1.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
2.
1912 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1912 in the United Kingdom. Monarch - George V Prime Minister - H. H. Asquith 1 January - Post Office takes over National Telephone Company,17 January - British polar explorer Robert Falcon Scott and a team of four reach the South Pole to find that Ronald Amundsen had beaten them to it. 31 January - G. K.26 February - Coal miners strike begins,1 March - Suffragettes smash shop windows in the West End of London, especially around Oxford Street. 16 March - Lawrence Oates, ill member of Scotts South Pole expedition leaves the tent saying, I am just going outside,19 March - Minimum wage introduced for miners after national strike. 29 March - The remaining members of Scotts expedition die,11 April - Irish Home Rule Bill introduced in the House of Commons, but fails to receive the support of the House of Lords. 13 April - The Royal Flying Corps is established by royal charter, 14–15 April - Sinking of the RMS Titanic, The White Star liner RMS Titanic strikes an iceberg and sinks on her maiden voyage from the United Kingdom to the United States. 15 April - The syndicalist Daily Herald newspaper is first published on a permanent basis,22 April - English aviator Denys Corbett Wilson completes the first aeroplane crossing of the Irish Sea, from Goodwick in Wales to Crane near Enniscorthy in Ireland. April/May - Thousands of Jewish workers in Londons garment trade in the West End strike, may - Liberal Unionist Party formally merges into the Conservative And Unionist Party. 2 May–3 July - Board of Trade inquiry into the sinking of the RMS Titanic,5 May–22 July - Great Britain and Ireland compete at the Olympics in Stockholm and win 10 gold,15 silver and 16 bronze medals. 13 May - The Air Battalion Royal Engineers becomes the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps,15 July - The National Insurance Act 1911 comes into force introducing National Insurance payments. August Cabinet ministers accused of corruption in the Marconi scandal,10 August - Frank McClean flies a Short Brothers floatplane up the River Thames between the upper and lower parts of Tower Bridge and underneath London Bridge. 25–27 August - The wet summer climaxes in a major rainstorm across England, causing floods particularly in Norfolk, september - The tradition of the Blackpool Illuminations begins. 24 October - Formation of the Edinburgh and Leith Branch of the Workers Educational Association at a meeting addressed by Albert Mansbridge,31 October - Robert Baden-Powell marries Olave St Clair Soames at Parkstone. 5 November - Establishment of the British Board of Film Censors,12 November - The bodies of Captain Scott and his team found in the Antarctic. 27 November - Concerted Suffragette attacks on pillar boxes,18 December - Piltdown Man, thought to be the fossilized remains of a hitherto unknown form of early human, presented to the Geological Society of London. It is revealed to be a hoax in 1953, sir Rufus Isaacs, the Attorney General, becomes the first Jew appointed to the Cabinet. Glucozade, the predecessor of Lucozade, is first produced, walter de la Mares The Listeners, and Other Poems. Ethel M. Dells novels Greatheart and The Way of an Eagle, arthur Conan Doyles novel The Lost World
3.
