1.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
2.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
3.
21st century
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The 21st century is the current century of the Anno Domini era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1,2001 and will end on December 31,2100 and it is the first century of the 3rd millennium. It is distinct from the time known as the 2000s. The long term effects of increased globalization are not known, the Arab Spring of the early 2010s led to mixed outcomes in the Arab world. The Digital Revolution which began around the 1980s also continues into the present, millennials and Generation Z come of age and rise to prominence in this century. The completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003 marks the rise of life sciences, making mankinds long-held dreams, such as curing cancer. By the 2010s, gene therapy, first performed somatically in late 1990 and heritably in 1996, showed promise but remains an experimental, by 2013, about 80% of the worlds population used mobile phones. An estimated 33% owned personal computers in 2010, and 46% used the Internet by 2016, the International Energy Agency estimates that 83% of the global population has access to electricity as of 2013 with the percentage projected to increase to 88% by 2030. The world population was about 6.1 billion at the start of the 21st century and it had reached 7.3 billion in 2015, and is estimated to reach about 9.37 billion by the year 2050. There is a debate among experts and the public on how to pronounce specific years of the 21st century in English. A less common variation would have been twenty nought-five, the Vancouver Olympics, which took place in 2010, was being officially referred to by Vancouver 2010 as the twenty-ten Olympics. The latest timeframes for change are usually placed at 2020, kubrick said he did this in the hope that if the film became popular, it would influence the pronunciation of that year. See the timeline of the 21st century, genocide still remains a problem in this century with the concern of the war in Darfur and the growing concern in Sri Lanka. Also controversies from past genocides remain commonplace in the minds of victims, 1998–2002 – The Second Congo War continued into the early 21st century. A1999 ceasefire quickly broke down and a UN peacekeeping mission, Laurent Kabila, president of the DRC, was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph Kabila, took power. Throughout 2002 steps were made towards peace and Rwanda and Uganda both removed their troops from the country, on December 17,2002, a massive treaty officially ended the war. However, the DRC only holds power in less than half of the country, with most of the eastern and northern portions still controlled by rebel groups, in addition, Rwanda still supports anti-DRC rebels and anti-Rwandan rebels continue to operate from the DRC. The war killed an estimated 3.9 million people, displaced nearly 5.5 million, Severe human rights violations continue to be reported
4.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
5.
1880s
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The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
6.
1890s
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The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
7.
1900s (decade)
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The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
8.
1910s
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The 1910s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1910, and ended on December 31,1919. The 1910s represented the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the half of the 19th century. The murder triggered a chain of events in which, within 33 days, the conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11,1918, leading to the controversial, one-sided Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28,1919. However, each of these states had large German and Hungarian minorities, the decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. Russia also had a similar fate, since World War I led to a collapse in morale as well as to economic chaos and this atmosphere encouraged the establishment of Bolshevism, which was later renamed as communism. Like the Mexican Revolution, the Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October Revolution, much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed. Many of the restaurants were equipped with dance floors. Prohibition in the United States began January 16,1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, armenian Genocide during and just after World War I. Wadai War Italo-Turkish War First Balkan Wars – two wars took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Saudi-Ottoman War Latvian War of Independence - a military conflict in Latvia between the Republic of Latvia and the Russian SFSR. The Russian Revolution is the term for the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917. April 13,1919 - The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Amritsar in the Punjab Province of British India, sows the seeds of discontent, xinhai Revolution causes the overthrow of Chinas ruling Qing Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China. Madero proclaims the elections of 1910 null and void, and calls for a revolution at 6 p. m. against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution lead to the ouster of Porfirio Díaz six months later, the Revolution progressively becomes a civil war with multiple factions and phases, culminating with the Mexican Constitution of 1917, but combat would persist for three more years. Germany abolishes its monarchy and becomes under the rule of a new elected government called the Weimar Republic, federal Reserve Act is passed by United States Congress, establishing a Central Bank in the US. George V becomes king in Britain, fourteen Points as designed by United States President Woodrow Wilson advocates the right of all nations to self-determination. Rise to power of the Bolsheviks in Russia under Vladimir Lenin, creating the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, easter Rising against the British in Ireland, eventually leads to Irish independence. Several nations in Eastern Europe get their own state, thereby replacing major multiethnic empires
9.
1920s
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The 1920s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1920, and ended on December 31,1929. French speakers refer to the period as the Années folles, emphasizing the social, artistic. The economic prosperity experienced by many countries during the 1920s was similar in nature to that experienced in the 1950s and 1990s, each period of prosperity was the result of a paradigm shift in global affairs. These shifts in the 1920s, 1950s, and 1990s, occurred in part as the result of the conclusion of World War I and Spanish flu, World War II, the 1920s saw foreign oil companies begin operations throughout South America. Venezuela became the second largest oil producing nation. In some countries the 1920s saw the rise of political movements. Communism spread as a consequence of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ victory in the Russian Civil War, fear of the spread of Communism led to the emergence of far right political movements and fascism in Europe. The devastating Wall Street Crash in October 1929 is generally viewed as a harbinger of the end of 1920s prosperity in North America, the Roaring Twenties brought about several novel and highly visible social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, “Normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism during World War I, jazz blossomed, and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, large baseball stadiums were built in major U. S. cities, in addition to palatial cinemas. Most independent countries passed womens suffrage after 1918, especially as a reward for support of the war effort and endurance of its deaths. Egypt officially becomes an independent country through the Declaration of 1922, though it remains under the military. Prohibition was finally repealed in 1933, organized crime turns to smuggling and bootlegging of liquor, led by figures such as Al Capone, boss of the Chicago Outfit. The Immigration Act of 1924 places restrictions on immigration, the major sport was baseball and the most famous player was Babe Ruth. The Lost Generation, was the name Gertrude Stein gave to American writers, poets, and artists living in Europe during the 1920s. A peak in the early 1920s in the membership of the Ku Klux Klan of four to five million members, followed by a rapid decline down to an estimated 30,000 members by 1930. The Scopes Trial, which declared that John T. Scopes had violated the law by teaching evolution in schools, major armed conflict in Ireland including Irish War of Independence resulting in Ireland becoming an independent country in 1922 followed by the Irish Civil War
10.
1930s
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The 1930s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1930, and ended on December 31,1939. In response, authoritarian regimes emerged in countries in Europe and South America. The 1930s also saw a proliferation of new technologies, especially in the fields of aviation, radio. Colombia–Peru War – fought between the Republic of Colombia and the Republic of Peru, Chaco War – the war was fought between Bolivia and Paraguay over the disputed territory of Gran Chaco resulting in an overall Paraguayan victory in 1935. An agreement dividing the territory was made in 1938, officially ending outstanding differences, saudi–Yemeni War – was a war between Saudi Arabia and Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. Second Sino-Japanese War – fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It also made up more than 50% of the casualties in the Pacific War, World War II breaks out on September 1,1939 Chinese Civil War - The ruling Kuomintang and the rebel Communist Party of China fight a civil war for control of China. The Communists consolidated territory in the early 1930s and proclaimed a short-lived Chinese Soviet Republic that collapsed upon Kuomintang attacks, the Kuomintang and Communists attempted to put away their differences after 1937 to fight the Japanese occupation of China, but intermittent clashes continued through the remainder of the 1930s. Spanish Civil War – Germany and Italy back anti-communist Falange forces of Francisco Franco, the Soviet Union and international communist parties back the left-wing republican faction in the war. The war ends in April 1939 with Francos nationalist forces defeating the republican forces, Franco becomes Head of State of Spain, President of Government and de facto dictator. The Republic gives way to the Spanish State, an authoritarian dictatorship, Hitler pulls Germany out of the League of Nations, but hosts the 1936 Summer Olympics to show his new reich to the world as well as the supposed superior athleticism of his Aryan troops/athletes. Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, attempts the appeasement of Hitler in hope of avoiding war by allowing the dictator to annex the Sudetenland, later signing the Munich Agreement and promising constituents Peace for our time. He was ousted in favor of Winston Churchill in May 1940, some 267 synagogues were destroyed, and thousands of homes and businesses were ransacked. Kristallnacht also served as the pretext for the confiscation of firearms from German Jews. Germany and Italy pursue territorial expansionist agendas, Germany demands the annexation of the Federal State of Austria and of other German-speaking territories in Europe. Between 1935 and 1936, Germany recovers the Saar and remilitarizes the Rhineland, Germany and Italy improve relations by forming an alliance against communism in 1936 with the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact. Germany annexes Austria in the event known as the Anschluss, the annexation of the Sudetenland followed negotiations which resulted in the Munich Agreement of 1938. The Italian invasion of Albania in 1939 succeeds in turning the Kingdom of Albania into an Italian protectorate, the vacant Albanian throne was claimed by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
11.
