1.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
2.
Renault
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Groupe Renault is a French multinational automobile manufacturer established in 1899. The company produces a range of cars and vans, and in the past has manufactured trucks, tractors, tanks, buses/coaches, the Renault–Nissan Alliance is the fourth-largest automotive group. Renault has a 43. 4% controlling stake in Nissan of Japan, a 37% indirectly-owned stake in AvtoVAZ of Russia, Renault also owns subsidiaries RCI Banque, Renault Retail Group and Motrio. Renault has various joint ventures, including Oyak-Renault, Renault Pars, Carlos Ghosn is the current chairman and CEO. The French government owns a 19. 73% share of Renault as of April 2015, Renault Trucks, previously known as Renault Véhicules Industriels, has been part of Volvo Trucks since 2001. Renault Agriculture became 100% owned by German agricultural equipment manufacturer CLAAS in 2008, together Renault and Nissan invested €4 billion in eight electric vehicles over three to four years beginning in 2011. Renault is known for its role in sport, particularly rallying, Formula 1. Its early work on mathematical curve modeling for car bodies is important in the history of computer graphics, the Renault corporation was founded in 1899 as Société Renault Frères by Louis Renault and his brothers Marcel and Fernand. While Louis handled design and production, Marcel and Fernand managed the business, the first Renault car, the Renault Voiturette 1CV, was sold to a friend of Louis father after giving him a test ride on 24 December 1898. In 1903, Renault began to manufacture its own engines, until then it had purchased them from De Dion-Bouton, the first major volume sale came in 1905 when Société des Automobiles de Place bought Renault AG1 cars to establish a fleet of taxis. These vehicles were used by the French military to transport troops during World War I which earned them the nickname Taxi de la Marne. By 1907, a significant percentage London and Paris taxis had been built by Renault, Renault was also the best-selling foreign brand in New York in 1907 and 1908. In 1908 the company produced 3,575 units, becoming the countrys largest car manufacturer, the brothers recognised the value of publicity that participation in motor racing could generate for their vehicles. Renault made itself known through succeeding in the first city-to-city races held in Switzerland, both Louis and Marcel raced company vehicles, but Marcel was killed in an accident during the 1903 Paris-Madrid race. Although Louis never raced again, his company remained very involved, Louis took full control of the company as the only remaining brother in 1906 when Fernand retired for health reasons. Fernand died in 1909 and Louis became the owner, renaming the company Société des Automobiles Renault. Renault fostered its reputation for innovation from very early on, at the time, cars were luxury items. The price of the smallest Renaults at the time were ₣3000 francs, in 1905 the company introduced mass-production techniques and Taylorism in 1913
3.
Ferenc Szisz
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Ferenc Szisz, was a Hungarian race car driver and the winner of the first Grand Prix motor racing event on a Renault Grand Prix 90CV on 26 June,1906. Szisz was born in the town of Szeghalom in Békés county of the Hungarian part the former Austro-Hungarian Empire on September 20,1873. He was trained to be a locksmith and a coppersmith but in his early twenties the growing proliferation of automobiles fascinated Szisz and he studied engineering along with car design. After time spent in several Austrian and German cities, in the spring of 1900 he ended up in Paris, following the death of Marcel Renault in the 1903 Paris-Madrid race, Szisz took over as a driver. In 1905, he finished fifth in the Gordon Bennett Cup elimination race on the Circuit dAuvergne at Clermont-Ferrand. In October of that year, along with other French and Italian automobile manufacturers, Renault sent a team to the United States to compete in the Vanderbilt Cup on Long Island. In a field that included Felice Nazzaro and Louis Chevrolet driving for Fiat, Szisz finished fifth behind the winner, sziszs primary duties as the head of testing at Renault limited the number of races he could compete in. However, in 1906 he achieved a permanent place in the annals of auto racing when he and he averaged 101.2 kilometres per hour. His victory in the French Grand Prix and the success of the race soon led to the establishing of other Grand Prix races throughout Europe. The following year, Italys Felice Nazzaro, who had finished second behind Szisz, in early 1909, Szisz left Renault to open his own garage in Neuilly-sur-Seine. In July 1914, Fernand Charron lured him out of retirement to drive an Alda in the French Grand Prix at Lyon. In a race won by Christian Lautenschlager in a Mercedes, Szisz was honored with the number 1 for his car, but an injury forced him out just past half distance. At wars end, he went to work for a company until his retirement to a cottage in the country at Auffargis not far from Paris. Ferenc Szisz and his wife are buried in the cemetery in Auffargis. The Szisz Museum is part of the Renault Museum located near the Le Mans racetrack, ferenc Szisz at Find a Grave
4.
Hotchkiss et Cie
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Société Anonyme des Anciens Etablissements Hotchkiss et Cie was a French arms and, in the 20th century, automobile manufacturer first established by United States gunsmith Benjamin B. He moved to France and set up a factory, first at Viviez near Rodez in 1867, an example of the companys output was the Hotchkiss revolving cannon. The cannon had five barrels each able to fire 43 shells a minute a distance of one mile, it was made in four sizes from 37 mm to 57 mm, the first Hotchkiss car, a 17 CV four-cylinder model, appeared in 1903. The badge for the marque consisted of a pair of crossed cannons — a salute to the companys first products, a factory fire nearly killed all projects. Despite this, a model followed in 1906. During World War I, they mass-produced the Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun, tank parts, in 1933, they developed the Hotchkiss H35 tank. Post war came a luxury model called Type AK but only one was built, in 1920, there was an unsuccessful attempt to build Hotchkiss cars by a British arm of Hotchkiss in the United Kingdom — only a prototype was made. A refined model named Type AM was in production between 1923 and 1928, a new six-cylinder model, named AM80 came in 1928. The company made several successful racing cars, Hotchkiss racers won the Rallye Automobile Monte Carlo in 1932,1933,1934,1939,1949 and 1950. The Hotchkiss 680 was an important model between the wars—it had a 6-cylinder, 3-litre engine, in 1937, the company merged with Amilcar. J. A. Grégoire joined the company as a designer, after World War II, the 680 continued. The first new car post war was a 13 CV four-cylinder model, from 1947, 2-litre flat-four models are frequently called Hotchkiss-Grégoire. After 1954, Hotchkiss manufactured Jeeps under licence from Willys, in 1956, Hotchkiss merged with French car manufacturer Brandt, producing jeeps at their factory near Paris for the French military until 1966. The firm was merged into Thomson-Houston in 1966 and in 1970 stopped producing vehicles of any sort, in the early 1970s, the Hotchkiss marque disappeared, as the French conglomerate came to be known as Thomson-Brandt. This, in turn, was nationalized in 1982 to form Thomson SA
5.