1914 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1914 in the United Kingdom. This year saw the start of World War I, monarch - George V Prime Minister - H. H. Asquith January–February - Leeds rent strike. 20 February - The Fethard-on-Sea life-boat capsizes on service off the County Wexford coast,9 March - The Prime Minister proposes to allow the Ulster counties to hold a vote on whether or not to join a Home Rule parliament in Dublin. 10 March - Suffragette Mary Richardson damages the Velázquez painting the Rokeby Venus in the National Gallery, London,15 March - Cover price of The Times halved to one penny. The government backs down and they are reinstated,29 March - Katherine Routledge and her husband arrive in Easter Island to make the first true study of it. 9 April - Showing of the first colour film in Britain — The World, the Flesh. 11 April - First British performance of George Bernard Shaws play Pygmalion at His Majestys Theatre in London,17 April - Suffragette arson attack on Britannia Pier, Great Yarmouth. 24–25 April - Larne Gun Running,35,000 rifles and over 3 million rounds of ammunition from Germany are landed at Larne, Bangor,28 April - Suffragette arson attack on the Bath Hotel, Felixstowe. 4 May - Suffragette Mary Wood attacks John Singer Sargents portrait of Henry James at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in London with a meat cleaver,9 May - J. T. Hearne becomes the first bowler to take 3000 first-class wickets. 21 May - A womens suffrage march on Buckingham Palace with a petition is thwarted by police,25 May - The House of Commons of the United Kingdom passes the Irish Home Rule Bill. 30 May - RMS Aquitania makes her maiden voyage,5 June - All Saints Church, Breadsall, Derbyshire, gutted by fire, blamed on a suffragette arson attack. 23 June The Royal Naval Air Service is established and it closes on 15 August and the site is used as a military depot. 14 July - The Government of Ireland Bill completes its passage through the House of Lords and it allows Ulster counties to vote on whether or not they wish to participate in Home Rule from Dublin. 18–20 July - Fleet review by the King at Spithead, 21–24 July - A conference at Buckingham Palace fails to resolve differences between Irish unionists and nationalists over Home Rule. 26 July - Howth gun-running, Erskine Childers and his wife Molly sail into Howth in his yacht Asgard,31 July - London Stock Exchange closes. 3 August Sir Edward Grey, the Foreign Secretary, makes a speech which encourages the House of Commons to support going to war with Germany. This evening, looking from the Foreign Office windows, he observes, The lamps are going out all over Europe, banks remain closed until 7 August. English language teacher Henry Hadley is shot in an altercation with a Prussian officer on a train at Gelsenkirchen in Germany,4 August World War I, The German Army invades neutral Belgium
4.
1915 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1915 in the United Kingdom. This year was dominated by World War I, which broke out in the August of the previous year. Monarch - George V Prime Minister - H. H. Asquith 1 January - World War I, Sinking of the battleship HMS Formidable, off Lyme Regis, Dorset,35 officers and 512 men are lost out of a total complement of 780. 19 January - World War I, German zeppelins bomb the towns of Great Yarmouth and Kings Lynn for the first time,24 January - World War I, Battle of Dogger Bank, British Grand Fleet defeats the German High Seas Fleet, sinking the armoured cruiser SMS Blücher. January - HMS Queen Elizabeth enters service as the Royal Navys first oil-fired battleship,1 February - Photographs required in British passports for the first time. 18 February - World War I, Germany regards waters around the British Isles to be a war zone from this date,11 March - World War I, Sinking of armed merchantman HMS Bayano off Galloway by German U-boat SM U-27. Around 200 crew are lost, a number of bodies being washed up on the Isle of Man,14 March - World War I, Battle of Más a Tierra, Off the coast of Chile, the Royal Navy forces the German light cruiser SMS Dresden to scuttle. Britain, France and the Russian Empire agree to give Constantinople,18 March - World War I, British attack on the Dardanelles fails. 24 April - The FA Cup is won by Sheffield United F. C. who defeat Chelsea 3-0 in the final at Old Trafford, the competition will now be abandoned until the war is over. 25 April - World War I, Gallipoli Campaign, Landing at Cape Helles by British and French forces, the Lancashire Fusiliers win six VCs before breakfast. David Lloyd George is appointed first Minister of Munitions,27 May - HMS Princess Irene explodes and sinks while loading mines off Sheerness with the loss of 352 lives. 31 May - World War I, Zeppelins raid London for the first time,10 June - Vorticist exhibition opens at the Doré Gallery, London. 16 June - Foundation of the British Womens Institute,8 July - National Registration Act, All citizens aged 15–65 to be registered on 15 August. August Munitions of War Act places munitions factories and their labour relations under control of the Minister of Munitions, Edith Smith in Grantham becomes the countrys first woman police officer granted full power of arrest. 6 September - Little Willie, the prototype tank developed by William Foster & Co. of Lincoln, is first tested by the British Army. 16 September - First Womens Institute meeting held in Llanfairpwllgwyngyll, Wales, the first meeting in England is that of the Singleton Institute at Charlton, West Sussex on 9 November. 21 September - Cecil Chubb acquires Stonehenge at an auction for £6600,25 September–14 October - World War I, Battle of Loos, British forces take the French town of Loos but with substantial casualties and are unable to press their advantage. This is the first time the British use poison gas in World War I, october–November - Derby Scheme, a voluntary military recruitment scheme
5.
