1.
Islamic Consultative Assembly
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The Islamic Consultative Assembly, also called the Iranian Parliament, the Iranian Majlis, is the national legislative body of Iran. The Parliament currently has 290 representatives, changed from the previous 272 seats since the 18 February 2000 election, the most recent election took place on 26 February 2016 and the new parliament was opened on 28 May 2016. Before the Islamic Revolution, Majlis was also the name of the house of the Iranian Legislature from 1906 to 1979. It was created by the Iran Constitution of 1906 and first convened on 7 October 1906, women were not allowed to vote or be elected to the Parliament until 1963, as part of reforms under the Shahs White Revolution. The twenty-first National Consultative Assembly, which included female representatives, opened on 6 October 1963, the last session of the Pre-Revolution Parliament was held on 7 February 1979. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Senate of Iran was abolished and was replaced by the Guardian Council thus the Iranian legislature remained bicameral. In the 1989 revision of the constitution, the National Consultative Assembly became the Islamic Consultative Assembly, the Parliament of Iran has had six chairmen since the Iranian Revolution. Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani was the first chairman, from 1980 to 1989, then came Mehdi Karroubi, Ali Akbar Nategh-Nouri, Mehdi Karroubi, Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel and Ali Larijani since 2008. The Islamic Consultative Assembly can legislate laws on all issues within the limits of the Constitution, the Assembly cannot, for instance, enact laws contrary to the canons and principles of the official religion of the country or to the Constitution. Government bills are presented to the Islamic Consultative Assembly after receiving the approval of the Council of Ministers, the Islamic Consultative Assembly has the right to investigate and examine all the affairs of the country. International treaties, protocols, contracts, and agreements must be approved by the Islamic Consultative Assembly, receiving and issuing national or international loans or grants by the government must be ratified by the Islamic Consultative Assembly. The President must obtain, for the Council of Ministers, after being formed and before all other business, all legislation passed by the Islamic Consultative Assembly must be sent to the Guardian Council. The Guardian Council must review it within a maximum of ten days from its receipt with a view to ensuring its compatibility with the criteria of Islam, if it finds the legislation incompatible, it will return it to the Assembly for review. Otherwise the legislation will be deemed enforceable, currently, there are 290 members of Parliament, fourteen of whom represent non-Muslim religious minorities, and are popularly elected for four-year terms. About 8% of the Parliament are women, while the average is 13%. The Parliament can force the dismissal of cabinet ministers through no-confidence votes, although the executive proposes most new laws, individual deputies of the Parliament also may introduce legislation. Deputies also may propose amendments to bills being debated, the Parliament also drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Peoples House of Iran candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council, candidates must pledge in writing that they are committed, in theory and in practice, to the Iranian constitution
2.
Tehran
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Tehran is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. It is ranked 29th in the world by the population of its metropolitan area, in the Classical era, part of the present-day city of Tehran was occupied by a Median city that in the Avesta occurs as Rhaga. It was destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century, the capital has been moved several times throughout the history, and Tehran is the 32nd national capital of Iran. The city was the seat of the Qajars and Pahlavis, the two last imperial dynasties of Iran. It is home to historical collections, such as the royal complexes of Golestan, Sadabad. Large scale demolition and rebuilding began in the 1920s, and Tehran has been a destination for the migrations from all over Iran since the 20th century. Tabiat Bridge, which was completed in 2014, is considered the third symbol of the city. There have been plans to relocate Irans capital from Tehran to another area, due mainly to air pollution, to date, no definitive plans have been approved. A2016 survey of 230 cities by consultant Mercer ranked Tehran 203rd for quality of living, according to the Global Destinations Cities Index in 2016, Tehran is among the top ten fastest growing destinations. The origin of the name Tehran is uncertain, the settlement of Tehran dates back over 7,000 years. The present-day city of Tehran was a suburb of an important Median city that was known as Rhaga in Old Persian, in the Avestas Videvdat, Rhaga is mentioned as the twelfth sacred place created by the Ohrmazd. In Old Persian inscriptions, Rhaga appears as a province and it was a major area for the Iranian tribes of Medes and Achaemenids. From Rhaga, Darius the Great sent reinforcements to his father Hystaspes, in some Middle Persian texts, Rhaga is given as the birthplace of Zoroaster, although modern historians generally place the birth of Zoroaster in Khorasan. Derived into Modern Persian as Rey, it now as a city located towards the southern end of the modern-day city of Tehran. Mount Damavand, the highest peak of Iran, which is located near Tehran, is an important location in Ferdowsis Shahname, the long Iranian epic poem that is based on the ancient epics of Iran. It appears in the epics as the birthplace of Manuchehr, the residence of Keyumars, the place where Freydun binds the dragon fiend Aži Dahāka, during the Sassanid era, in 641, Yazdgerd III issued his last appeal to the nation from Rey, before fleeing to Khorasan. Rey was dominated by the Parthian Mihran family, and Siyavakhsh—the son of Mihran the son of Bahram Chobin—who resisted the Muslim Invasion, because of this resistance, when the Arabs captured Rey, they ordered the town to be destroyed and ordered Farrukhzad to rebuild the town anew. In the 9th century, Tehran was a well known village, but less known than the city of Rey, the medieval writer Najm od Din Razi declared the population of Rey about 500,000 before the Mongol Invasion
3.