Le Mans
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Le Mans is a city in France, on the Sarthe River. Traditionally the capital of the province of Maine, it is now the capital of the Sarthe department, Le Mans is a part of the Pays de la Loire region. Its inhabitants are called Manceaux and Mancelles, since 1923, the city has hosted the internationally famous 24 Hours of Le Mans endurance sports car race. First mentioned by Claudius Ptolemy, the Roman city Vindinium was the capital of the Aulerci, Le Mans is also known as Civitas Cenomanorum, or Cenomanus. Their city, seized by the Romans in 47 BC, was within the ancient Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis, a 3rd-century amphitheatre is still visible. The thermae were demolished during the crisis of the century when workers were mobilized to build the citys defensive walls. The ancient wall around Le Mans is one of the most complete circuits of Gallo-Roman city walls to survive, as the use of the French language replaced late Vulgar Latin in the area, Cenomanus, with dissimilation, became known as Celmans. Cel- was taken to be a form of the French word for this and that, and was replaced by le, gregory of Tours mentions a Frankish sub-king Rigomer, who was killed by King Clovis I in his campaign to unite the Frankish territories. As the principal city of Maine, Le Mans was the stage for struggles in the century between the counts of Anjou and the dukes of Normandy. When the Normans had control of Maine, William the Conqueror successfully invaded England, in 1069 the citizens of Maine revolted and expelled the Normans, resulting in Hugh V being proclaimed count of Maine. Geoffrey V of Anjou married Matilda of England in the cathedral and their son Henry II Plantagenet, king of England, was born here. The airfield was declared operational on 3 September and designated as A-35 and it was used by several American fighter and transport units until late November of that year in additional offensives across France, the airfield was closed. Le Mans has an old town and the Cathédrale St-Julien, dedicated to St Julian of Le Mans. Remnants of a Roman wall are visible in the old town and these walls are highlighted every summer evening in a light show that tells the history of the town. Arboretum de la Grand Prée Part of the former Cistercian abbey de lEpau, founded by Queen Berengaria, jardin des Plantes du Mans Musée de la reine Bérengère, a museum of Le Mans history located in a gothic manor house. Musée de Tessé, the arts museum of the city, displaying painting. Le Mans has an oceanic climate influenced by the mild Atlantic air travelling inland, summers are warm and occasionally hot, whereas winters are mild and cloudy. Precipitation is relatively uniform and moderate year round, at the 1999 French census, there were 293,159 inhabitants in the metropolitan area of Le Mans, with 146,105 of these living in the city proper
6.
Paul Baras
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Paul Baras was a road racing cyclist and racing driver from France. He competed in several early Grand Prix motor races, and held the land speed record between November 1904 and January 1905. Born in Orchies, France, Baras originally competed in cycling events including placing third in the 1894 Grand Prix de Paris Sprint and he switched to racing cars, initially in hill-climbs. Baras set the land speed record on November 13,1904. Driving a Darracq 100 hp, he completed the flying kilometer in twenty-one, in 1906, he participated in the inaugural French Grand Prix, and led the early stages of the race. He eventually finished seventh, although he also had the fastest lap of the race, the following year, he finished third in the French Grand Prix. In 1908 he retired three laps of the race
7.
Brasier
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Brasier was a French automobile manufacturer, based in the Paris conurbation, and active between 1905 and 1930. Charles-Henri Brasier worked briefly with Panhard and then for some years with Émile Mors before, at the age of 35 and he did this in partnership with Georges Richard, the two of them establishing the Richard-Brasier business in 1902. The newly renamed Brasier was therefore born into an atmosphere of recrimination and litigation, before World War I, several twin, four and six-cylinder models were offered. During this period the company was selling around 1,000 cars annually, following the outbreak of peace, production was resumed in 1919 with a 3404 cc model. The larger car was fitted with a 6-cylinder 5,325 cc, the cars were priced by the manufacturer respectively at 22,500 francs and 40,000 francs in bare chassis form, with tires included. The currency had continued to lose value following the end of the war, by this time, however, the companys market-place presence was being progressively eaten into by other, more focused and forward thinking auto-makers. The cars made after 1926 are known under the name of Chaigneau-Brasier, in view of the savage economic downturn crystallised by the Wall Street Crash of October 1929, the timing of this venture could hardly have been more excruciating. The new large Chaigneau-Brasiers attracted plenty of interest at the annual Paris Motor Shows, the company fell into acute financial difficulties. Chaigneau-Brasier were therefore able to survive, but only till 1930 or 1931, léon Théry entered a Brasier in the 1908 French Grand Prix, but surrendered after 9 laps of the 10 lap race
8.
Podium
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A podium is a platform used to raise something to a short distance above its surroundings. It derives from the Greek πόδι, in architecture a building can rest on a large podium. Podia can also be used to people, for instance the conductor of an orchestra stands on a podium as do many public speakers. Common parlance has shown a use of podium in American English to describe a lectern. In sports, a type of podium is used to honor the top three competitors in such as the Olympics. In the Olympics a three-level podium is used, traditionally, the highest level in the center holds the gold medalist. To their right is a lower platform for the silver medalist. At the 2016 Summer Games in Rio, however, the Silver, in many sports, results in the top three of a competition are often referred to as podiums or podium finishes. In some individual sports, podiums is a statistic, referring to the number of top three results an athlete has achieved over the course of a season or career. The word may also be used, chiefly in the United States, as a verb, to podium, meaning to attain a podium place. Podia were first used at the 1930 British Empire Games in Hamilton, Ontario and subsequently during the 1932 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles, the winner stands in the middle, with the second placed driver to his right and the third place driver to his left. Also present are the selected by the race organisers who will present the trophies. In many forms of motorsport, the three top-placed drivers in a stand on a podium for the trophy ceremony. The recordings are versions of the national anthems, ensuring the podium ceremony does not exceeded its allocated time. Should a driver experience problems with his car on a lap in Formula One. The drivers will generally refrain from spraying if a fatality or major accident occurs during the event. Also, in countries where alcohol sponsorship or drinking is prohibited, alcoholic beverages may be replaced by other drinks, the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, the highest level of stock car racing in the United States, does not use a podium in post-game events or statistics. Instead, the team celebrates in victory lane, and top-five
9.
Hungary
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Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri
10.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
11.