1913 in Ireland
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Events from the year 1913 in Ireland. 13 January – Edward Carson founds the Ulster Volunteer Force by unifying several existing loyalist militias,30 January – at Westminster the House of Lords rejects the 3rd Home Rule Bill by 326 to 69. 10 February – John Redmond opens the replacement city bridge over the River Suir in Waterford that will be named after him,7 July – the Home Rule Bill is once again carried in the House of Commons, despite attempts by Bonar Law to obstruct it. 31 August – Dublin Lock-out, the Dublin Metropolitan Police kill one demonstrator,1 September – protest by locked-out workers lead to serious riots in Dublin. Shops are looted and attempts made to tear up tram lines,3 September – a meeting of 400 employers with William Martin Murphy pledges not to employ any persons who continue to be members of the Irish Transport & General Workers Union. 7 September – a large meeting in Sackville Street asserts the right of speech, trade union representation. 17 September In Newry, Edward Carson says that a Provisional Government will be established in Ulster if Home Rule is introduced, in Dublin, labour unrest grows with a march 5,000 through the city. 27 September –12,000 Ulster Volunteers parade at the Royal Ulster Agricultural Societys show grounds at Balmoral in protest at the Home Rule Bill,27 September – in Dublin the food ship, The Hare, arrives bringing forty tons of food raised by British trade unionists. 6 October – an official report on the lockout suggests that workers should be reinstated without having to give a not to join the ITGWU. 16 October –4,000 men and women march through Dublin in support of James Larkin,27 October – James Larkin of the ITGWU is sentenced to seven months in prison for seditious language. 1 November Kingstown trade unionist James Byrne, arrested for his part in the lockout,10 November – the Dublin Volunteer Corps enrolls over 2,000 men. They declare they will preserve the civil and religious liberties of Protestants outside Ulster in the event of Irish Home Rule,19 November – the Irish Citizen Army is founded by James Connolly to protect workers in the general lockout. 25 November – the pro-Home Rule Irish Volunteers are formed at a meeting attended by 4,000 men in Dublins Rotunda Rink. 28 November – Andrew Bonar Law addresses a huge unionist rally in the Theatre Royal in Dublin, declaring that if Home Rule is introduced Ulster will resist, george A. Birminghams comedy General John Regan is premièred in London and New York City. Winifred Mary Letts publishes Songs from Leinster, conal Holmes OConnell ORiordan produces his play Rope Enough. Pádraig Ó Siochfhradhas story An Baile S’Againne is published, katharine Tynans Irish Poems is published. Yeats poem September 1913 is published in The Irish Times during the Dublin Lock-out and his Poems Written in Discouragement is also published this year. English music hall comedian Arthur Lucan meets and marries 16-year-old actress Kitty McShane in Dublin,19 January – Matt OMahoney, international soccer player
6.