Persian Constitutional Revolution
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The Persian Constitutional Revolution or Iranian Constitutional Revolution, also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia during the Qajar Dynasty, the Revolution opened the way for cataclysmic change in Persia, heralding the modern era. It saw a period of unprecedented debate in a burgeoning press, the revolution created new opportunities and opened up seemingly boundless possibilities for Persia’s future. Many different groups fought to shape the course of the Revolution, the monarch Mozaffar ad-Din Shah signed the constitution in 1906, but he died shortly after and was replaced by Mohammad Ali Shah. The latter abolished the constitution and bombarded the parliament with Russian and this led to another pro-constitutional movement. The constitutionalist forces marched to Tehran, forced Muhammad Ali Shahs abdication in favor of his young son Ahmad Shah Qajar and the re-established the constitution in 1909. In 1921 Persian Coup refers to major events in Iran in 1921. On December 12,1925, Irans parliament amended Irans constitution of 1906–1907 to replace the Qajar dynasty with the Pahlavi dynasty as the sovereigns of Iran. The movement did not end with the Revolution being put down in 1911 by the Russians, with the first provision signed by Muzzafir al-Din just days before his death, Iran saw legislative reform vital to their goal of independence from British and Russian imperialism. The three main groups of the coalition seeking a constitution were the merchants, ulama. These groups shared the goal of ending corruption and stopping the dominance of foreign powers. Revolutionaries argued that role of the shah was once again being used to keep the Shah, Qajar, and they argued that whilst Irans oil industry was sold to the British, tax advantages on import/export and manufactured textiles destroyed Irans economy formerly supported by bazaar merchants. Muzzafir al-Din accumulated a fortune in foreign debt while selling off assets to repay the interest and this rift founded Irans constitutional revolt. The fundamental law gave the legislature a final approval over all loans, concession. While Iran did gain a constitution, the goal of Iranian independence was not achieved by the revolts, weakness and extravagance continued during the brief reign of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah. He often relied on his chancellor to manage his decentralized state and his dire financial situation caused him to sign many concessions to foreign powers, on an expanding list of trade items ranging from weapons to tobacco. He had also taken out several loans from Russia and Britain to pay for his extravagant lifestyle. In 1900 the Shah financed a royal tour of Europe by borrowing 22 million rubles from Russia, Iranian customs receipts served as collateral
4.