Fiat Automobiles
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Fiat Automobiles S. p. A. is the largest automobile manufacturer in Italy, a subsidiary of FCA Italy S. p. A. which is part of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. Fiat Automobiles S. p. A. was formed in January 2007 when Fiat reorganized its automobile business, Fiats main market is Europe, mainly focused in Italy. Historically successful in citycars and supermini sector, currently Fiat has a range of models focused on two segments. Fiat does not currently offer any large family car, nor an executive car - these market segments have, to some extent been covered by the Lancia and Alfa Romeo brands, which Fiat also owns. Fiats share of the European market shrank from 9.4 per cent in 2000 to 5.8 per cent in the summer of 2004, at this point Sergio Marchionne was appointed as Fiats chief executive. By March 2009 their market share had expanded to 9.1 per cent, Fiats built their five-story Lingotto plant in 1915 through 1918, at the time it was Europes largest car manufacturing plant. Later the Mirafiori plant was built, also in Turin, to prepare for production of the all-new Fiat 128, Fiat opened their Rivalta plant in October 1968. Until the 128 entered production, the plant was used to build versions of the 850 and 124 as well as parts for the Fiat Dino. Fiats 2014 range of car engines comprised eleven units, eight petrols. The second generation Punto was a seller in the UK after its October 1999 launch. The original Fiat 500 had been one of the few competitors for the iconic Mini during its 1960s heyday. Fiat has invested for a time in South America, mainly in Brazil. They built their first Brazilian car plant in the Greater Belo Horizonte city of Betim in 1973, recently a brand new model developed in Brazil has been launched, the Fiat Uno. Other European models are imported to Brazil, Fiat 500. Some others are still in production, Punto, Idea, Bravo, Fiat has a long history in the United States. In 1908, the Fiat Automobile Co. was established in the country and a plant in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. began producing Fiats a year later, like the Fiat 60 HP and the Fiat 16-20 HP. These luxury cars were produced long before Chrysler Corp. was formed in 1925 from older manufacturers that were acquired by Walter P. Chrysler, the New Jersey factory was closed when the U. S. entered World War I in 1917. Fiat returned to North America in the 1950s, selling the original 500, Fiat 600 Multipla, Fiat 1100, Fiat 1200, for example the Fiat 124 Sport Spider and the Fiat X1/9
12.
Motorsport
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The terminology can also be used to describe forms of competition of two-wheeled motorised vehicles under the banner of motorcycle racing, and includes off-road racing such as motocross. Four- wheeled motorsport competition is governed by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. In 1894, a French newspaper organised a race from Paris to Rouen and back, in 1900, the Gordon Bennett Cup was established. Closed circuit racing arose as open road racing, on roads, was banned. Brooklands was the first dedicated motor racing track in the United Kingdom, following World War I, European countries organised Grand Prix races over closed courses. In the United States, dirt track racing became popular, after World War II, the Grand Prix circuit became more formally organised. In the United States, stock car racing and drag racing became firmly established, motorsports ultimately became divided by types of motor vehicles into racing events, and their appropriate organisations. Open-wheel racing is a set of classes of vehicles, with their wheels outside of. However, in North America, the IndyCar series is their pinnacle open-wheeled racing series, more recently, new open-wheeled series have been created, originating in Europe, which omit the Formula moniker, such as GP2 and GP3. Former Formula series include Formula 5000 and Formula Two, the formula regulations contain a very strict set of rules which govern vehicle power, weight and size. In the United States, Indy Car is a class of single seat paved track racing and its premier race is the Indianapolis 500. Enclosed wheel racing is a set of classes of vehicles, where the wheels are primarily enclosed inside the bodywork of the vehicle, sports car racing is a set of classes of vehicles, over a closed course track, including sports cars, and specialised racing types. The premiere race is the 24 Hours of Le Mans which takes place annually in France during the month of June, sports car racing rules and specifications differentiate in North America from established international sanctioning bodies. Stock car racing is a set of vehicles, that race over a speedway track, while once stock cars, the vehicles are now purpose built, but resemble the body design and shape of production cars. NASCAR was organised in 1947, to flat track oval racing of production cars. Daytona Beach and Road Course was founded where land speed records were set on the beach, touring car racing is a set of vehicles, modified street cars, that race over closed purpose built race tracks and street courses. Motorsport was an event at the 1900 Summer Olympics
13.
Automotive industry
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The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
14.
Gordon Bennett Cup (auto racing)
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As one of three Gordon Bennett Cups established by James Gordon Bennett, Jr. millionaire owner of the New York Herald, the automobile racing award was first given in 1900 in France. In 1899 Gordon Bennett offered the Automobile Club de France a trophy to be raced for annually by the clubs of the various countries. The trophy was awarded annually until 1905, after which the ACF held the first Grand Prix motor racing event at the Circuit de la Sarthe, the 1903 event in Ireland gave rise to the birth of British Racing Green. Under the rules, the races were hosted in the country of the years winner. As the races were between national teams, it led to the reorganisation and standardisation of national racing colours, count Eliot Zborowski, father of inter-war racing legend Louis Zborowski, suggested that each national entrant be allotted a different colour. Britain had to choose a different colour from its national colours of red, white and blue, as these had already been taken by USA, Germany. The international motor car race from Paris to Lyons for the Gordon Bennett Cup took place on June 14,1900. The start from Paris was made at 3 oclock in the morning and Charron was the first to reach Lyons, in 1901 the Gordon Bennett Cup race was run in conjunction with the Paris-Bordeaux race on 29 May over a distance of 527.1 km. The race was won by Henri Fournier driving a Mors with a time of 6h 10m 44s, the first of the Gordon Bennett Cup contestants was Leonce Girardot, driving a Panhard with a time of 8h 50m 59s. The 1902 Gordon Bennett Cup was run over a distance of 565 km from Paris to Innsbruck in conjunction with the Paris-Vienna motor car race, the race started in Paris on June 26. Competing were 30 heavy cars,48 light cars, six voiturettes, each nation was allowed to nominate up to three cars to compete for the Gordon Bennett Cup, but only six entries were received, three French and three British. The Automobile Club of Great Britain announced that car No.160 driven by Mr White,45, made by Napier & Son of London with Dunlop tyres, driven by Mr Edge would represent the club. The Times announced on June 30 that Edge had won the Gordon Bennett Cup and it was announced in Vienna on July 1 that M. Marcel Renault had won the Paris-Vienna race, with M. Henri Farman second. The editor of the Dublin Motor News, Richard J, local laws had to be adjusted, ergo the Light Locomotives Bill was passed on 27 March 1903. Eventually Kildare was chosen, partly on the grounds that the straightness of the roads would be a safety benefit. As a compliment to Ireland the British team chose to race in Shamrock green which became known as British racing green although the winning Napier of 1902 had been painted Olive green. The official timekeeper of the race was Mr. T. H, woolen of the Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland. Ninety one Chronographs for timing the race were supplied by the Anglo-Swiss firm Stauffer Son & Co. of La Chaux-de-Fonds, competitors were started at seven-minute intervals and had to follow bicycles through the control zones in each town
15.