1913
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As of the start of 1913, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The British Board of Film Censors receives the authority to classify, January 12 – Bolshevik activist Josef Dzhugashvili first publishes an article under the pseudonym Stalin which he adopts hereafter. At this time he, Adolf Hitler and Josip Broz Tito are simultaneously resident in Vienna, January 13 – Edward Carson founds the Ulster Volunteer Force by unifying several existing loyalist militias to resist home rule for Ireland. January 23 – General election in Tasmania, January 23 – In the 1913 Ottoman coup détat, Ismail Enver comes to power. January 30 – The British House of Lords rejects an Irish Home Rule Bill February 1 – New York Citys Grand Central Terminal, having been rebuilt, reopens as the worlds largest railroad station. February 3 – The 16th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, authorizing the Federal government to impose, February 9 – Mexican Revolution, Beginning of La Decena Trágica, the rebellion of some military chiefs against the President Francisco I. February 13 – Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama, declares the independence of Tibet from Qing dynasty China, February 18 – Mexican Revolution, President Francisco I. Madero and Vice President José María Pino Suárez are forced to resign, pedro Lascuráin serves as President for less than an hour before General Victoriano Huerta, leader of the coup, takes office February 22 – Mexican Revolution, Assassination of Francisco I. Madero and José María Pino Suárez, February 23 – Joseph Stalin is arrested by the Russian secret police, the Okhrana, in Petrograd and exiled to Siberia. March The House of Romanov celebrates the 300th anniversary of its succession to the throne, following the assassination of his rival Song Jiaoren, Yuan Shikai uses military force to dissolve Chinas parliament and rules as a dictator. March 1 – British steamship Calvados disappears in the Sea of Marmara with 200 on board, march 3 – The Woman suffrage parade of 1913 takes place in Washington, D. C. led by Inez Milholland on horseback. March 4 Woodrow Wilson is sworn in as President of the United States, the U. S. Department of Commerce and U. S. Department of Labor are established by splitting the duties of the 10-year-old Department of Commerce and Labor. The Census Bureau, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and U. S. Coast, march 4–6 – First Balkan War, Battle of Bizani, Forces of the Kingdom of Greece capture the forts of Bizani from the Ottoman Empire. March 7 – The British freighter Alum Chine, carrying 343 tons of dynamite, march 12 – Australia begins building the new federal capital of Canberra. March 13 – Mexican Revolution, Pancho Villa returns to Mexico from his exile in the United States. March 17 – The Military Aviation Academy is founded in Uruguay, the Uruguayan Air Force would grow from this foundation. March 18 – George I of Greece is assassinated after 50 years on the throne and he is succeeded by his son Constantine. March 20 – Sung Chiao-jen, a founder of the Chinese nationalist party, is wounded in an assassination attempt, march 23 – Supporters of Phan Xích Long begin an attempt to revolt against colonial rule in French Indochina
7.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
8.
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
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The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The monarchs title is King or Queen, the current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952. The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, as the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces, from 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, the Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the worlds surface at its greatest extent in 1921. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch is the Head of State, oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, the Monarch takes little direct part in Government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majestys Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet and they have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services. Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution, the Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. Powers independent of government are legally granted to public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council. The Sovereigns role as a monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions. This role has been recognised since the 19th century, the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the dignified part rather than the efficient part of government. Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister, the Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after kissing hands that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments, the first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilsons Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party, the second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II
9.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
10.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
11.
H. H. Asquith
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He had a central role in the design and passage of major liberal legislation. In August 1914, Asquith took the United Kingdom into the First World War, Asquiths father owned a small business but died when Asquith was seven. Asquith was educated at City of London School and Balliol College and he trained as a barrister and after a slow start to his career achieved great success. In 1886, he was adopted as Liberal candidate for East Fife, in 1892, he was appointed as Home Secretary in Gladstones fourth ministry, remaining in the post until the Liberals lost the 1895 election. In 1908, Asquith succeeded him as minister, with David Lloyd George as chancellor. With their first majority government since the 1880s, the Liberals were determined to advance their agenda, an impediment to this was the unelected House of Lords, dominated by the Conservatives. When Lloyd George proposed, and the House of Commons passed, the Peoples Budget of 1909, meanwhile the South Africa Act 1909 passed. Asquith called an election for January 1910, and the Liberals won, Asquith was less successful in dealing with Irish Home Rule. Repeated crises led to gun running and violence, verging on civil war, bitter rivalries inside and between the three major parties worsened when Asquith was unable to forge the coalition into a harmonious team. It was weakened by his own indecision over strategy, conscription, Lloyd George organised his overthrow and replaced him as Prime Minister in December 1916. Asquith remained as leader of the Liberal Party, but was unable to quell the internal conflict, the party rapidly declined in popularity and was ruined by the 1918 general election. Asquith accepted a peerage in 1925 and died, aged 75 and his roles in creating the modern British welfare state, 1906-1911 have been celebrated, but his weaknesses as a war leader and as a party leader after 1914 have been emphasised by historians. Asquith was born in Morley, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the couple also had three daughters, of whom only one survived infancy. The Asquiths were an old Yorkshire family, with a long nonconformist tradition and it was a matter of family pride, shared by Asquith, that an ancestor, Joseph Asquith, was imprisoned for his part in the pro-Roundhead Farnley Wood Plot of 1664. Both Asquiths parents came from families associated with the Yorkshire wool trade, Dixon Asquith inherited the Gillroyd Mill Company, founded by his father. Emilys father, William Willans, ran a successful wool-trading business in Huddersfield, both families were middle-class, Congregationalist, and politically radical. Dixon was a man, cultivated and in his sons words not cut out for a business career. He was described as a man of character who held Bible classes for young men
12.