1906
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As of the start of 1906, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 16–April 7 – Algeciras Conference to resolve the First Moroccan Crisis between France and Germany, january 22 – The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, killing over 100 in the ensuing disaster. January 31 – Ecuador–Colombia earthquake and associated tsunami, february 10 – HMS Dreadnought is launched and sparks the naval race between Britain and Germany. February 11 – Pope Pius X publishes the encyclical Vehementer Nos denouncing the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches, february 11 – Two British £1-per-head tax collectors are killed near Richmond, Natal, sparking the Bambatha Rebellion. March 10 – Courrières mine disaster, an explosion in a mine in France kills 1,060. March 18 – In France, Romanian inventor Traian Vuia becomes the first person to achieve an unassisted takeoff in a powered monoplane. April 7 – Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples, april 14 – The Azusa Street Revival, the primary catalyst for the revival of Pentecostalism this century, opens in Los Angeles. April 18 – San Francisco earthquake on the San Andreas Fault destroys much of San Francisco, California, USA, killing at least 3,000, with 225, 000–300,000 left homeless, and $350 million in damages. April 23 – In Tsarist Russia, the Fundamental Laws are announced at the first state Duma, may – Jack Londons novel White Fang begins serialization in the American magazine Outing. May 29 – Karl Staaff steps down as Prime Minister of Sweden over the issue of expanded voting rights and he is replaced by the right-wing naval officer and public official, Arvid Lindman. June 7 – Cunard liner RMS Lusitania is launched in Glasgow as the worlds largest ship, July 1 – Sporting Lisbon, a well known football club in Portugal, founded. July 6 – The Second Geneva Convention meets, July 12 – Alfred Dreyfus is exonerated. He is reinstalled in the French Army on July 21, thus ending the Dreyfus affair, august 4 – The first Imperial German Navy submarine, U-1, is launched. August 16 – A magnitude 8.2 earthquake in Valparaíso, august 22 – The first Victor Victrola, a phonographic record player, is manufactured. August 23 – Unable to control a rebellion Cuban President Tomás Estrada Palma requests United States intervention, the subsequent provisional occupation administration lasts until 1909. September 11 – Mahatma Gandhi coins the term Satyagraha to characterize the Non-Violence movement in South Africa, september 18 – A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong. September 30 – The first Gordon Bennett Cup in ballooning is held, the winning team, piloting the balloon United States, lands in Fylingdales, Yorkshire, England. October 1 – The Grand Duchy of Finland becomes the first nation to include the right of women to stand as candidates when it adopts universal suffrage, october 6 – The Majlis of Iran convenes for the first time
12.
1907
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As of the start of 1907, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 6 – The first Montessori school and daycare center for working class children opens in Rome, january 14 –1907 Kingston earthquake, An earthquake, in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. March The 1907 Romanian Peasants Revolt results in possibly as many as 11,000 deaths. The Diamond Sūtra, a woodblock printed Buddhist scripture dated 868, is discovered by Aurel Stein in the Mogao Caves in China, march 5 – At the opening of the new State Duma in Saint Petersburg, Russia,40,000 demonstrators are dispersed by Russian troops. March 15–March 16 – Elections to the new Parliament of Finland are the first in the world with woman candidates, march 22 – The first taxicabs with taximeters begin operating in London. March 25 – The first university sports federation in Europe is established in Hungary with the participation or support of the associations of ten universities and colleges, march 28 – Volcanic eruption of Ksudach in the Kamchatka Peninsula. May 13 – The 5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party convenes in secret in London, june 10–August 10 – Peking to Paris motor race, won by Prince Scipione Borghese driving a 7-litre 35/45 hp Itala. June 15 – The Second Hague Peace Conference opens at The Hague, june 26 – Tiflis bank robbery, Bolsheviks attack a cash-filled bank coach in the centre of Tiflis, Georgia, killing forty people. July 1 – The Orange River Colony gains autonomy as the Orange Free State, july 21 – The SS Columbia sinks after colliding with the lumber schooner San Pedro off Shelter Cove, California, U. S. A. resulting in 88 deaths. July 24 – The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 brings the government, august 1–9 – Robert Baden-Powell leads the first Scout camp on Brownsea Island, England. August 29 – The partially completed superstructure of the Quebec Bridge collapses entirely, september 7 – British passenger liner RMS Lusitania sets out on her maiden voyage from Liverpool to New York City. September 26 – New Zealand and Newfoundland become dominions, the committee ultimately decides to reform Esperanto. October 17 – Guglielmo Marconi initiates commercial transatlantic radio communications between his high power longwave wireless stations in Clifden Ireland and Glace Bay, Nova Scotia. October 18 – Hague Convention revised by Hague Peace Conference, october 27 – Černová massacre, Fifteen people are shot during the consecration of a Catholic church in Hungary. November 16 – British passenger liner RMS Mauretania, the worlds largest and fastest at this date, november 21 – Washington State College defeats the University of Washington 10-5 in Apple Cup played in Seattle. December 6 – Monongah Mining disaster, A coal mine explosion kills 362 workers in Monongah, West Virginia, december 8 – Upon the death of Oscar II, he is succeeded by his son Gustaf V as king of Sweden. December 14 – The largest sailing ship built, the 7-masted Thomas W. Lawson, is wrecked in the Isles of Scilly. December 17 – Ugyen Wangchuck becomes first Druk Gyalpo, december 19 – An explosion in a coal mine in Jacobs Creek kills 239
13.
1908
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As of the start of 1908, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. According to NASA reports,1908 was the coldest recorded year since 1880, january 1 – Nimrod Expedition, Ernest Shackleton sets sail from New Zealand on the Nimrod for Antarctica. January 12 – A long-distance radio message is sent from the Eiffel Tower for the first time, january 13 – A fire at the Rhoads Opera House in Boyertown, Pennsylvania, U. S. A. kills 170. January 24 – Start of publication of Robert Baden-Powells Scouting for Boys in London, the book will over time sell over 100 million copies and effectively begin the worldwide Boy Scout movement. February 1 – Lisbon Regicide, King Carlos I of Portugal, february 3 – Panathinaikos, as well known for professional multi-sports club of Greece, founded in Athens. February 12 – The first around-the-world car race, the 1908 New York to Paris Race, february 18 – Japanese emigration to the United States is forbidden under terms of the Gentlemens Agreement of 1907. March – The Childrens Encyclopædia begins publication in London, march 4 The Pretoria branch of the Transvaal University College, precursor to the University of Pretoria, is established. The Collinwood school fire, near Cleveland, Ohio, U. S. A. kills 174, march 9 – Inter Milan, a well-known football club in Italy, founded. March 21 – French aviator Léon Delagrange pilots the first passenger flight with Henri Farman on board, march 27 – The first Scout troop outside the U. K. is formed in Gibraltar. April 20 – Sunshine rail disaster, A rear-end collision of two trains in Melbourne, Australia, kills 44 people and injures more than 400, april 21 – Frederick Cook claims to have reached the North Pole on this date. May 26–October – Franco-British Exhibition held in London, may 26 – At Masjed Soleyman in southwest Persia, the first major commercial oil discovery in the Middle East is made. The rights to the resource are quickly acquired by the United Kingdom, july 6 – Robert Peary sets sail for the North Pole. July 11–12 – The steamship Amalthea, housing 80 British strikebreakers in Malmö harbour, july 13–25 –1908 Summer Olympics held in London. The Winter Olympics are held here on 19–31 October, july 23 – Young Turk Revolution, The Committee of Union and Progress issues a formal ultimatum to Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore the constitution of 1876 within the Ottoman Empire. It is restored the following day, july 27-28 – The 1908 Hong Kong typhoon sinks the passenger steamer Ying King, losing 421 lives. August 8 – Wilbur Wright flies in France for the first time demonstrating true controlled powered flight in Europe, august 8 – The Hoover Company of Canton, Ohio, acquires manufacturing rights to the upright portable vacuum cleaner just invented by James M. Spangler. August 17 – Émile Cohl makes the first fully animated film, august 24 – After an intense power struggle, Sultan Abdelaziz of Morocco is deposed, and is succeeded by his brother Abd al-Hafid. September 17 – At Fort Myer, Virginia, U. S. A, thomas Selfridge becomes the first person to die in an airplane crash
14.