Tar
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Tar is a black mixture of hydrocarbons and free carbon obtained from a wide variety of organic materials through destructive distillation. Tar can be produced from coal, wood, petroleum, or peat, production and trade in pine-derived tar was a major contributor in the economies of Northern Europe and Colonial America. Its main use was in preserving wooden vessels against rot, the largest user was the Royal Navy. Demand for tar declined with the advent of iron and steel ships, tar-like products can also be produced from other forms of organic matter, such as peat. Mineral products resembling tar can be produced from hydrocarbons, such as petroleum. Coal tar is produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production, Bitumen is a term used for natural deposits of oil tar, such as at the La Brea Tar Pits. In Northern Europe, the word tar refers primarily to a substance that is derived from the wood, in earlier times it was often used as a water repellent coating for boats, ships, and roofs. It is still used as an additive in the flavoring of candy, alcohol, producing tar from wood was known in ancient Greece and has probably been used in Scandinavia since the Iron Age. For centuries, dating back at least to the 14th century, sweden exported 13,000 barrels of tar in 1615 and 227,000 barrels in the peak year of 1863. Production nearly stopped in the early 20th century, when other chemicals replaced tar, traditional wooden boats are still sometimes tarred. The heating of wood causes tar and pitch to drip away from the wood. Birch bark is used to make particularly fine tar, known as Russian oil, the by-products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal. When deciduous tree woods are subjected to distillation, the products are methanol. Tar kilns are dry distillation ovens, historically used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood and they were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into a hole to allow the tar to pour out. The wood is split into dimensions of a finger, stacked densely, if oxygen can enter, the wood might catch fire, and the production would be ruined. On top of this, a fire is stacked and lit, after a few hours, the tar starts to pour out and continues to do so for a few days. Tar was used as seal for roofing shingles and tar paper and to seal the hulls of ships, for millennia, wood tar was used to waterproof sails and boats, but today, sails made from inherently waterproof synthetic substances have reduced the demand for tar
16.
Michelin
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Michelin is a French tire manufacturer based in Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne région of France. It is one of the four largest tire manufacturers in the world along with Goodyear, Continental, in addition to the Michelin brand, it also owns the BFGoodrich, Kleber, Tigar, Riken, Kormoran and Uniroyal tire brands. Michelins numerous inventions include the removable tire, the pneurail and the radial tire, Michelin manufactures tires for space shuttles, aircraft, automobiles, heavy equipment, motorcycles, and bicycles. In 2012, the Group produced 166 million tires at 69 facilities located in 18 countries, in 1889 two brothers, Édouard Michelin and André Michelin, ran a rubber factory in Clermont-Ferrand, France. One day, a cyclist whose pneumatic tire needed repair turned up at the factory, the tire was glued to the rim, and it took over three hours to remove and repair the tire, which then needed to be left overnight to dry. The next day, Édouard Michelin took the repaired bicycle into the yard to test. After only a few hundred metres, the tire failed, despite the setback, Édouard was enthusiastic about the pneumatic tire, and he and his brother worked on creating their own version, one that did not need to be glued to the rim. Michelin was incorporated on 28 May 1889, in 1891 Michelin took out its first patent for a removable pneumatic tire which was used by Charles Terront to win the worlds first long distance cycle race, the 1891 Paris–Brest–Paris. In the 1920s and 1930s, Michelin operated large rubber plantations in Vietnam, conditions at these plantations led to the famous labour movement Phu Rieng Do. In 1934, Michelin introduced a tire which, if punctured, would run on a special foam lining, the radial was initially marketed as the X tire. It was developed with the front-wheel-drive Citroën Traction Avant and Citroën 2CV in mind, Michelin had bought the then-bankrupt Citroën in the 1930s. Because of its superiority in handling and fuel economy, use of this quickly spread throughout Europe. In the U. S. the outdated bias-ply tire persisted, also in 1968, Consumer Reports, an influential American magazine, acknowledged the superiority of the radial construction, setting off a rapid decline in Michelins competitor technology. In the U. S. the radial tire now has a share of 100%. In 1989, Michelin acquired the recently merged tire and rubber manufacturing divisions of the American firms B. F. Goodrich Company and Uniroyal, Uniroyal Australia had already been bought by Bridgestone in 1980. This purchase included the Norwood, North Carolina manufacturing plant which supplied tires to the U. S, Michelin also controls 90% of Taurus Tire in Hungary, as well as Kormoran, a Polish brand. As of 1 September 2008, Michelin is again the worlds largest tire manufacturer after spending two years as number two behind Bridgestone. Michelin produces tires in France, Spain, Germany, the USA, on 15 January 2010, Michelin announced the closing of its Ota, Japan plant, which employs 380 workers and makes the Michelin X-Ice tire
17.
Rim (wheel)
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The rim is the outer edge of a wheel, holding the tire. It makes up the circular design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the tire is mounted on vehicles such as automobiles. For example, on a wheel the rim is a large hoop attached to the outer ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the tire. The term rim is also used non-technically to refer to the entire wheel, in the 1st millennium BC an iron rim was introduced around the wooden wheels of chariots. Diameter, distance between the seats, as measured in the plane of the rim and through the axis of the hub which is or will be attached. Width, separation distance between opposed rim flanges, the flange-to-flange width of a rim should be a minimum of three-quarters of the tire section width. And the maximum rim width should be equal to the width of the tire tread, type, Depends on the type of vehicle and tire. There are various rim profiles, as well as the number of rim components, modern passenger vehicles and tubeless tires typically use one-piece rims with a safety rim profile. Heavy vehicles and some trucks may have a removable multi-piece rim assembly consisting of a base that mounts to the wheel and they then have either a side ring or a side and lock ring combination. These parts are removable from one side for tire mounting, while the opposite side attached to the base has a fixed flange, oversized rims may cause the tire to rub on the body or suspension components while turning. Overly narrow rims in relation to the width may cause poor handling as the tire may distort sideways under fast cornering. On motorcycles, a narrow rim will alter the tire profile, concentrating tire wear in a small area during cornering. On bicycles, the tire width is approximately twice the rims internal width or one-and-a-half times the rims external width. A standard automotive steel wheel rim is made from a sheet metal. The metal plate is bent to produce a cylindrical sleeve with the two edges of the sleeve welded together. To support the rim structure, a disc is made by stamping a metal plate. It has to have holes for the center hub and lug nuts. The radial outer surface of the disk has a cylindrical geometry to fit inside the rim
18.