Liberal Party (UK)
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The Liberal Party was a liberal political party which was one of the two major parties in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th century. The party arose from an alliance of Whigs and free-trade Peelites and Radicals favourable to the ideals of the American, by the end of the nineteenth century, it had formed four governments under William Gladstone. Despite splitting over the issue of Irish Home Rule, the party returned to power in 1906 with a landslide victory, by the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives main rival. The party went into decline and by the 1950s won no more than six seats at general elections, apart from notable by-election victories, the partys fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party in 1981. At the 1983 General Election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, at the 1987 General Election, its vote fell below 23% and the Liberal and Social Democratic parties merged in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats. A splinter group reconstituted the Liberal Party in 1989 and it was formed by party members opposed to the merger who saw the Lib Dems diluting Liberal ideals. Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes, the Liberal Party grew out of the Whigs, who had their origins in an aristocratic faction in the reign of Charles II, and the early 19th century Radicals. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown, although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of democracy for its own sake. The great figures of reformist Whiggery were Charles James Fox and his disciple, after decades in opposition, the Whigs returned to power under Grey in 1830 and carried the First Reform Act in 1832. The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggism, but it brought about the Whigs demise. As early as 1839 Russell had adopted the name of Liberals, the leading Radicals were John Bright and Richard Cobden, who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England, avoidance of war and foreign alliances, for a century, free trade remained the one cause which could unite all Liberals. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston, and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen to hold office for most of the 1850s and 1860s, a leading Peelite was William Ewart Gladstone, who was a reforming Chancellor of the Exchequer in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal Party is traditionally traced to 1859 and this was brought about by Palmerstons death in 1865 and Russells retirement in 1868. After a brief Conservative government Gladstone won a victory at the 1868 election. The establishment of the party as a membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877. John Stuart Mill was a Liberal MP from 1865 to 1868, for the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. William Ewart Gladstone served as prime minister four times, called the Grand Old Man later in life, Gladstone was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class
13.
Parliament of the United Kingdom
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It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, the parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house and a lower house. The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature, prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. The House of Commons is an elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in London, most cabinet ministers are from the Commons, whilst junior ministers can be from either House. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The UK parliament and its institutions have set the pattern for many throughout the world. However, John Bright – who coined the epithet – used it with reference to a rather than a parliament. In theory, the UKs supreme legislative power is vested in the Crown-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union. The principle of responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an electoral system. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century, in 1909, the Commons passed the so-called Peoples Budget, which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, on the basis of the Budgets popularity and the Lords consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, in the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster
14.