1909
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As of the start of 1909, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – Colombia recognizes the independence of Panama, january 16 – Ernest Shackletons expedition claims to have found the magnetic South Pole. January 24 – The White Star Liner RMS Republic sinks the day after a collision with SS Florida, in the first recorded use of the CQD emergency radio signal for a large passenger vessel, one person, a male passenger, is lost on the Republic. January 28 – The last United States troops leave Cuba after being there since the Spanish–American War of 1898, february 5 – Leo Baekeland announces the creation of bakelite hard thermosetting plastic. March 4 – William Howard Taft is sworn in as President of the United States, march 10 – The Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 is signed in Bangkok. March 18 – Einar Dessau uses a radio transmitter, becoming the first radio broadcaster. March 21 – The remains of the Báb are placed in the Baháí Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel in Haifa, march 31 – Serbia accepts Austrian control over Bosnia and Herzegovina. April 4 – The association football team Sport Club Internacional is founded in Porto Alegre, april 6 – Robert Peary, Matthew Henson, and four Inuit explorers, Ootah, Ooqueah, Seegloo, and Egigingwah, come within a few miles of the North Pole. April 11 – The city of Tel Aviv is founded by the Jewish community on the outskirts of Jaffa, april 13 – Ottoman countercoup begins in the Ottoman Empire. April 14 – Adana massacre, Ottoman Turks kill 15, 000–30,000 Armenian Christians in the Adana Vilayet, april 18 – Joan of Arc is beatified in Rome. April 19 – The Anglo-Persian Oil Company, modern-day BP, is incorporated, april 27 – Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Abdul Hamid II is overthrown and succeeded by his brother, Mehmed V. He is sent to the Ottoman port city of Thessaloniki the next day, may 13–30 – First Giro dItalia bicycle race, starting and finishing in Milan, Luigi Ganna is the winner. June 2 – French forces capture Abéché, capital of the Wadai Empire in central Africa, june 15 – Representatives from England, Australia and South Africa meet at Lords Cricket Ground and form the Imperial Cricket Conference. July 16 – A revolution forces Mohammad Ali Shah of the Qajar dynasty to abdicate in favor of his son Ahmad Shah Qajar and he proceeds to leave Persia for Imperial Russia, reportedly seeking the assistance of Nicholas II of Russia in regaining the throne. July 25 – Louis Blériot is the first man to fly across the English Channel in a heavier-than-air craft, july 25–August 2 – Tragic Week, The city of Barcelona experiences a workers uprising. August 2 – The United States Army Signal Corp Division purchases the worlds first military airplane, august 8 – Max Heindel formally founds the Rosicrucian Fellowship in Seattle, United States. August 12 – Indianapolis Motor Speedway opens in the United States, september 4 – Japan and China sign the Jiandao/Gando Treaty, which gives Japan a way to receive railroad concessions in Manchuria. October 8 – An earthquake in the Zagreb area leads Andrija Mohorovičić to identify the Mohorovičić discontinuity, october 12 - The association football team Coritiba is founded in Curitiba, Brazil
15.
1910
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As of the start of 1910, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 10–January 20 – The first aviation meeting to be held in the United States, february 8 – William D. Boyce founds the Boy Scouts of America. February 10 – Old Trafford opens to the public, february 20 – Boutros Ghali, the first native-born prime minister of Egypt, is assassinated. March – An uprising against Ottoman rule breaks out in Albania, march 8 – In France Raymonde de Laroche is awarded pilots license #36 by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale, becoming the first woman authorized to fly an airplane. March 10 – Slavery in China, which has existed since the Shang dynasty, is now made illegal, march 18 – The first filmed version of Mary Shelleys Frankenstein comes out. Considered to be the first horror movie, it stars actor Charles Ogle as the monster, march 27 – A fire during a barn-dance in Ököritófülpös, Hungary kills 312. April 20 – Comet Halley is visible from Earth and its next visit was in 1986. May 6 – George V becomes King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland upon the death of his father, may 12 – Second NAACP meeting is held in New York, New York. May 18 – The Earth passes through the tail of Halleys Comet, may 31 – The Union of South Africa is created. June 6 – The Holland Dakota Landbouw Compagnie is established,6 June 1910, page 7, Middelburgsche Courant, Krantenbank, Zeeland June 15 – The British Ship Terra Nova leaves London on its way toward an Antarctic expedition. June 22 – The DELAG Zeppelin dirigible, Deutschland, makes the first commercial flight from Friedrichshafen to Düsseldorf in Germany. July 4 – African-American boxer Jack Johnson defeats white American boxer James J. Jeffries in a boxing match. July 22 – A wireless telegraph sent from the SS Montrose results in the identification, arrest, July 24 – Ottoman forces capture the city of Shkodër to put down the Albanian Revolt of 1910. August – Pan-American Union August 14 – A fire at the Brussels International 1910 destroys exhibitions of Britain, August 22 – The Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty is signed. It becomes null and void in 1965, August 28 – Montenegro is proclaimed an independent kingdom under Nicholas I. August 29 – Emperor Sunjong of Korea abdicates and the monarchy is abolished. September 1 – The Vatican introduces a compulsory oath against modernism, september 1 – In Brazil, Sport Club Corinthians Paulista, the first Fifa World Club Championship, is founded. October – First publication of infrared photographs, by Professor Robert Williams Wood in the Royal Photographic Societys journal, October 5 –5 October 1910 revolution in Portugal leading to the flight of King Manuel II of Portugal to England and proclamation of the First Portuguese Republic
16.
1911
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As of the start of 1911, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. A highlight was the race for the South Pole, through mid-January – First Industrial Airplane Show held in conjunction with the U. S. International Auto Show at Manhattan’s Grand Central Palace in New York. Charles W. Chappelle, a member of the U. S. Aeronautical Reserve, is the only African-American to invent, january 31911 Kebin earthquake, An earthquake of 7.7 moment magnitude strikes near Almaty in Russian Turkestan, killing 450 or more people. Siege of Sidney Street, Two Latvian anarchists die after a siege against a combined police. Home Secretary, Winston Churchill arrived to oversee events, january 5 – Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity is founded at Indiana University Bloomington. January 18 – Eugene B. Ely lands on the deck of the USS Pennsylvania stationed in San Francisco harbor, january 26 – The United States and Canada announce the successful negotiation of their first reciprocal trade agreement. January 30 – The Cypriot football club Anorthosis Famagusta FC was created, february 5 The Missouri State Capitol building in Jefferson City, Missouri is entirely destroyed by fire after a bolt of lightning strikes the dome. The revolution in Haiti is suppressed after the leader, General Montreuil Guillaume, is captured by government troops, General Millionard is executed two days later. February 11 – The Lincoln Memorial Commission is established to find a site for the proposed Lincoln Memorial. February 13 – HNK Hajduk Split, a Croatian football club is founded, february 17 – The first quasi-official airmail flight occurs when Fred Wiseman carries three letters between Petaluma and Santa Rosa, California. February 18 – The first official air mail flight, second overall, takes place from Allahabad, India to Naini, India, march 8 – International Womens Day is celebrated for the first time in history. March 25 – The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York City kills 146, march 29 – The United States Army adopts a new service pistol, the M1911 designed by John Browning. It remains the US service pistol for 74 years, April 3 – Jean Sibelius conducts the première of his Symphony No.4 in Helsinki April 8 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discovers superconductivity. He presents his findings on April 28, April 13 – Mexican Revolution, Rebels take Agua Prieta on the Sonora–Arizona border, government troops take the town back April 17 when the rebel leader Red López is drunk. April 18 – SS Lusitania, a 5, 557-ton Portuguese passenger liner en route from Mozambique to Lisbon, strikes Bellows Rock just off Cape Point, April 19 – Mexican Revolution, Francisco I. Maderos troops besiege Ciudad Juárez but General Juan J. Navarro refuses his surrender demand, April 22 – A passenger train from Port Alfred to Grahamstown in South Africa derails on the Blaauwkrantz Bridge and plunges into the ravine 200 feet below, killing 31 and seriously injuring 23. April 26 – HŠK Građanski Zagreb, a Croatian Association football club, is founded in Zagreb, April 27 – Huanghuagang Uprising takes place in China. This is an insurrection where rebels take five villages in an attempt to create a base to fight Imperial rule
17.
1912
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As of the start of 1912, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The Republic of China is proclaimed, January 4 – The Scout Association is incorporated throughout the British Commonwealth by Royal Charter. January 5 – Moscow Art Theatre production of Hamlet opens, January 6 – New Mexico becomes the 47th state of the United States. January 6 – German geophysicist Alfred Wegener first presents his theory of continental drift, January 14 – Raymond Poincaré forms a coalition government in France, beginning his first term of office as Prime Minister on 21 January. January 17 – British polar explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott and a team of four become the second group to reach the South Pole. January 18 – Prague Party Conference, Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party break away from the rest of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. January 22 – The Overseas Railroad opens and the first train arrives in Key West, Florida at 10,43 AM, with Henry M. Flagler, January 23 – The International Opium Convention is signed at The Hague. February 12 – The Manchu Qing dynasty of China comes to an end after 268 years with the abdication of Emperor Puyi in favour of the Republic of China. February 14 – Arizona becomes the 48th U. S. state, february 29 – Serbia and Bulgaria secretly sign a treaty of alliance for a term of eight years, with each pledging to come to the defense of the other during war. March 1 – Albert Berry is reported to have made the first parachute jump from a flying airplane. March 6 – Italian forces became the first to use airships in war, march 7 – Roald Amundsen in Hobart, Tasmania, announces his success in reaching the South Pole the previous December. March 12 – The Girl Scouts is founded by Juliette Gordon Low in Savannah, march 16 – Lawrence Oates, dying member of Scotts South Pole expedition, leaves the tent saying, I am just going outside and may be some time. March 22 – State of Bihar is formed out of the ertswhile State of Bengal in British India, march 27 – Mayor Yukio Ozaki of Tokyo gives 3,000 cherry trees to be planted in Washington, D. C. to symbolize the friendship between the two countries. March 29 – The remaining members of Robert Falcon Scotts South Pole expedition die, march 30 – The French Third Republic establishes the French protectorate in Morocco. April 10 – White Star liner RMS Titanic departs from Southampton with 2225 passengers, april 11 – RMS Titanic makes her last call, at Queenstown in Ireland. April 14–15 – Sinking of the RMS Titanic, RMS Titanic strikes an iceberg in the northern Atlantic Ocean, the wreck will not be discovered until 1985. April 16 – Harriet Quimby becomes the first woman to fly across the English Channel, april 17 –500 striking gold miners in Siberia are killed or wounded by troops in the Lena massacre. April 18 – Cunard Line vessel RMS Carpathia arrives in New York with the 708 RMS Titanic survivors, april 20 – Fenway Park in Boston, Massachusetts, opens
18.
Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
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Victor Emmanuel III was the King of Italy from 29 July 1900 until his abdication on 9 May 1946. In addition, he claimed the thrones of Ethiopia and Albania as Emperor of Ethiopia and King of the Albanians, during his long reign, which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I, the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two World Wars. His reign also encompassed the birth, rise, and fall of Italian Fascism, Victor Emmanuel abdicated his throne in 1946 in favour of his son Umberto II, hoping to strengthen support for the monarchy against an ultimately successful referendum to abolish it. He then went in exile to Alexandria, Egypt, where he died and was buried the following year. He was called by the Italians Il Re soldato for having led his country during both the wars, and, after Italys victory in the First World War Il Re vittorioso. He was also nicknamed Sciaboletta due to his height of 1.53 m, Victor Emmanuel was born in Naples, Italy. He was the child of Umberto I, King of Italy. Margherita was the daughter of the Duke of Genoa, from birth until his accession, Victor Emmanuel was known by the title of the Prince of Naples. On 24 October 1896, Prince Victor Emmanuel married Princess Elena of Montenegro, on 29 July 1900, at the age of 30, Victor Emmanuel acceded to the throne upon his fathers assassination. The only advice that his father Umberto ever gave his heir was Remember, to be a king, all you need to know is how to sign your name, read a newspaper, and mount a horse. His early years showed evidence that, by the standards of the Savoy monarchy, indeed, even though his father was killed by an anarchist, the new King showed a commitment to constitutional freedoms. Though parliamentary rule had been established in Italy, the Statuto Albertino, or constitution. For instance, he had the right to appoint the Prime Minister even if the individual in question did not command majority support in the Chamber of Deputies, when World War I began, Italy at first remained neutral, despite being part of the Triple Alliance. However, in 1915, Italy signed several secret treaties committing her to enter the war on the side of the Triple Entente, most of the politicians opposed war, however, and the Italian Chamber of Deputies forced Prime Minister Antonio Salandra to resign. At this juncture, Victor Emmanuel declined Salandras resignation and personally made the decision for Italy to enter the war and he was well within his rights to do so under the Statuto. Popular demonstrations in favor of the war were staged in Rome, with 200,000 gathering on 16 May 1915 and it was at this time, the period of World War I, that the King enjoyed the genuine affection of the majority of his people. Still, during the war he received about 400 threatening letters from people of social background. The economic depression which followed World War I gave rise to much extremism among Italys sorely tried working classes and this caused the country as a whole to become politically unstable
19.
Prime Minister of Italy
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The office of Prime Minister is established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the Constitution of Italy. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election, prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic, the position was called President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943, Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946. The Prime Minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds executive power, the position is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems. The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office, as the President of the Council of Ministers the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet. In addition the Prime Minister leads a political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament. Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that the Prime Minister directs, the Prime Ministers activity has often consisted of mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition, rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers. The office was first established in 1848 in Italys predecessor state, the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in its constitution, from 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the Kingdom, most of them being right-wing politicians. After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom, in fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king, and presided over a very unstable political system. The first Prime Minister was Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was appointed on 23 March 1861, from 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country. One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi, a patriot and statesman. He led the country for six years, from 1887 until 1891, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister, ally, and admirer of Bismarck. His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a banking scandal. He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1892 Giovanni Giolitti, a young leftist politician, was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I, but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power. In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed head of the government. Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Mussolini, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party. They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no links to political constituencies
20.
Giovanni Giolitti
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Giovanni Giolitti was an Italian statesman. He was the Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921 and he is the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Benito Mussolini. He was a prominent leader of the Historical Left and the Liberal Union, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party, they were, instead, a series of informal personal groupings with no formal links to political constituencies. Besides putting in place several tariffs, subsidies and government projects, Giolitti also nationalized the private telephone, Liberal proponents of free trade criticized the Giolittian System, although Giolitti himself saw the development of the national economy as essential in the production of wealth. However his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate debate amongst writers. His father Giovenale Giolitti had been working in the avvocatura dei poveri and he died in 1843, a year after Giovanni was born. The family moved in the home of his mother Enrichetta Plochiù in Turin and his mother taught him to read and write, his education in the gymnasium San Francesco da Paola of Turin was marked by poor discipline and little commitment to study. He did not like mathematics and the study of Latin and Greek grammar, preferring the history and reading the novels of Walter Scott, at sixteen he entered the University of Turin and, after three years, he earned a law degree in 1860. His uncle was a member of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia and a friend of Michelangelo Castelli. However Giolitti did not appear interested in the Risorgimento and differently to many of his fellow students. Subsequently, he pursued a career in administration in the Ministry of Grace and Justice. In 1869 he moved to the Ministry of Finance, becoming an official and working along with important members of the ruling Right, like Quintino Sella. In the same year he married Rosa Sobrero, the granddaughter of Ascanio Sobrero, a famous chemist, who discovered nitroglycerine. In 1877 Giolitti was appointed to the Court of Audit and in 1882 to the Council of State At the 1882 Italian general election he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Historical Left. This election was a victory for the ruling Left of Agostino Depretis. As deputy he chiefly acquired prominence by attacks on Agostino Magliani, following Depretis’s death on 29 July 1887 Francesco Crispi, a notable politician and patriot, became the leader of the Left group and was also appointed Prime Minister by King Umberto I. On 9 March 1889 Giolitti was selected by Crispi as new Minister of Treasury, but in October 1890, Giolitti resigned from his office due to contrasts with Crispis colonial policy. Menelik informed the press and the scandal erupted
21.
Sidney Sonnino
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Baron Sidney Costantino Sonnino was an Italian politician. He was the 19th Prime Minister of Italy and twice served briefly as one, in 1906 and he also was the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs during the First World War, representing Italy at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Sonnino was born in Pisa to an Italian father of Jewish heritage and he was raised an Anglican by his family. His grandfather had emigrated from the ghetto in Livorno to Egypt where he had built up a fortune as a banker. After graduating in law in Pisa in 1865, Sonnino became a diplomat and his family lived at the Castello Sonnino in Quercianella, near Livorno. He retired from the service in 1873. In 1876, Sonnino traveled to Sicily with Leopoldo Franchetti to conduct an investigation into the state of Sicilian society. In 1877, the two men published their research on Sicily in a substantial two-part report for the Italian Parliament, in the first part Sonnino analysed the lives of the islands landless peasants. Leopoldo Franchettis half of the report, Political and Administrative Conditions in Sicily, was an analysis of the Mafia in the century that is still considered authoritative today. Franchetti would ultimately influence public opinion about the Mafia more than anyone else until Giovanni Falcone over a years later. Political and Administrative Conditions in Sicily is the first convincing explanation of how the Mafia came to be, in 1878, Sonnino and Franchetti started a newspaper, which changed from weekly economic reviews to daily political issues. Sonnino was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies for the first time in the elections in May 1880. He belonged to the chamber to September 1919 from the XIV to XXIV legislature, Sonnino soon became one of the leading opponents of the Liberal Left. As a strict constitutionalist he favoured strong government to resist pressure of special interests, in December 1893, he became Minister of Finance and Minister of the Treasury in the government of Francesco Crispi, and tried to resolve the Banca Romana scandal. The newly established Banca dItalia was the result of a merger of three existing banks of issue, regional interests were still strong, hence the compromise of plurality of note issuance with the Banco di Napoli and the Banco di Sicilia, while providing for stricter state control. As Minister of the Treasury Sonnino restructured public finances, imposing new taxes, the budget deficit was sharply reduced, from 174 million lire in 1893-94 to 36 million in 1896-97. After the fall of the Crispi government as a result of the lost Battle of Adwa in March 1896, he served as the leader of the opposition conservatives against the liberal Giovanni Giolitti. In January 1897, Sonnino published an article titled Torniamo allo Statuto, in which he sounded the alarm about the threats that the clergy, republicans, in 1901 he founded a new major newspaper, Il Giornale dItalia
22.