German Grand Prix
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The German Grand Prix is a biennial automobile race that has been held most years since 1926, with 75 races having been held. The race continued to be known as the German Grand Prix, because West Germany was prevented from taking part in international events in the immediate post-war period, the German Grand Prix only became part of the Formula One World Championship in 1951. It was designated the European Grand Prix four times between 1954 and 1974, when title was an honorary designation given each year to one grand prix race in Europe. It has been organized by AvD since 1926, the well-known ADAC hosts many other races, including a second German F1 race at the Nürburgring from 1995 until 2006 under the title of the European Grand Prix. In 1907, Germany staged the first of the Kaiserpreis races at the 73-mile Taunus public road circuit, entries were limited to touring cars with engines of less than eight litres. The race itself was a tragedy, a driver and his co-driver were killed 19 miles into the lap, göbel died of his injuries in hospital later on. Italys Felice Nazzaro won the race in a Fiat, like the Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt, which was held from 1908 to 1911, it was a precursor to the German Grand Prix. The first national event in German Grand Prix motor racing was held at the AVUS race circuit in southwestern Berlin in 1926 as a car race. The AVUS circuit was made up of two 6-mile straights combined with two left-hand hairpins at each end, the first race at AVUS, in heavy rain, was won by Germanys native son, Rudolf Caracciola in a Mercedes-Benz. The event was marred by Adolf Rosenbergers crash into one of the marshals huts, the AVUS circuit was considered extremely dangerous even back then- so the event was moved. The German Grand Prix became an event in 1929. The Grand Prix moved to the new,28.3 km Nürburgring, located in the Eifel Mountain region in western Germany about 70 miles from Frankfurt and it was inaugurated on 18 June 1927 with the annual race, the ADAC Eifelrennen. There were two races on the Gesamtstrecke combined course, which were both sportscar races, where German pre-war great Rudolf Caracciola would win his second of six German Grands Prix. The 1930 and 1933 races were cancelled due to economic reasons, in 1931, the event began to use only the 14.2 mile Nordschleife, and this would continue onwards throughout the century. Caracciola would win the 1931 and 1932 events in a Mercedes, starting in 1934, there were often several races each year with the so-called Silver Arrows Grand Prix cars in Germany, e. g. the Eifelrennen, the AVUS race and several hillclimbs. Yet it was only the Grand Prix at the Nürburgring that was the national Grande Epreuve, the 1935 event was considered to be one of the greatest motorsports victories of all time. Italian legend Tazio Nuvolari, driving a hopelessly outdated and underpowered Alfa Romeo against state-of-the-art Mercedes, after a dreadful start, he was able to pass a number of cars, particularly while some of the German cars pitted. The small 42-year-old Italian ended up finishing in front of eight running Silver Arrows, second placed Hans Stuck was two minutes behind Nuvolari
19.
French Grand Prix
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The French Grand Prix was a race held as part of Fédération Internationale de lAutomobiles annual Formula One automobile racing championships. It was one of the oldest motor races in the world and it ceased shortly after its centenary in 2008 with 86 races having been held, a victim of finances and unfavourable venues. It is also one of four races to have held as part of the three distinct Grand Prix championships. The power of original organiser, the Automobile Club de France, the Grand Prix name referred to the prize of 45,000 French francs to the race winner. The franc was pegged to the gold at 0.290 grams per franc, dieppe in particular was an extremely dangerous circuit-8 people in total were killed at the 3 French Grands Prix held at the 79 km circuit. The 1906 race was the first ever Grand Prix, which was an event that originated from the Gordon Bennett races that had started in 1899. This race was run on a 66-mile closed public road circuit starting at the western French town of Le Mans, through a series of villages and back again to Le Mans. Hungarian Ferenc Szisz won this very long 12-hour race on a Renault from Italian Felice Nazzaro in a Fiat, where laps on this took around an hour. The 1913 race was won by Georges Boillot on a one-off 19-mile circuit near Amiens in northern France, Amiens was another extremely deadly circuit-5 people were killed during its use during pre-race testing and the race weekend itself. The 1914 race, run on a 24-mile circuit near Lyon is perhaps the most legendary race of the pre-WWI racing era and this was a hard-fought battle between the French Peugeots and the German Mercedess. Although the Peugeots were fast and Boillot ended up leading for 12 of the 20 laps the Dunlop tires they used wore out badly compared to the Continentials that the Mercedes cars were using. Boillots four-minute lead was wiped out by Christian Lautenschlager in a Mercedes while he stopped an incredible eight times for tires. Although Boillot drove very hard to try to catch Christian Lautenschlager, he had to due to tire failure, and Mercedes finished 1-2-3. Bugatti made its debut at the 1922 race at a 8.3 mile one-off public road circuit near Strasbourg near the French-German border- which was close to Bugattis headquarters in Molsheim. It rained, and the circuit was in a dreadful condition. This race became a duel between Bugatti and Fiat- and Felice Nazzaro won in a Fiat, the 1923 race at another one-off circuit near Tours featured another new Bugatti- the Type 32. This car was dubbed the Tank, owing to its streamlined shape. This car was fast on the straights of this public road circuit-
20.
James Gordon Bennett Jr.
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James Gordon Bennett Jr. was publisher of the New York Herald, founded by his father, James Gordon Bennett Sr. who emigrated from Scotland. He was generally known as Gordon Bennett to distinguish him from his father, among his many sports-related accomplishments he organized both the first polo match and the first tennis match in the United States, and he personally won the first trans-oceanic yacht race. He sponsored explorers including Henry Morton Stanleys trip to Africa to find David Livingstone, Bennett was born on May 10,1841 in New York City to James Gordon Bennett Sr. the founder, editor and publisher of the New York Herald. He was educated primarily in France, in 1866, the elder Bennett turned control of the Herald over to him. Bennett, like many of his class, indulged in the good life, yachts, opulent private railroad cars. He was the youngest Commodore ever of the New York Yacht Club, in 1861, Bennett volunteered his newly built schooner yacht, Henrietta, for the U. S. Revenue Marine Service during the Civil War, at the same time, Bennett was commissioned as a third lieutenant in the Revenue Marine Service and assigned to the U. S. Marine Revenue schooner Henrietta beginning in June 1861. She patrolled Long Island until February 1862 when she was sent to Port Royal, on March 3,1862, Bennett commanded the Henrietta as part of the fleet which captured Fernandina, Florida. Bennett and the Henrietta returned to life in New York in May 1862. In 1866, on a bet, he won the first trans-oceanic yacht race, the race was between three American yachts, the Vesta, the Fleetwing and the Henrietta. Each yachtsman put up $30,000 in the winner-take-all wager and they started off of Sandy Hook, New Jersey, on 11 December 1866 amid high westerly winds and raced to The Needles, the furthest westerly point on the Isle of Wight, famous for its lighthouse. Bennetts Henrietta won with a time of 13 days,21 hours,55 minutes and he entertained guests aboard his steam-yacht Namouna. American expatriate artist Julius LeBlanc Stewart painted several works set on the yacht, however, he often scandalized society with his flamboyant and sometimes erratic behavior. In 1877, he left New York for Europe after an incident that ended his engagement to socialite Caroline May, according to various accounts, he arrived late and drunk to a party at the May family mansion, then urinated into a fireplace in full view of his hosts. Bennetts controversial reputation has been thought to have inspired, in the United Kingdom, settling in Paris, he launched the Paris edition of the New York Herald, named The Paris Herald, the forerunner of the International Herald Tribune. He backed George W. De Longs voyage to the North Pole on the USS Jeannette via the Bering Strait, the ill-fated expedition led to the deaths from starvation of DeLong and 19 of his crew, a tragedy that only increased the papers circulation. He was a co-founder of the Commercial Cable Company, a venture to break the Transatlantic cable monopoly held by Jay Gould. Bennett returned to the United States and organized the first polo match in the United States at Dickels Riding Academy at 39th Street and he would help found the Westchester Polo Club in 1876, the first polo club in America
21.