Emmeline Pankhurst
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Emmeline Pankhurst was a British political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote. She was widely criticised for her militant tactics, and historians disagree about their effectiveness, born in Moss Side, Manchester to politically active parents, Pankhurst was introduced at the age of 14 to the womens suffrage movement. On 18 December 1879, she married Richard Pankhurst, a barrister 24 years older than her known for supporting womens right to vote, they had five children over the next ten years. He supported her activities outside the home, and she founded and became involved with the Womens Franchise League, while working as a Poor Law Guardian, she was shocked at the harsh conditions she encountered in Manchesters workhouses. In 1903, five years after her husband died, Pankhurst founded the Womens Social and Political Union, the group identified as independent from – and often in opposition to – political parties. It became known for physical confrontations, its members smashed windows, Pankhurst, her daughters, and other WSPU activists received repeated prison sentences, where they staged hunger strikes to secure better conditions. As Pankhursts eldest daughter Christabel took leadership of the WSPU, antagonism between the group and the government grew, eventually the group adopted arson as a tactic, and more moderate organisations spoke out against the Pankhurst family. In 1913 several prominent individuals left the WSPU, among them Pankhursts daughters Adela, Emmeline was so furious that she gave a ticket, £20, and a letter of introduction to a suffragette in Australia, and firmly insisted that she emigrate. Adela complied and the rift was never healed. With the advent of the First World War, Emmeline and Christabel called a halt to militant suffrage activism in support of the British governments stand against the German Peril. They urged women to aid industrial production and encouraged men to fight. In 1918 the Representation of the People Act granted votes to all men over the age of 21 and this discrepancy was intended to ensure that men did not become minority voters as a consequence of the huge number of deaths suffered during the First World War. Pankhurst transformed the WSPU machinery into the Womens Party, which was dedicated to promoting womens equality in public life, in her later years, she became concerned with what she perceived as the menace posed by Bolshevism and joined the Conservative Party. She was selected as the Conservative candidate for Stepney in 1927 and she died on 14 June 1928, only weeks before the Conservative governments Representation of the People Act extended the vote to all women over 21 years of age on 2 July 1928. She was commemorated two years later with a statue in Londons Victoria Tower Gardens, Emmeline Pankhurst was born on 15 July 1858 in the Manchester suburb of Moss Side. Although her birth certificate states otherwise, she believed that her birthday was a day earlier, most biographies, including those written by her daughters, repeat this claim. Feeling a kinship with the revolutionaries who stormed the Bastille, she said in 1908. The reason for the discrepancy remains unclear, the family into which she was born had been steeped in political agitation for generations
15.
Epsom Derby
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The Derby Stakes, popularly known as The Derby, is a Group 1 flat horse race in England open to three-year-old thoroughbred colts and fillies. It is run at Epsom Downs Racecourse in Surrey over a distance of one mile, four furlongs and 10 yards and it is Britains richest horse race, and the most prestigious of the five Classics. It is sometimes referred to as the Blue Riband of the turf, the race serves as the middle leg of the Triple Crown, preceded by the 2000 Guineas and followed by the St Leger, although the feat of winning all three is now rarely attempted. The name Derby has become synonymous with great races all over the world, however, the Epsom Derby is the original. It is one of Britains great national sporting events and has a large worldwide TV audience, in Great Britain the name Derby is pronounced /ˈdɑːrbi/, while in the United States it is /ˈdɜːrbi/, a case of spelling pronunciation. The Derby originated at a following the first running of the Oaks Stakes in 1779. A new race was planned, and it was decided that it should be named either the host of the party. According to legend the decision was made by the toss of a coin, but it is probable that Bunbury, the inaugural running of the Derby was held on Thursday 4 May 1780. It was won by Diomed, a colt owned by Sir Charles Bunbury, the first four runnings were contested over 1 mile, but this was amended to the current distance of 1½ miles in 1784. Lord Derby achieved his first success in the event in 1787, the starting point of the race was moved twice during the 19th century. The first move, suggested by Lord George Bentinck, was in 1848, and it was discovered in 1991 that the exact length of the race was one mile, four furlongs and 10 yards. Initially, the Derby was run on a Thursday in late May or early June depending on when Easter occurred, in 1838 the race was moved to a Wednesday to fit in with the railways timetables but was still run on different dates depending on Easter. In 1995 the day was changed from the first Wednesday in June to the first Saturday, the Derby has been run at Epsom in all years except during the world wars. From 1915 to 1918 and from 1940 to 1945 the Derby was run at Newmarket and these races are known as the New Derby. The Derby has inspired similar events around the world. European variations include the Derby Italiano, the Deutsches Derby, the Irish Derby, other national equivalents include the Australian Derby, the New Zealand Derby and the Tokyo Yūshun. Several races in the United States include the Derby name, including the Kentucky Derby, investec became the sponsor of the Derby in 2009, and the current sponsorship deal runs until 2022. The race was backed by Ever Ready and Vodafone
16.