Persian Cossack Brigade
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The Persian Cossack Brigade or Iranian Cossack Brigade was a Cossack-style elite cavalry unit formed in 1879 in Persia. During much of their history they were the functional, effective military unit of the Qajar Dynasty. Acting on occasion as kingmakers, this played a pivotal role in modern Iranian history during the Revolution of 1905–1911, the rise of Reza Shah. Together with a Swedish trained and officered gendarmerie, the Cossack Brigade came to comprise the most effective force available to the Iranian crown in the years prior to World War I. In spite of its name the Brigade was not a typical Cossack force as they were employed in the neighbouring Russian Empire, neither did it have the status of a guard unit. However, effectively it was an elite Cossack-style cavalry unit, as was asked to be created, late nineteenth century photographs show that Russian style uniforms were worn, in contrast to the indigenous dress of other Persian forces at the time. Such secondments were encouraged by the Imperial Russian Government who saw the Cossack Brigade as a means of extending Russian influence in a key area of international rivalry, after the October Revolution in 1917, many of these Russian officers left the country to join the White forces. The command of the Persian Cossack Division was subsequently transferred to Iranian officers, most notable among these officers was General Reza Khan, who started his military career as a private soldier in the Cossack Brigade and rose through its ranks to become a brigadier general. At the time of the Persian Cossack Brigades formation the Shah’s royal cavalry was described as having no training or discipline, the Qajar state at this point was very weak, lacking any professional military forces. In wars against the British the royal cavalry had been defeated, the Tsar Alexander II approved Russian military advisors travelling to Persia to fulfill the Shah’s request. The brigade was formed in 1879 by Lieutenant-Colonel Domantovich, a Russian officer. Russian interests and lack of funding slowed the development of the brigade into a professional fighting force. They possessed special privileges as a military caste. Domantovich made rapid progress with their training and the Shah ordered the strength of the new brigade to be increased to 600 men drawn from the regular army. The rapid progress of the Cossack Brigade caused concern in Russia due to fear that it may become a fighting force rather than a tool of the Russian government. Domantovich was dismissed as commander in 1881 and replaced by the less effective Colonel Charkovsij, Charkovsij added four artillery pieces to the arsenal of the Brigade in 1883 but made no other improvements. In 1886 Colonel Karavaev became commander, during his time, the Brigade faced with budget cuts and thus had its numbers diminished. In 1890 Colonel Shneur took over and was unable to pay the men, after many desertions, combined with a cholera epidemic, the strength was reduced to 450 men, and eventually cut down to 200
5.
Vladimir Liakhov
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Polkovnik Vladimir Platonovitch Liakhov was the commander of the Persian Cossack Brigade during the rule of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar. He gained considerable notoriety after shelling the Majlis of Iran and execution of several constitutionalist leaders on June 23,1908, as a sign of gratitude, Mohammad Ali Shah appointed him as the Military Governor of Tehran. During World War I he served at the Caucasian Front, in 1916 Lyakhovs troops captured Trabzon in the Trebizond Campaign. After the Russian Revolution, Lyakhov joined the White movement, serving in the Denikins Volunteer Army
6.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
7.
Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar
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Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar was the sixth king of Qajar Dynasty, Shah of Persia from 8 January 1907 to 16 July 1909. He was against the constitution that was ratified during the reign of his father, in 1907 Mohammad Ali dissolved the parliament and declared the Constitution abolished because it was contrary to Islamic law. He bombarded the Majles with the military and political support of Russia, on 16 July 1909, the parliament voted to place Mohammad Ali Shahs 11-year-old son, Ahmad Shah on the throne. Mohammad Ali Shah abdicated following the new Constitutional Revolution and he has since been remembered as a symbol of dictatorship, having fled to Odessa, Russia, Mohammad Ali plotted his return to power. In 1911 he landed at Astarabad, Persia, but his forces were defeated, Mohammad Ali Shah returned to Russia, then in 1920 to Constantinople and later to San Remo, Italy, where he died on 5 April 1925. Every Shah of Persia since Mohammad Ali has died in exile and his son and successor, Ahmad Shah Qajar was the last sovereign of the Qajar dynasty. Princess Zahra Qajar Malekeh Jahan Olia Hazrat, daughter of Kamran Mirza Nayeb-os-Saltaneh Mohammad Ali Shah had six sons, Hossein Ali Mirza Etezad Saltaneh 2. Gholam Hossein Mirza died in infancy 3, Soltan Ahmad Mirza, later Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar 4. Soltan Majid Mirza His daughters,1, princess Khadijeh Khanom, Hazrat-e Ghodsieh 2
8.