Mercedes (marque)
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Mercedes was a brand of the Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft. DMG began to develop in 1900, after the death of its co-founder, by Jellineks contract, the new model contained a newly designed engine designated Daimler-Mercedes. This engine name is the first instance of the use of the name, Mercedes, the automobile design would later be called, the Mercedes 35 hp. Later he contracted with DMG for a series of dedicated sports cars containing an engine that officially bore his daughters name. He raced them successfully, gaining recognition that increased interest in customers. This model was a significant advancement in the history of automobiles, Jellinek seems to have become obsessed with the name and even had his name changed to Jellinek-Mercedes. Maybach quit DMG in 1907 and started up his own business, and Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft in that year. Since Jellinek was a member of the board of directors by the time of the merger, Mercedes was a brand in the Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft which began to develop in 1901, after the death of its co-founder, Gottlieb Daimler. This caused DMG to abandon racing, the contract also included an order for 36 standard DMG8 hp cars. The first one was not delivered to Jellinek until 22 December, however, Jellinek laid down strict specifications for the new model stating I dont want a car for today or tomorrow, it will be the car of the day after tomorrow. Over the next few months, Jellinek oversaw the development of the new car—at first by daily telegrams—and later by traveling to Stuttgart. He took delivery of the first one on 22 December 1900, at Nices railway station—it had already sold to the Baron Henry of Rothschild. In 1901, the car amazed the automobile world, Jellinek again won the Nice races, easily beating his opponents in all the capacity classes and reaching 60 km/h. The director of the French Automobile Club, Paul Meyan, stated, We have entered the Mercedes era, the records set by the new Mercedes 35 hp model amazed the entire automobile world. The number of employees increased from 340 in 1900 to 2,200 in 1904
22.
Hairpin turn
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The hairpin turns are commonly seen in mountaineous area, and often appear continuously. Such turns in ramps and trails may be called switchbacks in American English, in British English switchback is more likely to refer to a heavily undulating road—a use extended from the rollercoaster and the other type of switchback railway. Hairpin turns are often built when a route climbs up or down a slope, so that it can travel mostly across the slope with only moderate steepness. Highways of this style are generally less costly to build. On occasion, the road may loop completely, using a tunnel or bridge to cross itself at a different elevation, when this routing geometry is used for a rail line, it is called a spiral, or spiral loop. In trail building, an alternative to switchbacks is the stairway, the Geiranger road from Geirangerfjord to the mountain pass won the gold medal on the world exhibition, Paris 1900, the original design included a 270° spiral. Norwegian National Road 7 through Måbødalen has a spiral partly within tunnels, the road from Frangokastello to Kallikratis in Crete has 27 tight bends. Due to mountainous profile of the country are many streets in Greece having tight bends. US441 through Great Smoky Mountains National Park on the Tennessee/North Carolina border, US40 over Berthoud Pass in Colorado. It forms half of the Mount Evans Scenic Byway, pikes Peak Highway in Colorado Springs includes numerous hairpins and switchbacks which are known as Ws. Mexican Autopista 95D has a hairpin turn which is known as La Pera. The Crowsnest Highway in British Columbia, Canada east of Osoyoos has several hairpin turns, a sharp hairpin turn on British Columbia Highway 97 alongside Vaseux Lake near Oliver, British Columbia has been the scene of many accidents and deaths. Nova Scotia Highway 105, part of the Trans-Canada Highway in Cape Breton has a turn after peaking Kellys Mountain before descending to cross the Seal Island Bridge. The Duffy Lake Road in British Columbia descending into Pemberton from Lillooet, 50°184. 31N, 122°354. 50W The Paso Internacional Los Libertadores has several switchbacks on the Chilean side of the pass. 26 below the tunnel entrance alone, in Japan, there is the known Nikkō Irohazaka, a one-way switchback mountain road, located at Nikko, Tochigi. This road plays a significant role in Japanese history, The route was popular with Buddhist pilgrims on their way to Lake Chuzenji, iroha-Zaka ascends more than 1,300 feet. In Macau, a part of the Guia Circuit is a hairpin turn, in India, the Gata Loops, a part of the route from Manali to Leh. And the Agumbe Ghat road from Udupi to Teerthahalli in Karnataka have 13 hairpin turns, in fact, most of the Ghats include at least one hairpin turn
23.
Plank road
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A plank road is a dirt path or road covered with a series of wooden planks. Plank roads were found in the Canadian province of Ontario. They were often built by turnpike companies, in the late 1840s plank roads led to an investment boom and subsequent bust. The first plank road in the US was built in North Syracuse, New York in order to transport salt and other goods, ultimately the technology failed to live up to its promise and millions of dollars in investments evaporated almost overnight. Three plank roads, the Hackensack, the Paterson, and the Newark, were major arteries in northern New Jersey, the roads travelled over the New Jersey Meadowlands, connecting the cities for which they were named to the Hudson River waterfront. Kingston Road, Danforth Avenue in Toronto were plank roads built by the Don and Danforth Plank Road Company in the late 18th, highway 2 from Toronto eastwards was once plank roads in the 19th century and later paved. In Perth, Western Australia, plank roads were important in the growth of the agricultural and outer urban areas, given the distances imposed by swamps. As it cost UK£2,000 per kilometre to construct roads by conventional means, the 90-centimetre gap was filled with limestone rubble to be used by horses. This reduced the cost of building by up to 85 percent after their widespread introduction in 1908. However, increased traffic and suburban development rendered these routes unsatisfactory over time and by the 1950s they had been replaced with bitumen surfaced roads
24.