Emily Davison
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Emily Wilding Davison was a suffragette who fought for womens suffrage in Britain in the early 20th century. She was known for extreme tactics that resulted in her arrest on nine occasions and she protested by means of hunger strikes, and was force-fed 49 times while incarcerated. The hunger strike was a common tactic among suffragettes as was force-feeding by British penal authorities in response. In her most famous moment of protest, Davison stepped in front of King George Vs horse Anmer at the Epsom Derby on 4 June 1913 and her funeral on 14 June 1913 was organised by the Womens Social and Political Union. Thousands of suffragettes accompanied the coffin and tens of thousands of people lined the streets of London, after a service in Bloomsbury, her coffin was taken by train to the family plot in Morpeth, Northumberland. Davison was born in Blackheath, South East London, to Charles Davison and she had two sisters and a brother, as well as several step-siblings from her fathers first marriage. She later attended Kensington High School and won a bursary to Royal Holloway College in 1891 to study literature, however, she was forced to drop out in January 1892 because her father died and her mother could not afford the fees of £20 a term. Later, she was able to enroll at St. Hughs College and she obtained first-class honours in her final exams at St. Hughs, but women were not allowed to graduate from Oxford at that time. After her time at university, Davison found positions teaching the children of families in Berkshire and Spratton, in 1906, Davison joined the Womens Social and Political Union. Formed in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst, the WSPU brought together those who thought that militant, in 1908, Davison left her teaching post to dedicate herself completely to the movement. The same year, she entered the University of London examinations as a candidate for a degree in Modern Foreign Languages. Davison soon gained a reputation as a militant and violent campaigner, on her own initiative and without the approval of the WSPU, she went from disrupting meetings to stone throwing and arson. On 2 April 1911, the night of the 1911 census, Davison hid in a cupboard in St Mary Undercroft and she remained in the cupboard during the census so that she could legitimately list her place of residence as the House of Commons on the census form. Census documents from the year 1911 state that Emily Wilding Davison was found hiding in the crypt in the Houses of Parliament, in 1990, British politician Tony Benn placed a plaque in the very cupboard that she had hid in to commemorate the event. Though this incident has been cited as an indication of suicidal tendencies in Davison. As a result, she suffered severe head and spinal damage, on 4 June 1913, Davison attended the Epsom Derby. While the race was underway and the horses passed the stretch of track where she was located, Davison ducked under the railing, after several other horses passed her, she stood with hands raised in the path of the horse owned by King George V, Anmer. The Kings horse hit her at speed, she was thrown violently through the air
17.
Morris Oxford bullnose
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The bullnose Morris Oxford is a series of motor car models that was produced by Morris of the United Kingdom, from 1913 to 1926. Named by W R Morris after the city of dreaming spires, the university town in which he grew up, william Morriss first car was called Oxford in recognition of its home city. It was announced in The Autocar magazine in October 1912 and production began in March 1913, because he had a limited amount of capital and was unwilling to share ownership of his business little was made in-house. Virtually all components were bought-in and assembled by Morris and it was a small car with a 1018 cc four-cylinder side-valve engine with fixed cylinder head from White & Poppe. Ignition was by a Bosch magneto, the chassis made by Rubery Owen was of pressed-steel construction and suspension was by leaf springs, semi-elliptic at the front and longer three-quarter elliptic at the rear slung above the axle. The welded single piece banjo rear axle with splined half shafts was driven by a Wrigley Worm, the front axle was of forged steel and, like the back axle assembly and the steering, was made by Wrigley. The brakes, on the wheels only, were the external contracting type, metal to metal. A White & Poppe three-forward and reverse gearbox was fitted, the Powell & Hanmer headlamps were acetylene and the side and tail lamps oil. The windscreen, by Auster Limited of Barford Street, Birmingham, the car got its popular name, Bullnose, from its distinctive round-topped radiator at first called the bullet nose. Most bodies, made by Raworth of Oxford, were of the two-seat open-tourer type, there was also a van version, but the chassis did not allow four-seat bodies to be fitted, as it was not strong enough and too short. It was first displayed at the Olympia Motor Show which opened 7 November 1913, the standard model remained in production unchanged. The new de luxe had a longer wheelbase,90 in and its front axle and steering had been re-designed to reduce bump-steerand its radiator capacity increased. Grooved tyres were now supplied at the rear, the banjo back axle was no longer welded but built up from three pieces and its springs were now slung below it. The suggestion was to have British firms co-operate producing a part or parts of the complete mechanism later assembled. The Morris-Oxford Light Car, it was explained to readers, was produced on a similar principle, the engine clutch and gearbox were from the works of White & Poppe, the rear axle and the rest of the transmission from Wrigleys. Of his trial The Timess correspondent reported happy results, everything was characterised by extreme up-to-dateness and the vehicle lacked scarcely any amenity of the largest and most expensive car. When the throttle is opened the engine gives better acceleration than might be expected speed, the car pulled up swiftly, completely free of harshness accelerator pedal, controls the engine speed. Windscreen brackets support the lamps and anchor the hood straps equipment,2 acetylene head lights,3 oil lamps, horn, pump, jack, tools
18.