Persian Constitution of 1906
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It divides into five chapters with many articles that developed over several years. The Belgian constitution, like the constitutions of other European states, the electoral and fundamental laws of 1906 established the electoral system and the internal frameworks of the Majlis and the Senate. By the royal proclamation of August 5,1906, Mozzafar al-Din Shah created this first constitution for the peace, muhammad Ali Shah Qajar is credited with chapters 4 and 5. The electoral law of September 9,1906 defined the regulations for the Elections to the Majlis, Article 7 asserted, Each elector has one vote and can only vote in one class. The fundamental laws of December 30,1906 defined the role of the Majlis in the system and it further defined a bicameral legislature. Article 1 established the National Consultative Assembly based on justice, Article 43 stated, There shall be constituted another Assembly, entitled the Senate. The supplementary fundamental laws of October 7,1907 established the charter of rights, the Supplementary Fundamental Laws of October 7,1907 consist of ten sections,1. Rights of the Persian Nation 3, Rights of Members of the Assembly 5. Powers of the Tribunal of Justice 8, the Army The original Fundamental Law, containing 51 Articles, was promulgated on Dhu’l-Qu’da 14, A. H.1324 by the late Muzaffaru’d-Din Shah. They also elaborate on the property rights of foreign nationals in Iran as well as the inability to suspend the principles of the constitution, in the Rights of the Persian Nation, articles 8-25 discuss an array of rights inherent to all citizens of Iran. These rights include personal and property rights as well as freedom of expression and they briefly touch on the rights of citizenship and to move freely within the country. This section includes the roles of the National Consultative Assembly and the Senate, in the Rights of the Persian Throne, the section begins with several articles outlining the duties of the Shah and the logistics of the throne. These include the process of succession to the throne, ascending to the throne and it further discusses the duties of the Shah like the appointment and dismissal of Ministers and The granting of military rank, decoration and other honorary distinctions. The shah also commands the military and has the final say on whether or not to wage war and this sections concludes in Article 57 by underlining the precise degree of power that the Shah obtains saying, Articles 58-70 comment on the duties and laws regarding the Ministers. This section also helps to establish the roles that Ministers play in the government. Several articles talk specifically about how Ministers are appointed as well as how they are accountable for their delinquencies. Several articles explain the rules for all proceedings of tribunals declaring that they must be public, in articles 83-89, the issue of appointment is addressed and explained in regards to the Public Prosecutor and the members of the judicial tribunals, corroborating with the laws set forth. The various Provincial and Departmental Councils are discussed in this section, the regulations and management of finances is provided in articles 94-103
9.
Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar
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Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, was the fifth Qajar king of Persia. He reigned between the years 1896 and 1907 and he is credited with the creation of the Persian constitution, and often wrongly credited with the rise of the Persian Constitutional Revolution which took place immediately after his death. The son of the Qajar ruler Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Mozaffar ad-Din was named crown prince and he spent his 35 years as crown prince in the pursuit of pleasure, his relations with his father were frequently strained, and he was not consulted in important matters of state. Thus, when he ascended the throne in May 1896, he was unprepared for the burdens of office, at Mozaffar ad-Dins accession Persia faced a financial crisis, with annual governmental expenditures far in excess of revenues due to the policies of his father. He furthered this debt by borrowing even more funds from Britain, France, the income from these later loans was used to pay earlier loans rather than create new economic developments. In 1908, oil was discovered in Persia but Mozzaffar ad-Din had already awarded William Knox DArcy, a British subject, like his father he visited Europe three times. During these periods, on the encouragements of his chancellor Amin-os-Soltan, during his first visit he was introduced to the cinematographe in Paris, France. The following is an excerpt from the Shahs diary. 9,00 P. M. we went to the Exposition and the Festival Hall where they were showing cinematographe, then we went to Illusion building. In this Hall they were showing cinematographe. They erected a large screen in the centre of the Hall, turned off all electric lights. It was very interesting to watch, among the pictures were Africans and Arabians traveling with camels in the African desert, which was very interesting. Other pictures were of the Exposition, the street, the Seine River and ships crossing the river, people swimming and playing in the water. We instructed Akkas Bashi to purchase all kinds of it and bring to Tehran so God willing he can make some there, one example being the DArcy Oil Concession. Widespread fears amongst the aristocracy, educated elites, and religious leaders about the concessions and these resulted in the Shah accepting a suggestion to create a Majles in October 1906, by which the monarchs power was curtailed as he granted a constitution and parliament to the people. He died of a heart attack 40 days after granting this constitution and was buried in Masumeh shrine in Qom, lord Lansdowne, the Foreign Secretary, had designs drawn up for a new version of the Order, without the Cross of St. George. The King was so enraged by the sight of the design, though, however, in 1903, the King had to back down and the Shah was appointed a member of the Order. A nephew of his wife was Mohammed Mossadeq, the Prime Minister of Iran during the Pahlavi dynasty that was overthrown by a coup staged by the United Kingdom. Hamid Dabashi, Close Up, Iranian Cinema, Past, Present, ISBN 1-85984-332-8 Some fragmentary motion pictures of Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar, YouTube
10.