Demographics of Italy
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However the distribution of the population is widely uneven. In addition, after centuries of net emigration, from the 1980s Italy has experienced large-scale immigration for the first time in modern history, according to the Italian government, there were an estimated 5,000,073 foreign nationals resident in Italy. High fertility and birth rates persisted until the 1970s, after which they started to dramatically decline, at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, one in five Italians was over 65 years old. However, as a result of the immigration of the last two decades, in recent years Italy experienced a significant growth in birth rates. The total fertility rate has climbed from an all-time low of 1.18 children per woman in 1995 to 1.41 in 2008. Since the 1984 Lateran Treaty agreement, Italy has no official religion, however, it recognizes the role the Catholic Church plays in Italian society. 87. 8% of the population identify as Catholic,5. 8% as non-believers or atheists,2. 6% as Muslims, about 68% of Italian population is classified as urban, a relatively low figure among developed countries. However, none of these new local authorities has yet fully operative. Between 1898 and 1914, the years of Italian diaspora. Italian communities once thrived in the former African colonies of Eritrea, Somalia, all of Libyas Italians were expelled from the North African country in 1970. In addition, after the annexation of Istria in 1945, up to 350,000 ethnic Italians left Titoist Yugoslavia. Today, large numbers of people with full or significant Italian ancestry are found in Brazil, Argentina, US, France, Venezuela, Uruguay, Canada, the official figures also exclude illegal immigrants, the so-called clandestini, whose numbers are very difficult to determine. In May 2008 The Boston Globe quoted an estimate of 670,000 for this group, the second most important area of immigration to Italy has always been the neighbouring North Africa, with soaring arrivals as a consequence of the Arab Spring. Furthermore, in recent years, growing migration fluxes from the Far East, the number of unregistered Romanians is difficult to estimate, but the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network suggested that in 2007 that there might have been half a million or more. Overall, at the end of the 2000s the foreign population of Italy was from, Europe, Africa, Asia. The distribution of immigrants is largely uneven in Italy,84. 9% of immigrants live in the northern and central parts of the country, while only 15. 1% live in the southern half of the peninsula. Ethnologue has estimated there are about 55 million speakers of the language in Italy. However, between 120 and 150 million people use Italian as a second or cultural language, worldwide and its development was also influenced by the Germanic languages of the post-Roman invaders
23.
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
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Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti was an Italian poet, editor, art theorist, and founder of the Futurist movement. He was associated with the utopian and Symbolists artistic and literary community Abbaye de Créteil between 1907 and 1908, Marinetti is best known as the author of the first Futurist Manifesto, which was written and published in 1909. Emilio Angelo Carlo Marinetti spent the first years of his life in Alexandria, Egypt, enrico was a lawyer from Piedmont, and his mother was the daughter of a literary professor from Milan. They had come to Egypt in 1865, at the invitation of Khedive Ismail Pasha and his love for literature developed during the school years. His mother was a reader of poetry, and introduced the young Marinetti to the Italian and European classics. At age seventeen he started his first school magazine, Papyrus and he first studied in Egypt then in Paris, obtaining a baccalauréat degree in 1894 at the Sorbonne, and in Italy, graduating in law at the University of Pavia in 1899. He decided not to be a lawyer but to develop a literary career and he experimented with every type of literature, signing everything Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The Abbaye de Créteil was a community founded in the autumn of 1906 by the painter Albert Gleizes. The movement drew its inspiration from the Abbaye de Thélème, a creation by Rabelais in his novel Gargantua. It was closed down by its members early in 1908, Marinetti is known best as the author of the Futurist Manifesto, which he wrote in 1909. It was published in French on the front page of the most prestigious French daily newspaper, Le Figaro, in The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism, Marinetti declared that Art, in fact, can be nothing but violence, cruelty, and injustice. Georges Sorel, who influenced the political spectrum from anarchism to Fascism. Futurism had both anarchist and Fascist elements, Marinetti later became a supporter of Benito Mussolini. Marinetti, who admired speed, had a car accident outside Milan in 1908 when he veered into a ditch to avoid two cyclists. He referred to the accident in the Futurist Manifesto, the Marinetti who was helped out of the ditch was a new man, determined to end the pretense and decadence of the prevailing Liberty style. Together, he wrote, We will glorify war—the worlds only hygiene—militarism, patriotism, the gesture of freedom-bringers, beautiful ideas worth dying for. The Futurist Manifesto was read and debated all across Europe, in April, the opening night of his drama Le Roi bombance, written in 1905, was interrupted by loud, derisive whistling by the audience. And by Marinetti himself, who thus introduced another element of Futurism, Marinetti did, however, fight a duel with a critic he considered too harsh
24.
Manifesto of Futurism
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The Manifesto of Futurism, Italian, Manifesto del Futurismo, is a manifesto written by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and published in 1909. Marinetti wrote the manifesto in the autumn of 1908 and it first appeared as a preface to a volume of his poems, published in Milan in January 1909. It was published in the Italian newspaper Gazzetta dellEmilia in Bologna on 5 February 1909, Man is reacting against the potentially overwhelming strength of progress, and shouts out his centrality. Man will use speed, not the opposite, poetry will help Man to consent his soul be part of all that, indicating a new concept of beauty that will refer to the human instinct of aggression. In article 9, war is defined as a necessity for the health of human spirit and their explicit glorification of war and its hygienic properties influenced the ideology of fascism. The Futurist Party, for example, became part of the Combatto Fascisti before the latters assuming power, F. T. Marinetti was very active in Fascist politics until he withdrew in protest of the Roman Grandeur which had come to dominate Fascist aesthetics. Article 10 states, We want to demolish museums and libraries, fight morality, feminism and all opportunist and this manifesto was published well before the occurrence of any of the 20th-century events which are commonly suggested as a potential meaning of this text. Many of them could not even be imagined yet, for example, the Russian Revolutions of 1917 were the first of the sort described by article 11, yet the first of those occurred eight years after the Manifestos publication. The effect of the manifesto is even evident in the Italian version. Not one of the words used is casual, if not the form, at least the roots of these words recall those more frequently used during the Middle Ages. The founding manifesto did not contain an artistic programme, which the Futurists attempted to create in their subsequent Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting. This committed them to a universal dynamism, which was to be represented in painting. The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, du Cubisme, the Cubist manifesto Art manifesto Fascist manifesto Futurist Painting, Technical Manifesto The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism The Futurist Manifesto - F. T. Marinetti
25.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
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Philosophy
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Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
27.
Futurism
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Futurism was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early 20th century. It emphasized speed, technology, youth, and violence, and objects such as the car, the aeroplane, although it was largely an Italian phenomenon, there were parallel movements in Russia, England, Belgium and elsewhere. It glorified modernity and aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past, Cubism contributed to the formation of Italian Futurisms artistic style. Important Futurist works included Marinettis Manifesto of Futurism, Boccionis sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, to some extent Futurism influenced the art movements Art Deco, Constructivism, Surrealism, Dada, and to a greater degree Precisionism, Rayonism, and Vorticism. Futurism is a movement founded in Milan in 1909 by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. He was soon joined by the painters Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Giacomo Balla, Gino Severini, Marinetti expressed a passionate loathing of everything old, especially political and artistic tradition. We want no part of it, the past, he wrote, publishing manifestos was a feature of Futurism, and the Futurists wrote them on many topics, including painting, architecture, religion, clothing and cooking. The founding manifesto did not contain an artistic programme, which the Futurists attempted to create in their subsequent Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting. This committed them to a universal dynamism, which was to be represented in painting. The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, the Futurist painters were slow to develop a distinctive style and subject matter. In 1910 and 1911 they used the techniques of Divisionism, breaking light and color down into a field of stippled dots and stripes, which had been originally created by Giovanni Segantini and others. Later, Severini, who lived in Paris, attributed their backwardness in style and method at this time to their distance from Paris, the centre of avant-garde art. Severini was the first to come into contact with Cubism and following a visit to Paris in 1911 the Futurist painters adopted the methods of the Cubists, Cubism offered them a means of analysing energy in paintings and expressing dynamism. They often painted modern urban scenes, carràs Funeral of the Anarchist Galli is a large canvas representing events that the artist had himself been involved in, in 1904. The action of an attack and riot is rendered energetically with diagonals. His Leaving the Theatre uses a Divisionist technique to render isolated, Boccionis The City Rises represents scenes of construction and manual labour with a huge, rearing red horse in the centre foreground, which workmen struggle to control. The Futurists aimed through their art thus to enable the viewer to apprehend the inner being of what they depicted, Boccioni developed these ideas at length in his book, Pittura scultura Futuriste, Dinamismo plastico. Ballas Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash exemplifies the Futurists insistence that the world is in constant movement
28.
