013. During the 16th century, astronomer Tycho Brahe observed the supernova SN1572 in the constellation Cassiopeia and he described it in his book De nova stella, giving rise to the name nova. In this work he argued that an object should be seen to move relative to the fixed stars. Though this was a supernova and not a nova, the terms were considered interchangeable until the 1930s, after this, novae were classified as classical novae to distinguishing them from supernovae, as their causes and energies were though to be different based soley in the observational evidence. Evolution of potential novae begins with two main stars in a binary system. One of the two evolves into a red giant leaving its remnant white dwarf core in orbit with the remaining star, the second star—which may be either a main sequence star or an aging giant—begins to shed its envelope onto its white dwarf companion when it overflows its Roche lobe. As a result, the white dwarf captures matter in an accretion disk steadily from the outer atmosphere. As the white dwarf consists of matter, so the accreted hydrogen does not inflate. Rapid, an all at once, uncontrolled fusion occurs when the temperature of this layer reaches ~20 million Kelvins
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Constellation
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A constellation is formally defined as a region of the celestial sphere, with boundaries laid down by the International Astronomical Union. The constellation areas mostly had their origins in Western-traditional patterns of stars from which the constellations take their names, in 1922, the International Astronomical Union officially recognized the 88 modern constellations, which cover the entire sky. They began as the 48 classical Greek constellations laid down by Ptolemy in the Almagest, Constellations in the far southern sky are late 16th- and mid 18th-century constructions. 12 of the 88 constellations compose the zodiac signs, though the positions of the constellations only loosely match the dates assigned to them in astrology. The term constellation can refer to the stars within the boundaries of that constellation. Notable groupings of stars that do not form a constellation are called asterisms, when astronomers say something is “in” a given constellation they mean it is within those official boundaries. Any given point in a coordinate system can unambiguously be assigned to a single constellation. Many astronomical naming systems give the constellation in which an object is found along with a designation in order to convey a rough idea in which part of the sky it is located. For example, the Flamsteed designation for bright stars consists of a number, the word constellation seems to come from the Late Latin term cōnstellātiō, which can be translated as set of stars, and came into use in English during the 14th century. It also denotes 88 named groups of stars in the shape of stellar-patterns, the Ancient Greek word for constellation was ἄστρον. Colloquial usage does not draw a distinction between constellation in the sense of an asterism and constellation in the sense of an area surrounding an asterism. The modern system of constellations used in astronomy employs the latter concept, the term circumpolar constellation is used for any constellation that, from a particular latitude on Earth, never sets below the horizon. From the North Pole or South Pole, all constellations south or north of the equator are circumpolar constellations. In the equatorial or temperate latitudes, the term equatorial constellation has sometimes been used for constellations that lie to the opposite the circumpolar constellations. They generally include all constellations that intersect the celestial equator or part of the zodiac, usually the only thing the stars in a constellation have in common is that they appear near each other in the sky when viewed from the Earth. In galactic space, the stars of a constellation usually lie at a variety of distances, since stars also travel on their own orbits through the Milky Way, the star patterns of the constellations change slowly over time. After tens to hundreds of thousands of years, their familiar outlines will become unrecognisable, the terms chosen for the constellation themselves, together with the appearance of a constellation, may reveal where and when its constellation makers lived. The earliest direct evidence for the constellations comes from inscribed stones and it seems that the bulk of the Mesopotamian constellations were created within a relatively short interval from around 1300 to 1000 BC
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Aquila (constellation)
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Aquila is a constellation on the celestial equator. Its name is Latin for eagle and it represents the bird who carried Zeus/Jupiters thunderbolts in Greco-Roman mythology and its brightest star, Altair, is one vertex of the Summer Triangle asterism. The constellation is best seen in the summer as it is located along the Milky Way. Because of this location along the line of our Galaxy, many clusters and nebulae are found within its borders, Aquila was one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy. It had been mentioned by Eudoxus in the 4th century BC. It is now one of the 88 constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union, the constellation was also known as Vultur volans to the Romans, not to be confused with Vultur cadens which was their name for Lyra. It is often held to represent the eagle who held Zeuss/Jupiters thunderbolts in Greco-Roman mythology, Aquila is also associated with the eagle who kidnapped Ganymede, a son of one of the kings of Troy, to Mount Olympus to serve as cup-bearer to the gods. Hevelius determined twenty-three stars in the first and nineteen in the second, the Greek Aquila is probably based on the Babylonian constellation of the Eagle, which is located in the same area as the Greek constellation. Aquila, which lies in the Milky Way, contains many rich starfields and has been the location of many novae, α Aql is the brightest star in this constellation and one of the closest naked-eye stars to Earth at a distance of 17 light-years. Its name comes from the Arabic phrase al-nasr al-tair, meaning the flying eagle, Altair has a magnitude of 0.76. β Aql is a star of magnitude 3.7,45 light-years from Earth. Its name comes from the Arabic phrase shahin-i tarazu, meaning the balance, this referred to Altair, Alshain. γ Aql is a giant star of magnitude 2.7,460 light-years from Earth. Its name, like that of Alshain, comes from the Arabic for the balance, ζ Aql is a blue-white-hued star of magnitude 3.0,83 light-years from Earth. η Aql is a supergiant star,1200 light-years from Earth. Among the brightest Cepheid variable stars, it has a magnitude of 4.4. 15 Aql is a double star. The primary is a giant of magnitude 5.4,325 light-years from Earth