Anglo-Russian Convention
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The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 is the common name used for the Convention between the United Kingdom and Russia relating to Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. It delineated spheres of influence in Persia, stipulated that neither country would interfere in Tibet’s internal affairs, the agreement led to the formation of the Triple Entente. The conflicting interests centered on Afghanistan, Iran, and Tibet, on May 20,1882, Germany entered into the Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria-Hungary, complementing its industrial and socio-political climb in the world arena. Furthermore, Germany dramatically increased its output from the early 1900s up to the outbreak of World War I. Under a new empire, the German government worked to increase the nations wealth. Thus, military and territorial expansion was Germanys key to making itself a major player in the arena of power. Germanys Middle East took a position, one subordinate to Germanys primary policy toward Europe and America, throughout the late 19th. While of secondary importance, it was a tool that was used to manipulate the Middle Eastern attempt to play off the Western powers against each other, berlin peacefully penetrated the Ottoman Empire and had few colonial aspirations in the region. In 1905, revolutionary activity spread throughout Tehran, forcing the shah to accept a constitution, allow the formation of a majles, major figures in the revolution had secular goals, which then created rifts in the clergy to the advantage of the monarchy. To facilitate the situation in Iran, Britain and Russia discussed splitting Iran “into three zones, the division of Iran reinforced Great Power control over these respective territorial and economic interests in the country as well as allowed for contrived interference in Irans political system. With foreign influence, revolution was outflanked by a combination of European, as a result, Iranians learned that however predatory the two neighbors were, they were even more dangerous when they put aside their rivalries. Consequently, in 1907, Britain and Russia signed an agreement to regulate their economic, with respect to Iran, the Anglo–Russian Agreement recognized the countrys strict independence and integrity, but then divided it into three separate zones. The agreement designated all of northern Iran, which bordered Russias possessions in Transcaucasia and Central Asia, a smaller zone in southeastern Iran, which bordered Britain India, was recognized as an exclusive sphere for Britain. The British zone extended west as far as Kerman in the north, for Britain and Russia, the agreement was important in establishing a diplomatic alignment that endured until World War I. The government of Iran, however, had not been consulted about the agreement, Iranian nationalists, in particular, felt betrayed by Britain, a country they had idealized as a democratic beacon during the Constitutional Revolution. Thus, an important legacy of the agreement was the growth of anti-British sentiment specifically, the agreement lapsed in 1918 after it was renounced by a new revolutionary government in Russia. The Anglo-Russian Convention and the Problem of Central Asia, 1907-1914, Journal of British Studies 11#1 pp. 126–147 in JSTOR Palace, the British Empire and Tibet, Siegel, Jennifer, Endgame, Britain, Russia and the Final Struggle for Central Asia Tomaszewski, Fiona K. A Great Russia, Russia and the Triple Entente Brigham Young University library website
11.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
12.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
13.