Le Figaro
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Le Figaro is a French daily morning newspaper founded in 1826 and published in Paris. The oldest national daily in France, Le Figaro is one of the two French newspapers of record, along with Le Monde, and is one of the most widely respected newspapers in the world. In 2012, the paper had a circulation of 330,952 copies per issue. The paper is published in the format, switching from a broadsheet in 2009. The newspaper is owned by Le Figaro Group, whose publications include TV Magazine and Evene, the companys chairman is Serge Dassault, whose Dassault Group has controlled the paper since 2004. Le Figaro was founded as a weekly in 1826, taking its name and motto from Le Mariage de Figaro. Its motto, from Figaros monologue in the final act, is Sans la liberté de blâmer. In 1833, editor Nestor Roqueplan fought a duel with a Colonel Gallois, who was offended by an article in Le Figaro, albert Wolff, Émile Zola, Alphonse Karr and Jules Claretie were among the papers early contributors. It was published irregularly until 1854, when it was taken over by Hippolyte de Villemessant. In 1866 Le Figaro became a daily newspaper and its first daily edition, that of 16 November 1866, sold 56,000 copies, having highest circulation of any newspaper in France. In 1922, Le Figaro was purchased by perfume millionaire François Coty, abel Faivre did cartoons for the paper. By the start of World War II, Le Figaro had become Frances leading newspaper, after the war it became the voice of the upper middle class, and continues to maintain a conservative position. In 1975, Le Figaro was bought by Robert Hersants Socpresse, in 1999, the Carlyle Group obtained a 40% stake in the paper, which it later sold in March 2002. Dassault owns 80% of the paper, in 2006, Le Figaro was banned in Egypt and Tunisia for publishing articles allegedly insulting Islam. Le Figaro switched to Berliner format in 2009, the paper has published The New York Times International Weekly on Friday since 2009, an 8-page supplement featuring a selection of articles from The New York Times translated into French. In 2010, Lefigaro. fr created a section called Le Figaro in English, Le Figaro has traditionally held a conservative editorial stance, becoming the voice of the French upper and middle classes. His son Olivier Dassault is a member of the French National Assembly, Dassault has remarked in an interview in 2004 on the public radio station France Inter that newspapers must promulgate healthy ideas and that left-wing ideas are not healthy ideas. They requested more pluralism and honesty and accused the paper of one-sided political reporting, mougeotte had previously said that Le Figaro would do nothing to embarrass the government and the right
29.
Messina
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Messina is the capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is located near the northeast corner of Sicily, at the Strait of Messina, opposite Villa San Giovanni on the mainland, according to Eurostat the FUA of the metropolitan area of Messina has, in 2014,277,584 inhabitants. The citys main resources are its seaports, cruise tourism, commerce, the city has been a Roman Catholic Archdiocese and Archimandrite seat since 1548 and is home to a locally important international fair. The city has the University of Messina, founded in 1548 by Ignatius of Loyola, Messina has a light rail system, Tranvia di Messina, that was opened on 3 April 2003. This line is 7.7 kilometres and links the central railway station with the city centre. The city is home to a significant Greek-speaking minority, rooted in its history, founded by Greek colonists in the 8th century BC, Messina was originally called Zancle, from the Greek ζάγκλον meaning scythe because of the shape of its natural harbour. A comune of its Metropolitan City, located at the entrance of the Strait of Messina, is to this day called Scaletta Zanclea. In the early 5th century BC, Anaxilas of Rhegium renamed it Messene in honour of the Greek city Messene, the city was sacked in 397 BC by the Carthaginians and then reconquered by Dionysius I of Syracuse. In 288 BC the Mamertines seized the city by treachery, killing all the men, the city became a base from which they ravaged the countryside, leading to a conflict with the expanding regional empire of Syracuse. Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Mamertines near Mylae on the Longanus River, carthage assisted the Mamertines because of a long-standing conflict with Syracuse over dominance in Sicily. When Hiero attacked a second time in 264 BC, the Mamertines petitioned the Roman Republic for an alliance, although initially reluctant to assist lest it encourage other mercenary groups to mutiny, Rome was unwilling to see Carthaginian power spread further over Sicily and encroach on Italy. Rome therefore entered into an alliance with the Mamertines, in 264 BC, Roman troops were deployed to Sicily, the first time a Roman army acted outside the Italian Peninsula. At the end of the First Punic War it was a city allied with Rome. In Roman times Messina, then known as Messana, had an important pharos, Messana was the base of Sextus Pompeius, during his war against Octavian. In 1548 St. Ignatius founded there the first Jesuit college in the world, the Christian ships that won the Battle of Lepanto left from Messina, the Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, who took part in the battle, recovered for some time in the Grand Hospital. The city reached the peak of its splendour in the early 17th century, under Spanish domination, in 1674 the city rebelled against the foreign garrison. A massive fortress was built by the occupants and Messina decayed steadily, in 1743,48,000 died of plague in the city. In 1783, an earthquake devastated much of the city, and it took decades to rebuild, in 1847 it was one of the first cities in Italy where Risorgimento riots broke out
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Calabria
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Calabria, known in antiquity as Bruttium and formerly as Italia, is a region in Southern Italy and forms the traditionally conceptualized toe of the Italian Peninsula which resembles a boot. The capital city of Calabria is Catanzaro and its most populated city, and the seat of the Regional Council of Calabria, is Reggio Calabria in the Province of Reggio Calabria. The region is bordered to the north by the Basilicata Region, to the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, the region covers 15,080 km2 and has a population of just under 2 million. The demonym of Calabria in English is Calabrian, in ancient times Calabria was referred to as Italy. The Romans later extended the name to cover Southern Italy and then the entire peninsula, the region is a long and narrow peninsula which stretches from north to south for 248 km, with a maximum width of 110 km. Some 42% of Calabrias area, corresponding to 15,080 km2, is mountainous, 49% is hilly and it is surrounded by the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas. It is separated from Sicily by the Strait of Messina, where the narrowest point between Capo Peloro in Sicily and Punta Pezzo in Calabria is only 3.2 km, three mountain ranges are present, Pollino, La Sila and Aspromonte. All three mountain ranges are unique with their own flora and fauna, the Pollino Mountains in the north of the region are rugged and form a natural barrier separating Calabria from the rest of Italy. Parts of the area are heavily wooded, while others are vast and these mountains are home to a rare Bosnian Pine variety, and are included in the Pollino National Park. The highest point is Botte Donato, which reaches 1,928 metres, the area boasts numerous lakes and dense coniferous forests. La Sila also has some of the tallest trees in Italy which are called the Giants of the Sila, the Sila National Park is also known to have the purest air in Europe. The Aspromonte massif forms the southernmost tip of the Italian peninsula bordered by the sea on three sides and this unique mountainous structure reaches its highest point at Montalto, at 1,995 metres, and is full of wide, man-made terraces that slope down towards the sea. In general, most of the terrain in Calabria has been agricultural for centuries. The lowest slopes are rich in vineyards and citrus fruit orchards, the Diamante citron is one of the citrus fruits. Moving upwards, olives and chestnut trees appear while in the regions there are often dense forests of oak, pine, beech. Calabrias climate is influenced by the sea and mountains, mountain areas have a typical mountainous climate with frequent snow during winter. Erratic behavior of the Tyrrhenian Sea can bring heavy rainfall on the slopes of the region, while hot air from Africa makes the east coast of Calabria dry. The mountains that run along the region also influence the climate, the east coast is much warmer and has wider temperature ranges than the west coast
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1908 Messina earthquake
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The 1908 Messina earthquake occurred on 28 December in Sicily and Calabria, southern Italy with a moment magnitude of 7.1 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI. The cities of Messina and Reggio Calabria were almost completely destroyed, on Monday 28 December 1908, from about 05,20 to 05,21, an earthquake of 7.1 on the moment magnitude scale occurred. Its epicentre was in the Strait of Messina which separates the port city of Messina in Sicily. Its precise epicentre has been pinpointed to the northern Ionian Sea area close to the narrowest section of the Strait and it had a depth of 5–6 miles. At least 91% of structures in Messina were destroyed or irreparably damaged and some 75,000 people were killed in the city, Reggio Calabria and other locations in Calabria also suffered heavy damage, with some 25.000 people killed. Reggios historic centre was almost completely eradicated. The number of casualties is based on the 1901 and 1911 census data and it was the most destructive earthquake to ever strike Europe. The ground shook for some 30 to 40 seconds, and the damage was widespread, in Calabria, the ground shook violently from Scilla to south of Reggio, provoking landslides inland in the Reggio area and along the sea-cliff from Scilla to Bagnara. In the Calabrian commune of Palmi on the Tyrrhenian coast, there was almost total devastation that left 600 dead, damage was also inflicted along the eastern Sicilian coast, but outside of Messina, it was not as badly hit as Calabria. The mesoseismal area was confined near the coast along a 1–4 km wide belt that shook and destroyed Messina, catania, the largest city in eastern Sicily, did not incur notable damage. a circular motion. The elevated death toll was due to the fact that most people were asleep, thousands were trapped under debris, suffering horrific injuries of which many would die. One week before the earthquake,160,000 inhabitants were counted in the entire Messina commune, about ten minutes after the earthquake, the sea on both sides of the Strait suddenly withdrew a 12-meter tsunami swept in, and three waves struck nearby coasts. It impacted hardest along the Calabrian coast and inundated Reggio Calabria after the sea had receded 70 meters from the shore, the entire Reggio seafront was destroyed and numbers of people who had gathered there perished. Nearby Villa San Giovanni was also badly hit, along the coast between Lazzaro and Pellaro, houses and a railway bridge were washed away. In Messina, the tsunami also caused more devastation and deaths, the second and third tsunami waves, coming in rapid succession and higher than the first, raced over the harbour, smashed boats docked at the pier, and broke parts of the sea wall. The ships that were attached to their moorings collided with one another. Afterwards Messina harbour was filled with floating wreckage and the corpses of drowned people, towns and villages along the eastern coast of Sicily were assaulted by high waves causing deaths and damage to boats and property. Two hours later the tsunami struck Malta, about 2000 people were killed by the tsunami in Messina, the eastern coast of Sicily, and in Reggio Calabria and its coastal environs. The Messina shoreline was irrevocably altered as large sections of the coast had sunk several feet into the sea, houses, churches, palaces and monuments, military barracks, commercial, municipal and public buildings had all collapsed entirely or were severely damaged
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Italian general election, 1909
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General elections were held in Italy on 7 March 1909, with a second round of voting on 14 March. The ministerial left-wing bloc remained the largest in Parliament, winning 329 of the 508 seats, the election was held using 508 single-member constituencies. The right-wing leader Sidney Sonnino succeed to Giolittis protegé Alessandro Fortis as Prime Minister on 1906, but his cabinet had a short lift, anyway Sonnino formed an alliance with France on the colonial expansion in North Africa. His government lasted only few months, after Sonninos resignation Giovanni Giolitti returned to power in 1906. Many critics accused Giolitti of manipulating the elections, piling up majorities with the restricted suffrage at the time, however, he did refine the practice in the elections of 1904 and 1909 that gave the liberals secure majorities
33.