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Nikolay Umov
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Nikolay Alekseevich Umov was a Russian physicist and mathematician known for discovering the concept of Umov-Poynting vector and Umov effect. Umov was born in 1846 in Simbirsk in the family of a military doctor and he graduated from the Physics and Mathematics department of Moscow State University in 1867 and became a Professor of Physics in 1875. He studied theoretical physics by reading works of Gabriel Lamé, Clebsch and Clausius, Umov became the head of the Physics department of Moscow State University after Aleksandr Stoletov died in 1896. Together with Pyotr Lebedev, Umov actively participated in founding the Physical Institute at the MSU and he was the president of the Moscow Society of Nature Explorers for 17 years. He was among the first Russian scientists who acknowledged the importance of the theory of relativity, in 1911, along with a group of leading professors, he left Moscow University in protest of reactionary actions of the government. Umov died in 1915 in Moscow, during his work in Odessa in 1873—1874, Umov published first papers containing the major ideas of energy movement. In his first works of this period, Umov considered potential energy as energy of some environments imperceptible for us. From this hypothesis, he made a conclusion, it is possible to specify a place where the energy is in. Therefore, it is natural to raise the question about movement of energy, in his following works, Umov did not bind himself to this hypothesis about the nature of potential energy, but was guided by the principle of energy conservation only. After formulating the concept of density and movement of energy, he wrote differential equations for energy movement in the elastic media and in the fluid. However, the attention to this view has been attracted only after Poynting had presented a stream of electromagnetic energy based on Maxwell equations ten years later than Umovs publications. He was the first scientist to indicate interrelation between mass and energy proposing the formula E=kmc2 with 0,5 =< k =<1 as early as in 1873, in 1875, Umov solved a general problem of distribution of electric currents in conducting surfaces of any kind. In 1888—1891 he investigated experimentally the diffusion in water solutions, the polarization of light in opaque media, in 1900, he conducted a thorough analysis of many Gauss formulae regarding terrestrial magnetism, which allowed the definition of secular changes of the Earths magnetic field. Umovs works review Biography of Umov Biography of Umov
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William Bateson
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Bateson was born in Whitby on the Yorkshire coast, the son of William Henry Bateson, Master of St Johns College, Cambridge. He was educated at Rugby School and at St Johns College in Cambridge, taking up embryology, he went to the United States to investigate the development of Balanoglossus. This worm-like enteropneust hemichordate led to his interest in vertebrate origins, in 1883-4 he worked in the laboratory of William Keith Brooks, at the Chesapeake Zoölogical Laboratory in Hampton VA, U. S. A. Turning from morphology to study evolution and its methods, he returned to England, studying variation and heredity, he travelled in western Central Asia. In his first significant contribution, he shows that some characteristics are not distributed continuously, with a normal distribution. He was concerned to show that biological variation exists both continuously, for characters, and discontinuously for others, and coined the terms meristic. Amongst other interesting observations he noted variations in which an expected body-part has been replaced by another, the animal variations he studied included bees with legs instead of antennae, crayfish with extra oviducts, and in humans, polydactyly, extra ribs, and males with extra nipples. Sooner or later such an investigation will be undertaken and then we begin to know. In 1897 he reported some significant conceptual and methodological advances in his study of variation, “I have argued that variations of a discontinuous nature may play a prepondering part in the constitution of a new species. The variety persists and is not “swamped by intercrossing”, but critically, he begins to report a series of breeding experiments, conducted by his pupil, Miss E. R. Saunders, using the alpine brassica Biscutella laevigata in the Cambridge botanic gardens. In the wild, hairy and smooth forms of otherwise identical plants are seen together. ”At about this time, Hugo de Vries and Carl Erich Correns began similar plant-breeding experiments. But, unlike Bateson, they were familiar with the plant breeding experiments of Gregor Mendel in the 1860s. Bateson became famous as the outspoken Mendelian antagonist of Walter Raphael Weldon, his former teacher, the debate centred on saltationism versus gradualism. Haldane showed that mutations were compatible with gradual evolution, see the modern evolutionary synthesis. Between 1900 and 1910 Bateson directed a rather informal school of genetics at Cambridge and his group consisted mostly of women associated with Newnham College, Cambridge, and included both his wife Beatrice, and her sister Florence Durham. They provided assistance for his program at a time when Mendelism was not yet recognized as a legitimate field of study. The women, such as Muriel Wheldale, carried out a series of breeding experiments in various plant, the results both supported and extended Mendels laws of heredity. Hilda Blanche Killby, who had finished her studies with the Newnham College Mendelians in 1901 and she conducted independent breeding experiments in rabbits and bantam fowl, as well