Caucasus Campaign
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The Caucasus Campaign extended from the South Caucasus to the Armenian Highlands region, reaching as far as Trabzon, Bitlis, Mush and Van. The land warfare was accompanied by the Russian navy in the Black Sea Region of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the German Empire had a hot conflict at Batumi with the arrival of the German Caucasus Expedition whose prime aim was to secure oil supplies. The Armenian Genocide is intertwined with the events of this campaign, the main objective of the Ottoman Empire was the recovery of territory in the Caucasus, including regions captured by the Russian empire as a result of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. The strategic goals of the Caucasus Campaign for Ottoman Forces was to retake Artvin, Ardahan, Kars, a success in this region would mean a diversion of Russian forces to this front from the Polish and Galician fronts. A Caucasus Campaign would have an effect on Russian forces. The plan found sympathy with German advisory, Germany supplied the missing resources and the Ottoman 3rd Armys manpower was used to achieve the desired distraction. War Minister Enver Pasha hoped a success would facilitate opening the route to Tiflis, the Ottoman strategic goal was to cut Russian access to the hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea. Russia viewed the Caucasus front as secondary to the Eastern front, the Eastern Front had the most Russian manpower and resources. Russia had taken the city of Kars from the Turks in 1877 and feared an Ottoman advance into the Caucasus aimed at retaking Kars, the Russian Tsarist regime planned to replace the Muslim population of Northern Anatolia and Istanbul with more reliable Cossack settlers. The British worked with Russian revolutionary troops to prevent Enver Pashas goal of establishing an independent Transcaucasia, in 1914, before the war, the British government had contracted with the company for the supply of oil-fuel for the navy. The Ottomans had one based in the region, the 3rd Army. In 1916 they sent reinforcements and formed the 2nd Army, at the beginning of the conflict, the combined forces of the Ottomans ranged from 100,000 to 190,000 men. Before the war, Russia had the Russian Caucasus Army stationed here, the real commander was his chief of staff General Nikolai Yudenich. However, This Army had lots of Armenian support and it had Armenian generals Nazarbekov, Silikian, and Pirumov who stayed in Caucasia. The Russian Caucasus Army dissipated in 1917 as the regular Russian regiments deserted the front line after the revolution, by 1917, when the Russian Caucasus Army disintegrated, there were 110, 000–120,000 soldiers of Armenian ethnicity. This number approached to 150,000 for the total Armenians for Near East where opposing to Ottoman forces, in the summer of 1914, Armenian volunteer units were established under the Russian Armed forces. It was initially established as detachment units under the Viceroyalty of the Caucasus and these forces were commanded by Andranik Ozanian. Other leaders included Drastamat Kanayan, Hamazasp Srvandztyan, Arshak Gafavian, an Ottoman representative Karekin Bastermadjian was also united to this force
14.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Triumph of Tehran
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In 1908, revolutionaries gathered in Azerbaijan, Isfahan, and Gilan, aiming to depose Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar. They killed Mohammad Ali Afkham, Rashts governor, after a five-day battle, the revolutionaries took the capitals control. At the same time, their leaders gathered in the Baharestan palace, all these changes took place under the name of Superior parliament which involved 30 people
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
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Iranian Revolution
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Demonstrations against the Shah commenced in October 1977, developing into a campaign of civil resistance that included both secular and religious elements and which intensified in January 1978. Between August and December 1978 strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, the Shah left Iran for exile on 16 January 1979, as the last Persian monarch, leaving his duties to a regency council and an opposition-based prime minister. Ayatollah Khomeini was invited back to Iran by the government, the royal reign collapsed shortly after on 11 February when guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting, bringing Khomeini to official power. It was a relatively non-violent revolution, and helped to redefine the meaning, the Shahs regime became increasingly oppressive, brutal, corrupt, and extravagant. It also suffered from basic functional failures that brought economic bottlenecks, shortages, the Shah was perceived by many as beholden to – if not a puppet of – a non-Muslim Western power whose culture was affecting that of Iran. The Shia clergy had a significant influence on Iranian society, the clergy first showed itself to be a powerful political force in opposition to the monarchy with the 1891 Tobacco Protest. On 20 March 1890, Nasir al-Din Shah granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a monopoly over the production, sale. The boycotts and protests against it were widespread and