Joseph Petrosino
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Joseph Joe Petrosino was a New York City police officer who was a pioneer in the fight against organized crime. The various crime fighting techniques that Petrosino pioneered during his law enforcement career are still practiced by various agencies, Petrosino was born Giuseppe Petrosino in Padula, a village in southern Italy. In 1874, the balance of the Petrosino family immigrated to the United States, Joseph had been sent over previously with a young cousin to live with his grandfather in New York. An unfortunate streetcar accident took the life of the grandfather, Petrosino married the widow Adelina Saulino, with whom he had a daughter Adelina Petrosino Burke, who gave birth to Petrosinos granddaughter, Susan Burke. Susan represents the Petrosino family at functions honoring the fallen NYPD hero, on October 19,1883 he joined the NYPD. He was the first Italian speaker in the NYPDs history, at 5 feet 3 inches, he had to get a waiver of the departments minimum height requirement to get the job. During his service he would become friends with Theodore Roosevelt, who was a commissioner for New York City at the time. Fluent in several Italian dialects, he was able to make cases that other officers couldnt and his ability to solve crimes in the Italian community was such that whenever a serious crime took place in that area, his superiors would call out, Send for the Dago. On July 20,1895, Roosevelt promoted him to sergeant in charge of the departments Homicide Division. It was Petrosino who convinced Caruso to help him catch those behind the blackmail, during his mission, he discovered evidence that the organization intended to assassinate President William McKinley during his trip to Buffalo. Petrosino warned the Secret Service, but McKinley ignored the warning, even after Roosevelt, McKinley was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz during his visit to Buffalos Pan-American Exposition on September 6,1901. Petrosinos investigations into Mafia activities led him to Vito Cascio Ferro, in 1903, Petrosino arrested him on suspicion of murder, but Cascio Ferro was acquitted. He later returned to Sicily, where he progressed increasingly to the top rank of the Sicilian Mafia, Cascio Ferro was later suspected of Petrosinos murder. Petrosino also investigated the infamous Barrel Murders case of 1903, in 1909, Petrosino made plans to travel to Palermo, Sicily, on a top secret mission. A recently passed federal law allowed the government to any alien who had lived in the country for less than three years if that alien had been convicted of a crime in another country. However, Theodore A. Bingham, Police Commissioner of New York, Petrosino arrived at the rendezvous, but it was a trap. While waiting for his informant, Petrosino was shot to death by Mafia assassins, later a small memorial was erected on Piazza Marina in Petrosinos remembrance. The day after Petrosinos shooting, the detectives Italian Branch received a letter stating that the New York Black Hand had arranged the murder
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Sicilian Mafia
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The Sicilian Mafia, also known as simply the Mafia or Cosa Nostra, is a criminal syndicate in Sicily, Italy. It is an association of criminal groups that share a common organisational structure. The basic group is known as a family, clan, or cosca or cosche in Sicilian, each family claims sovereignty over a territory, usually a town or village or a neighbourhood of a larger city, in which it operates its rackets. Its members call themselves men of honour, although the public refers to them as mafiosi. The mafias core activities are protection racketeering, the arbitration of disputes between criminals, and the organizing and oversight of illegal agreements and transactions, following waves of emigration, the Mafia has spread to other countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia. The word mafia originated in Sicily, though its origins are uncertain, the Sicilian adjective mafiusu roughly translates to mean swagger, but can also be translated as boldness, bravado. In reference to a man, mafiusu in 19th century Sicily was ambiguous, signifying a bully, arrogant but also fearless, enterprising and proud, in reference to a woman, however, the feminine-form adjective mafiusa means beautiful and attractive. The Sicilian word mafie refers to the caves near Trapani and Marsala, Sicily was once an Islamic emirate, therefore mafia might have Arabic roots. The words mafia and mafiusi are never mentioned in the play, the play is about a Palermo prison gang with traits similar to the Mafia, a boss, an initiation ritual, and talk of umirtà and pizzu. The play had great success throughout Italy, soon after, the use of the term mafia began appearing in the Italian states early reports on the phenomenon. The word made its first official appearance in 1865 in a report by the prefect of Palermo Filippo Antonio Gualterio, the term mafia has become a generic term for any organized criminal network with similar structure, methods, and interests. Nowadays people have gone so far in the direction that it has become an overused term. According to mafia turncoats, the name of the mafia is Cosa Nostra. Italian-American mafioso Joseph Valachi testified before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U. S. Senate Committee on Government Operations in 1963 and he revealed that American mafiosi referred to their organization by the term cosa nostra. At the time, it was understood as a name, fostered by the FBI. The FBI even added the article la to the term, calling it La Cosa Nostra, in 1984, mafia turncoat Tommaso Buscetta revealed to anti-mafia magistrate Giovanni Falcone that the term was used by the Sicilian Mafia, as well. Buscetta dismissed the word mafia as a literary creation. Other defectors such as Antonino Calderone and Salvatore Contorno confirmed the use of Cosa Nostra by members, mafiosi introduce known members to each other as belonging to cosa nostra or la stessa cosa, meaning he is the same thing as you — a mafioso
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Palermo
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Palermo is a city of Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence, Palermo is located in the northwest of the island of Sicily, right by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city was founded in 734 BC by the Phoenicians as Ziz, Palermo then became a possession of Carthage, before becoming part of the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire and eventually part of the Byzantine Empire, for over a thousand years. The Greeks named the city Panormus meaning complete port, from 831 to 1072 the city was under Arab rule during the Emirate of Sicily when the city first became a capital. The Arabs shifted the Greek name into Balarme, the root for Palermos present-day name, eventually Sicily would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860. The population of Palermo urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 855,285, in the central area, the city has a population of around 676,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Palermitani or, poetically, panormiti, the languages spoken by its inhabitants are the Italian language, Sicilian language and the Palermitano dialect. Palermo is Sicilys cultural, economic and touristic capital and it is a city rich in history, culture, art, music and food. Palermo is the main Sicilian industrial and commercial center, the industrial sectors include tourism, services, commerce. Palermo currently has an airport, and a significant underground economy. In fact, for cultural, artistic and economic reasons, Palermo was one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean and is now among the top tourist destinations in both Italy and Europe. It is the seat of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Arab-Norman Palermo. The city is going through careful redevelopment, preparing to become one of the major cities of the Euro-Mediterranean area. Roman Catholicism is highly important in Palermitano culture, the Patron Saint of Palermo is Santa Rosalia whose Feast Day is celebrated on 15 July. The area attracts significant numbers of each year and is widely known for its colourful fruit, vegetable and fish markets at the heart of Palermo, known as Vucciria, Ballarò. Palermo lies in a basin, formed by the Papireto, Kemonia, the basin was named the Conca dOro by the Arabs in the 9th century. The city is surrounded by a range which is named after the city itself. These mountains face the Tyrrhenian Sea, Palermo is home to a natural port and offers excellent views to the sea, especially from Monte Pellegrino
36.