Palisade
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A palisade—sometimes called a stakewall or a paling—is typically a fence or wall made from wooden stakes or tree trunks and used as a defensive structure or enclosure. Typical construction consisted of small or mid-sized tree trunks aligned vertically, the trunks were sharpened or pointed at the top, and were driven into the ground and sometimes reinforced with additional construction. The height of a palisade ranged from around a metre to as high as 3-4 m, as a defensive structure, palisades were often used in conjunction with earthworks. Palisades were an excellent option for small forts or other hastily constructed fortifications, since they were made of wood, they could often be quickly and easily built from readily available materials. They proved to be effective protection for short-term conflicts and were a deterrent against small forces. However, because they were wooden constructions they were vulnerable to fire. Often, a palisade would be constructed around a castle as a wall until a permanent stone wall could be erected. They were frequently used in New France, both the Greeks and Romans created palisades to protect their military camps. The Roman historian Livy describes the Greek method as being inferior to that of the Romans during the Second Macedonian War, the Greek stakes were too large to be easily carried and were spaced too far apart. This made it easy for enemies to them and create a large enough gap in which to enter. In contrast, the Romans used smaller and easier to carry stakes which were placed closer together, many settlements of the native Mississippian culture of the Midwestern United States also made use of palisades. The most prominent example is the Cahokia Mounds site in Collinsville, a wooden stockade with a series of watchtowers or bastions at regular intervals formed a 2-mile-long enclosure around Monks Mound and the Grand Plaza. Archaeologists found evidence of the stockade during excavation of the area and indications that it was several times. The stockade seems to have separated Cahokias main ceremonial precinct from other parts of the city, the English settlements in Jamestown, Virginia and Plymouth, Massachusetts were originally fortified towns surrounded by palisades. In the late century, when milled lumber was not available or practical. The walls were made of vertical half timbers, the outside, rounded half with its still on faced Adirondack weather. Typically, the cracks between the logs were filled with moss and sometimes covered with small sticks. Inside, the cracks were covered with narrow wooden battens and it also presented a more finished look inside
25.
Footbridge
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A footbridge is a bridge designed for pedestrians and in some cases cyclists, animal traffic, and horse riders, instead of vehicular traffic. Footbridges complement the landscape and can be used decoratively to visually link two distinct areas or to signal a transaction, in many developed countries, footbridges are both functional and can be beautiful works of art and sculpture. Simple suspension bridge designs have developed to be sustainable and easily constructible in such rural areas using only local materials. An enclosed footbridge between two buildings is known as a skyway. Bridges providing for both pedestrians and cyclists are often referred to as greenbridges and form an important part of sustainable transport movement towards more sustainable cities. Footbridges are often situated to allow pedestrians to cross water or railways in areas where there are no roads to necessitate a road bridge. They are also located across roads to let pedestrians cross safely without slowing down the traffic, the latter is a type of pedestrian separation structure, examples of which are particularly found near schools, to help prevent children running in front of moving cars. Small footbridges can also be used for an effect in ornamental gardens. Complicated engineering is not needed and the footbridges are built with readily available materials, most footbridges are equipped with guard rails to reduce the risk of pedestrians falling. Where they pass over busy roads or railways, they may include a fence or other such barrier to prevent pedestrians from jumping. Much rural travel takes place on local paths, tracks and village roads and these provide essential access to water, firewood, farm plots and the classified road network. Communities and/or local government are responsible for this infrastructure. Pedestrian overpasses over highways or railroads are expensive, especially when elevators or long ramps for users are required. Without elevators or ramps, people with mobility handicaps will not be able to use the structure, often, people will prefer to walk across a busy road at grade rather than expend the effort to climb up the bridge and go over it. Overpasses should only be used where the number of users justify the costs, narrow, enclosed structures can result in perceptions of low personal security among users. Wider structures and good lighting can reduce this. Footbridges are small, but important, because they are presented in townscape. The appearance of footbridges, and indeed of any other bridges, people have to live with these structures, usually seeing them every day
26.
Grandstand
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A grandstand is a large and normally permanent structure for seating spectators, most often at a racetrack. This includes both auto racing and horse racing, the grandstand is in essence like a single section of a stadium, but differs from a stadium in that it does not wrap all or most of the way around. Grandstands may have basic bench seating, but usually have individual chairs like a stadium, grandstands are also usually covered with a roof, but are open on the front. Grandstands are found at places like Epsom Downs Racecourse and Atlanta Motor Speedway and they may also be found at fairgrounds, circuses, and outdoor arenas used for rodeos. In the United States, smaller stands are called bleachers, and are far more basic. Early baseball games were staged at fairgrounds, and the term grandstand came along when standalone baseball parks began to be built. A covered bleacher may be called a pavilion, also to distinguish from the main grandstand, the pejorative verb grandstanding is often applied to politicians or other public figures perceived to be using tactics designed to call attention to themselves instead of the issues
27.
Pit stop
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Not all of these are allowed in all forms of racing. While the term is used in motorsports, it also gained popularity with driving in general when embarking on long road trips, suggesting a brief break from driving. These pit stops grant the travelers a bathroom break, a breakfast/lunch/dinner break, the pits usually comprise a pit lane which runs parallel to the start/finish straight and is connected at each end to the main track, and a row of garages outside which the work is done. Pit stop work is carried out by anywhere from two to twenty mechanics, depending on the regulations, while the driver often waits in the vehicle. Depending on the circuit, the garage may be located on pit lane or in a separate area. Most North American circuits feature a pit lane with a number of pit stalls, in races where there are different series racing together, each series has its own separate garage or are parked in their own area. Circuits in other parts of the world typically have the individual garages open directly onto the pit lane through the teams assigned pit box. In American English, it is common to drop the article and just refer to pit road. A further difference is that in British English, the pit box is universally used, whereas in American English. It is important to note that in NASCAR, a pit box is a tool, where it is permitted, refuelling is often an important purpose of a pit stop. Carrying fuel slows down a vehicle and there is often a limit on the size of the fuel tank, so many races require multiple stops for fuel to complete the race distance in the minimum time. Changing tyres is also common to permit the use of softer tyres that wear faster but provide more grip, to use tyres suitable for wet conditions, choosing the optimum pit strategy of how many stops to make and when to make them is crucial in having a successful race. It is also important for teams to take competitors strategies into account when planning pit stops, in most series the order of the teams pit boxes is assigned by points standings, race results, or previous qualifying results before the start of the race. In NASCAR and in INDYCARs Indianapolis 500, typically pit assignments are made after qualifying, during a ten-second pit stop, a cars competitors will gain approximately one-quarter mile over the stopped car. Because of this, race teams plan a pit strategy prior to the start of every race. However, a pit strategy is not a fixed, immutable thing. During a scheduled pit stop, the pit crew services the vehicle as quickly as possible. The most common services performed are refuelling and changing tyres, in endurance racing, scheduled driver changes and brake pad replacements are also considered routine service when done as part of a scheduled pit stop
28.