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Genetics
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Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms. It is generally considered a field of biology, but intersects frequently with other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist, Mendel studied trait inheritance, patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms inherit traits by way of discrete units of inheritance and this term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism, genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including epigenetics and population genetics. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domain of life, including bacteria, plants, animals, genetic processes work in combination with an organisms environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture. The intracellular or extracellular environment of a cell or organism may switch gene transcription on or off, a classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate. The word genetics stems from the ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos meaning genitive/generative, the observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, prior to Mendel, Imre Festetics, a Hungarian noble, who lived in Kőszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word genetics. He described several rules of inheritance in his work The genetic law of the Nature. His second law is the same as what Mendel published, in his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation. Other theories of inheritance preceded his work, a popular theory during Mendels time was the concept of blending inheritance, the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendels work provided examples where traits were not blended after hybridization. Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of genes with quantitative effects. Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics, other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin and Francis Galtons reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel, a scientist and Augustinian friar who studied the nature of inheritance in plants, the importance of Mendels work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working on similar problems re-discovered his research. William Bateson, a proponent of Mendels work, coined the word genetics in 1905, Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. After the rediscovery of Mendels work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance, in 1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies
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Reginald Punnett
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Reginald Crundall Punnett FRS was a British geneticist who co-founded, with William Bateson, the Journal of Genetics in 1910. Punnett is probably best remembered today as the creator of the Punnett square and his Mendelism is sometimes said to have been the first textbook on genetics, it was probably the first popular science book to introduce genetics to the public. Reginald Punnett was born in 1875 in the town of Tonbridge in Kent, while recovering from a childhood bout of appendicitis, Punnett became acquainted with Jardines Naturalists Library and developed an interest in natural history. Punnett was educated at Clifton College, attending Gonville and Caius College at the University of Cambridge, Punnett earned a bachelors degree in zoology in 1898 and a masters degree in 1901. Between these degrees he worked as a demonstrator and part-time lecturer at the University of St. Andrews Natural History Department. In October 1901, Punnett was back at Cambridge when he was elected to a Fellowship at Gonville and Caius College, working in zoology, primarily the study of worms and it was during this time that he and William Bateson began a research collaboration, which lasted several years. When Punnett was an undergraduate, Gregor Mendels work on inheritance was largely unknown, however, in 1900, Mendels work was rediscovered by Carl Correns, Erich Tschermak von Seysenegg and Hugo de Vries. William Bateson became a proponent of Mendelian genetics, and had Mendels work translated into English and it was with Bateson that Reginald Punnett helped established the new science of genetics at Cambridge. He, Bateson and Saunders co-discovered genetic linkage through experiments with chickens, hardy went on to formulate the Hardy-Weinberg principle, independently of the German Wilhelm Weinberg. He was Superintendent of the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology from 1908-1909, in 1909 he went to Sri Lanka to meet Arthur Willey, FRS, then Director of the Colombo Museum and R H Lock, then Scientific Assistant at the Peradeniya Botanical Gardens and to catch butterflies. In 1910 Punnett became professor of biology at Cambridge, and then the first Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics when Bateson left in 1912, in the same year, Punnett was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He received the societys Darwin Medal in 1922, during World War I, Punnett successfully applied his expertise to the problem of the early determination of sex in chickens. Punnetts work in area was summarized in Heredity in Poultry. With Michael Pease as his assistant, he created the first auto-sexing chicken breed, Reginald Punnett retired in 1940, and died at the age of 92 in 1967 in Bilbrook, Somerset. - A scanned copy of the edition is here
. PMID 341169.