extensive because of Mirza Hasan Shirazis fatwa, finally Nasir al-Din Shah found himself powerless to stop the popular movement and cancelled the concession. The Tobacco Protest was the first significant Iranians resistance against the Shah and foreign interests, and revealed the power of the people, the growing discontent continued until the Constitutional Revolution. The revolution led to the establishment of a Parliament and approval of the first constitution, although the constitutional revolution was successful in weakening the autocracy of the Qajar regime, it failed to provide a powerful alternative government. Consequently, within the following the establishment of the new parliament. Many of these events can be viewed as a continuation of the struggle between the constitutionalists and the Shahs of Persia, many of whom were backed by foreign powers against the parliament. He established a monarchy, deposing the last of the Qajar shah in 1925 and introduced many social, economic. A number of reforms led to public discontent which provides circumstances for an Iranian revolution. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavis father, Reza Shah, replaced Islamic laws with Western ones, police forcibly removed and tore chadors off women who resisted his ban on the public hijab. In 1935, dozens were killed and hundreds injured in the Goharshad Mosque rebellion, on the other hand, in the early rise of Reza Shah, Abdul-Karim Haeri Yazdi founded the Qom Seminary and created important changes in seminaries. However, he would avoid entering into political issues, as did other leaders who followed him. Hence, no widespread anti-government attempts were organized by clergy during the Reza Shah Rule, however, the future Ayatollah Khomeini was a student of Sheikh Abdul Karim Ha’eri
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Persian Campaign
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Persia was formally neutral in World War I. In reality, Persian forces were affected by the rivalry between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers and took sides based on the conditions. Western interest in Persia was based on its significant oil reserve, the convention capped off several decades of the Great Game between the Russians and British. The treaty included thus their respective spheres of influence in Persia as well, the bureau was involved in intelligence and subversive missions to Persia and Afghanistan to dismantle the Anglo-Russian Entente. The bureaus operations in Persia were led by Wilhelm Wassmuss, the Ottoman Empires military strategic goal was to cut off Russian access to the hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea. Aligned with the Germans, the Ottoman Empire wanted to undermine the influence of the Entente in this region, but for a very different reason. The Ottoman Minister of War, Enver Pasha, claimed that if the Russians could be beaten in the key cities of Persia, it could open the way to Azerbaijan, to Central Asia and to India. Enver Pasha envisioned a cooperation between these newly establishing nationalistic states, if they were to be removed from western influence. However, Enver Pasha continued with his ambition after the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the victorious Entente Powers until his death on August 4,1922. In 1914, before the war, the British government had contracted with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company for the supply of oil for the navy, the Persian forces were established around certain districts, instead of one single force. Each district furnished battalions and each of the provinces had several battalions, each district depending on the tribal grouping furnished one or sometimes two battalions usually under their own chiefs. The strength of battalions was from 600 to 800 and they had batteries from 4 to 8 guns. The irregular troops amounted to about 50,000 in each district with ranks composed of tribal horsemen and it was not uncommon of the chiefs, who controlled the battalions, to change sides. Some of these forces were Qashqai Tribesmen, Tangistani Tribesmen, Laristani Tribesmen, the Persian central government also had the Persian Central Government Gendarmerie under Swedish officers consisting of about 6,000 troops. Only 2,000 of the 6,000 were mounted and they were in 6 regiments of 9 battalions and armed with Mausers,12 machine guns, and 4 mountain guns. The Persian forces were dispersed at Tehran, Kazvin, and Hamadan with the objective of keeping the main roads. In 1914, Enver Pasha ordered Lt. Col. Kâzım Bey, commander of the 1st Expeditionary Force, the German operations were achieved by Wilhelm Wassmuss and Count Kaunitz. Wilhelm Wassmuss, known as the German Lawrence, was a German consular official in Persia who loved the desert and he persuaded his superiors in Constantinople that he could lead Persian tribes in a revolt against Britain
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Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