Le Petit Parisien
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Le Petit Parisien was a prominent French newspaper during the French Third Republic. It was published between 1876 and 1944, and its circulation was two million after the First World War. Despite its name, the paper was circulated across France, in May 1927, the paper fell into a media prank set up by Jean-Paul Sartre and his friends, announcing that Charles Lindbergh was going to be awarded as École Normale Supérieure honorary student. Prior to the century, newspapers were largely political such as Paris’s La Presse. This is largely because newspapers held close ties with political parties in order to profit, however, this led to a stunt in circulation. The creation of Joseph Pulitzer’s newspaper Le Matin inspired a new type of journalism and it prompted the start of Le Petit Journal and Le Petit Parisien which launched French journalism into a mass medium. These newspapers offered sensationalized news rather than relying on political propaganda which also meant they avoided the tax held on most political newspapers and this new style, reporting on topics such as finance and fashion, targeted mid to lower class readers. Appealing to this demographic helped launch Le Petit Parisiens circulation to the millions, Le Petit Parisien featured a weekly, Sunday illustration located on their front pages. These illustrations were often visual representation of current events and paired with an article located within the newspaper, because photography was not readily available, the newspaper relied on local artists to provide drawings and sketches for human interest stories. The purpose of illustrated covers was to capture the eye of the passerby. Some illustrations are noted as risqué or scandalous, with the use of getting the attention of readers. These covers are studied by many artists for their aesthetic appeal, up until the mid twentieth century, there was no formal school for journalism in Europe. Therefore, the writers for Le Petit Parisien had no education and were often activists. Among the newspaper’s guest writers was international correspondent Andrée Viollis, during the interwar years, the heavy swap of editors suggests that Le Petit Parisien was suffering the effects of unregulated media ownership that plagued France until the 1980s. Le Petit Parisien did not survive its policy of collaboration with the German invaders during World War II, all copies of Le Petit Parisien can be found at the National Library of France—Gallica website. History of French journalism Digitized issues of Le Petit Parisien in Gallica, Digitized issues of supplément littéraire du Petit Parisien in Gallica
29.
Automobiles Darracq France
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Automobiles Darracq France was a manufacturer of motor vehicles and aero engines in Suresnes, near Paris. The enterprise, known at first as A Darracq et Cie, was founded in 1896 by successful businessman Alexandre Darracq, in 1902 he sold his new business to a privately held English company named A Darracq and Company Limited, taking a substantial shareholding and a directorship himself. He continued to run the business from Paris but was obliged to retire to the Côte dAzur in 1913 following years of difficulties that brought his business into very hazardous financial circumstances. He had introduced an unproven unorthodox engine in 1911 which proved a complete failure yet he neglected Suresnes popular conventional products, France then entered the first World War. In 1916 ownership of the Suresnes business was transferred to Darracq S. A, in 1922 Darracqs name was dropped from its products and this business was renamed Talbot S. A. Initially its products were branded Darracq-Talbot and then just Talbot, the London parent company suffered a financial collapse during the great depression and in 1935 Talbot S. A. was acquired by investors led by managing director, Antonio Lago. He built a new plant, the Perfecta works, in the Paris suburb of Suresnes just south of Puteaux, production began in January 1898 with bicycle parts, tricycles and quadricycles and a Millet motorcycle powered by a five-cylinder rotary engine and shortly after an electric brougham. In 1898 Darracq et Cie made a Léon Bollée-designed voiturette tricar, J S Smith-Winby was appointed chairman. Further capital was raised and large sums were spent on expansion, the Suresnes site was expanded to some four acres in extent. In 1902, A. Darracq et Cie signed a contract with Adam Opel to jointly produce vehicles in the German Empire under licence, with the brand name Opel Darracq. By 1903, four models were offered, a 1. 1-litre single, a 1.3 L and 1.9 L twin, and a 3.8 L four. The 1904 models abandoned flitch-plated wood chassis for pressed steel, and this car was Alexandre Darracqs chef doeuvre. There was nothing outstanding in its design but every part was in perfect balance. Its exceptional quality helped the company capture a ten percent share of the French auto market, in late 1904 the chairman reported sales were up by 20 per cent though increased costs meant the profit had risen more slowly. But what was important was they had many more orders than they could fill. Alexandre Darracq established Società Italiana Automobili Darracq in Portello, a suburb of Milan in Italy in 1906 through an arrangement with Cavaliere Ugo Stella. The business did not do well and Darracq shut it down in 1910, a new partnership, Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili, acquired the business. In 1914 Nicola Romeo bought ALFA and it became Alfa Romeo, in 1907, Darracq formed Sociedad Anonima Espanola de Automoviles Darracq in Vitoria, Spain with a capitalization of 1,000,000 pesetas
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Panhard
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Panhard is a French manufacturer of light tactical and military vehicles. Its current incarnation, now owned by Renault Trucks Defense, was formed by the acquisition of Panhard by Auverland in 2005, Panhard had been under Citroën ownership, then PSA after the 1974 takeover of Citroën by Peugeot, for 40 years. The combined company now uses the Panhard name, this was decided based on studies indicating that the Panhard name had better brand recognition worldwide than the Auverland name, Panhard once built innovative civilian cars but ceased production of those in 1968. Many of its military products however end up on the market via third sources. Panhard also built railbuses between the wars, Panhard was originally called Panhard et Levassor, and was established as a car manufacturing concern by René Panhard and Émile Levassor in 1887. Panhard et Levassor sold their first automobile in 1890, based on a Daimler engine license, Levassor obtained his licence from Paris lawyer Edouard Sarazin, a friend and representative of Gottlieb Daimlers interests in France. Following Sarazins 1887 death, Daimler commissioned Sarazins widow Louise to carry on her late husbands agency, the Panhard et Levassor license was finalised by Louise, who married Levassor in 1890. Daimler and Levassor became fast friends, and shared improvements with one another and these first vehicles set many modern standards, but each was a one-off design. They used a pedal to operate a chain-driven gearbox. The vehicle also featured a front-mounted radiator, an 1895 Panhard et Levassor is credited with the first modern transmission. For the 1894 Paris–Rouen Rally, Alfred Vacheron equipped his 4 horsepower with a steering wheel and this was to become the standard layout for automobiles for most of the next century. The same year, Panhard et Levassor shared their Daimler engine license with bicycle maker Armand Peugeot, in 1895,1,205 cc Panhard et Levassors finished first and second in the Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race, one piloted solo by Levassor, for 48¾hr. However during the 1896 Paris–Marseille–Paris race, Levassor was fatally injured due to a crash while trying to avoid hitting a dog, arthur Krebs succeeded Levassor as General Manager in 1897, and held the job until 1916. He turned the Panhard et Levassor Company into one of the largest and most profitable manufacturer of automobiles before World War I, Panhards won numerous races from 1895 to 1903. Panhard et Levassor developed the Panhard rod, which used in many other types of automobiles as well. From 1910 Panhard worked to develop engines without conventional valves, using under license the sleeve valve technology that had been patented by the American Charles Yale Knight. Between 1910 and 1924 the Panhard & Levassor catalogue listed plenty of models with conventional valve engines, following various detailed improvements to the sleeve valve technology by Panhards own engineering department, from 1924 till 1940 all Panhard cars used sleeve valve engines. Under the presidency of Raymond Poincaré, which ran from 1913 till 1920, the military were also keen on the sleeve valve engined Panhard 20HP
Paul Baras (FRA)
Ferenc Szisz (HUN)
Felice Nazzaro (ITA)
George Heath (USA)
Arthur Duray (BEL)
"Burton" (UK)
Aldo Weilschott (DEU)