Italian Socialist Party
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The Italian Socialist Party was a socialist and, later, social-democratic political party in Italy. Founded in Genoa in 1892, the PSI dominated the Italian left until after World War II, the PSI was disbanded in 1994 as a result of the Tangentopoli scandals. It was part of a wave of new socialist parties at the end of the 19th century and had to endure persecution by the Italian government during its early years. At the start of the 20th century, however, the PSI chose not to oppose the governments led by five-time Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti. This conciliation with the governments and its improving electoral fortunes helped to establish the PSI as a mainstream Italian political party by the 1910s. Despite the partys improving electoral results, however, the PSI remained divided into two branches, the Reformists and the Maximalists. The Reformists, led by Filippo Turati, were mostly in the unions. The Maximalists, led by Costantino Lazzari, were affiliated with the London Bureau of socialist groups, in 1912 the Maximalists led by Benito Mussolini prevailed at the party convention and this led to the split of the Italian Reformist Socialist Party. In the 1919 general election the PSI reached its highest result ever,32. 0% and 156 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, during this time period, Mussolini belonged to the Bolshevik wing of the Italian Socialist Party who purged moderate or reformist socialists. The national syndicalists intended to support Italian republicans in overthrowing the monarchy if such reforms were not made, the dominant internationalist and pacifist wing of the party remained committed to avoiding what it called a bourgeois war. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the PSI quickly aligned itself in support of the communist Bolshevik movement in Russia, from 1919 to the 1920s the Socialists and the Fascists emerged as prominent rival movements in Italys urban centres, often resorting to political violence in their clashes. In 1919, the Socialist Party of Turin formed the Red Army of Turin, the left-wing of the party broke away in 1921 to form the Communist Party of Italy, a division from which the PSI never been recovered and which had enormous consequences on Italian politics. In 1922, another split occurred when the reformist wing of the party, in 1924 Giacomo Matteotti, a member of the PSU, was assassinated by Fascists and shortly afterwards a Fascist dictatorship was established in Italy. In 1925 the PSI and all political parties except the Fascist Party were banned. The partys leadership remained in exile during the Fascist years and in 1930 the PSU was re-integrated into the PSI, the party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1930 and 1940. In the 1946 general election, the first after World War II, for the 1948 general election the Socialists led by Pietro Nenni chose to take part in the Popular Democratic Front along with the PCI. This caused the split of the faction within the party led by Giuseppe Saragat. The PSI was weakened by the split and was far less organized than the PCI, as a result, the Socialist parliamentary delegation was cut by a half
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Filippo Turati
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Filippo Turati was an Italian sociologist, criminologist, poet and Socialist politician. His Inno dei Lavoratori, adapted to music, became the most popular song of the nascent labor movement, Turati became interested in politics, being attracted to the democratic movement before joining the more specific Socialist groups. His most important sociological work of period is Il Delitto e la Questione Sociale. He met Anna Kulischov while working on a survey of conditions in Naples. Kulischov and Costa had split by the time she met Turati, the two immediately fell in love, and lived together until her death in 1925. Turati and Anna Kulischov were the most instrumental intellectuals in the founding of the Italian Socialist Party in 1892 and it was the most influential Marxist review in Italy before World War I. Shut down by Benito Mussolinis Fascist regime, it was reestablished after World War II, in the years following the partys foundation, the Italian government attempted to suppress it. Turati advocated alliances with other Italian democratic forces, meant to defeat the governments reactionary policies, in 1898 Turati was arrested and charged with being the inspirator of the popular riot that broke out in the whole country against the rise of the bread price. He was freed the following year, in 1901, Giuseppe Zanardelli, a Liberal, became Prime Minister – accompanied by Giovanni Giolitti as the Minister of the Interior – Giolitti who would dominate Italian politics until 1915. When the party Directorate refused to sanction the vote, he convinced the deputies to do so anyway, between 1901 and 1906, power in the party seesawed between the Turati-led reformists and the revolutionaries under various leaders. After 1906, splits surfaced among the reformists themselves, in 1912, as a result of Socialist reaction against the Italo-Turkish War, revolutionaries took over the party. Benito Mussolini, one of their leaders, became editor of the party newspaper Avanti, Turati opposed Mussolini, but proved unable to dislodge him. He had opposed the conflict, and would oppose Italys entrance into World War I – while Mussolini moved to an irredentist position, despite the fact that he was a pacifist in June 1918 he strongly supported the Italian Army that was fighting the Battle of Solstizio. Following World War I, Mussolini created the paramilitary Fasci Italiani di Combattimento, Filippo Turati and Anna Kulischov, who knew Mussolini well, were major opponents of Fascism, and lived under constant surveillance and threats. This policy was rejected and the PSI split in 1921, with the formation of the Italian Communist Party, in 1922, when Turatis group was expelled and established a new group, the Unitary Socialist Party. In 1924, Turatis disciple and Secretary of the PSU, Giacomo Matteotti, was assassinated by Mussolinis Ceka, this seminal event prompted Mussolini to formalize his dictatorship between 1925 and 1926. In 1926, Turati fled Italy in an escape to France – aided by Carlo Rosselli, Ferruccio Parri, Sandro Pertini and Adriano Olivetti. He died in the French capital in March 1932, after World War II, Turatis remains were transferred after to Milans Cimitero Monumentale, where he is buried next to Anna Kulischov
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Avanti!
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Avanti. is a 1972 American/Italian comedy film produced and directed by Billy Wilder. The film stars Jack Lemmon and Juliet Mills, the screenplay by Wilder and I. A. L. Diamond is based on the play of the title by Samuel Taylor. When he is killed in an accident, his straitlaced son Wendell Armbruster. Hotel manager Carlo Carlucci attempts to smooth things over, taking on all the arrangements for the body to be back to Baltimore in time for burial in just three days time. Complications arise when the bodies disappear from the morgue, the Trotta brothers have stolen the bodies from the morgue, holding them for a two million lire ransom. This is not Wendells only problem, Bruno, the hotel valet, is determined to get back to America after being deported and has compromising photographs of Wendells father and Pamelas mother swimming nude in the bay. This displeases the maid Anna, with whom Bruno was co-habiting, and in a fit of rage she lures Bruno to Pamelas room, kills him, Carlucci moves Pamelas belongings into Wendells room to prevent an international incident, and the two are thrown together. Wendell and Pamela part, with a vow to return next year, the director had begun working on The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes, and it wasnt until that project was completed that he was able to concentrate on Avanti. Diamond proved to be unavailable, Wilder collaborated first with Julius J. Epstein and then Norman Krasna, then Diamond became free, and with the ultimately uncredited assistance of Luciano Vincenzoni, he and Wilder began adapting the Taylor play. Wilder was determined to create a love story, a little like Brief Encounter. Early in the period, Wilder showed Jack Lemmon some of the completed script. Knowing pretty early on Jack was going to be in our film made it more comfortable writing his dialogue, said Diamond, who preferred to tailor a screenplay to a specific actor. I loved Billy Wilder just calling me and asking me to be in his film, Wilder told her the role required her to gain twenty-five pounds, and Mills readily agreed. She also agreed to a scene, although Diamond was opposed to including one in the film. I think nudity hurts laughs, he stated, I mean if youre watching somebodys boobs, youre not listening to the dialogue. After viewing a number of Italian films, Wilder selected Luigi Kuveiller as his cinematographer, principal photography was completed on schedule and $100,000 under budget. Wilder was disappointed with the completed film, maybe we went overboard with some of the comic relief, because Avanti. is not a comedy, he stated
39.
Racconigi
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Racconigi is a town and comune in Piedmont, Italy. It is located in the province of Cuneo,40 kilometres south of Turin, the town was founded in medieval times. It was a possession of the marquisses of Saluzzo, of the princes of Acaia, Racconigi is located in the northern borders of its province with the one of Turin. The town borders with the municipalities of Caramagna Piemonte, Carmagnola, Casalgrasso, Cavallerleone, Cavallermaggiore, Lombriasco, Murello, Polonghera and its municipal hamlets are Canapile, Berroni, Migliabruna, Oia, Parruccia, San Lorenzo, Streppe and Tagliata. The economy is based on agriculture, production of milk and meat. Castle of Racconigi, This royal residence built in 1570 on the basis of a castle which dated to the beginning of the second millennium. The large park was laid out in 1755 by the French gardener Molard from designs by Le Nôtre, the castle became the summer residence of the King of Italy in 1901, and part of the World Heritage Site Residences of the Royal House of Savoy in 1997. The interior decoration and antique furniture were commissioned to the artists who worked for Castle of Racconigi. Today it is both a private estate as well as a location for weddings, events and a set for several movies, umberto II, last King of Italy, was born here. Bonneville Cascais Media related to Racconigi at Wikimedia Commons Il Castello di Racconigi Centro Anatidi e Cicogne