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The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran, also known as Anglo-Soviet invasion of Persia, was the invasion of the Empire of Iran during World War II by Soviet, British and other Commonwealth armed forces. The invasion lasted from 25 August to 17 September 1941 and was codenamed Operation Countenance and its purpose was to secure Iranian oil fields and ensure Allied supply lines for the USSR, fighting against Axis forces on the Eastern Front. In 1925, after years of war, turmoil and foreign intervention, Persia was unified under the rule of Reza Khan. Later, in 1935, he asked foreign delegates to use the term Iran and he set on an ambitious program of economic, cultural, and military modernisation. Iran, which had been a divided and isolated country under the rule of the Qajar Dynasty, was now evolving into a modern industrial state. Reza Shah also made improvements, such as building infrastructure, expanding cities and transportation networks. He also set forth on a policy of neutrality, but to finance and support his ambitious modernisation projects. For many decades, Iran and the German Empire had cultivated ties, partly as a counter to the ambitions of Britain. Trading with Germany appealed to Iran because the Germans did not have a history of imperialism in the region, unlike the British, Iranian embassies in occupied European capitals rescued over 1,500 Jews and secretly granted them Iranian citizenship, allowing them to move to Iran. The British began to accuse Iran of supporting Nazism and being pro-German. of the profits, following Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Britain and the Soviet Union became formal Allies, providing further impetus for an Allied invasion. British and Soviet planners recognised the importance of railway and sought to control it. As increasing U-boat attacks and winter ice made convoys to Arkhangelsk dangerous, the Soviets wanted to make Iranian Azerbaijan and the Turkmen Sahra part of the Soviet Union or even turn Iran into a communist state. The two Allied nations applied pressure on Iran and the Shah, which led only to increased tensions, the British described the protests as being pro-German. Irans strategic position threatened Soviet Caucasian oil and their armies rear, demands from the Allies for the expulsion of German residents in Iran, were refused by the Shah. A British embassy report in 1940, estimated there were almost 1,000 German nationals in Iran. According to Irans Ettelaat newspaper, there were actually 690 German nationals in Iran, however, the Iranians also began to reduce their trade with the Germans under Allied demands. Reza Shah sought to remain neutral and anger neither side, which was becoming increasingly difficult with the British/Soviet demands on Iran, British forces were already present in sizeable numbers in Iraq as a result of the Anglo-Iraqi War earlier in 1941. Thus, British troops were stationed on the border of Iran prior to the invasion
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Politics of Iran
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The politics of Iran take place in a framework of a theocracy in a format of syncretic politics that is guided by an Islamic ideology. Iran has a president, parliament, Assembly of Experts. According to the constitution all candidates running for these positions must be vetted by the Guardian Council before being elected, in addition, there are representatives elected from appointed organizations to protect the states Islamic character. The early days of the government were characterized by political tumult. In November 1979 the American embassy was seized and its occupants taken hostage, the eight-year Iran–Iraq War killed hundreds of thousands and cost the country billions of dollars. S. Government and some others have accused Iran of sponsoring, emigration has lost Iran millions of entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled craftspeople and their capital. For this and other reasons Irans economy has not prospered, the Islamic Republic Party was Irans ruling political party and for years its only political party until its dissolution in 1987. After the war, new reformist/progressive parties had started to form, after the election of Mohammad Khatami in 1997, more parties started to work, mostly of the reformist movement and opposed by hard-liners. This led to incorporation and official activity of other groups. After the war ended in 1988, reformist and progressive candidates won four out of six presidential elections in Iran, the Iranian Government is opposed by several armed terrorist groups, including the Mojahedin-e-Khalq, the Peoples Fedayeen, and the Kurdish Democratic Party. For other political parties see List of political parties in Iran and these are the most recent elections that have taken place. The military and the Corps of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution are charged with defending Irans borders, Irans fiscal year goes from March 21 to March 20 of the following year. Once approved by Majlis, the bill still needs to be ratified by the Guardian Council, the bill will be sent back to the parliament for amendments if it is voted down by the Guardian Council. The Expediency Council acts as arbiter in any dispute. Following annual approval of the budget by Majlis, the central bank presents a detailed monetary and credit policy to the Money. Thereafter, major elements of these policies are incorporated into the economic development plan. The 5-year plan is part of Vision 2025, a strategy for sustainable growth. A unique feature of Irans economy is the size of the religious foundations whose combined budgets make up more than 30% that of the central government