British Board of Film Classification
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It has a statutory requirement to classify videos, DVDs and, to a lesser extent, some video games under the Video Recordings Act 2010. The immediate impetus for the Boards formation stemmed from the surrounding the release in the UK in October 1912 of the film From the Manger to the Cross. The film, shown at the Queens Hall, London, gained considerable publicity from an outcry in the Daily Mail. And waxed indignant about the profits for its American film producers, although the clergy were invited to see it and found little to be affronted by, the controversy resulted in the voluntary creation of the BBFC, which began operating on 1 January 1913. The Boards legal basis was the Cinematograph Act 1909, which required cinemas to have licences from local authorities. Given that the law now allowed councils to grant or refuse licences to cinemas according to the content of the films they showed, the 1909 Act therefore enabled the introduction of censorship. The Boards offices were originally at 133-135 Oxford Street, London, the building is located at the junction of Wardour Street, some decisions from the early years are now subjected to derision. Informal links, to varying degrees of closeness, have been maintained between the BBFC and the Government throughout the Boards existence, in the period before the Second World War, an extensive but unofficial system of political censorship was implemented by the BBFC for the Home Office. This trend reached its climax during the 1930s, following protests from the German Embassy after the release of a film depicting the execution of Edith Cavell, intense political pressure was brought to bear on the BBFC by the Home Office. A system of script vetting was introduced, whereby British studios were invited to submit screenplays to the BBFC before shooting started. The increasing climate of post-war liberalism ensured that from the 1950s onwards, controversies involving the BBFC centred more on depictions of sex, in 1984 the organisation changed its name to reflect the fact that classification plays a far larger part in the Boards work than censorship. At that time it was responsibility for classifying videos for hire or purchase to view in the home as well as films shown in cinemas. The horror in both came through largely in their detailed prose. Had the game publishers reprinted the text in book form, it would not have carried a certificate. The first video game to be refused classification by the BBFC was Carmageddon in 1997, in June 2007, Manhunt 2 was refused classification in both its PlayStation 2 and Wii versions, meaning that the game was illegal to sell or supply. A modified version was made that was accepted by the ESRB but was refused classification from the BBFC. The second decision was overturned by the Video Appeals Committee. On 16 June 2009, the UKs Department of Culture, Media and Sport ruled in favour of the PEGI system to be the classification system for videogames
19.
Edward Carson
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Edward Henry Carson, Baron Carson, PC, PC, KC, from 1900 to 1921 known as Sir Edward Carson, was an Irish unionist politician, barrister and judge. He was leader of the Irish Unionist Alliance and Ulster Unionist Party between 1910 and 1921, held positions in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and served as a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. He was one of the few people not a monarch to receive a British state funeral, Edward Carson was born at 4 Harcourt Street, in Dublin, into a wealthy Anglican family, His father was an architect. The Carsons were of Scottish origin, Edwards grandfather having originally moved to Dublin from Dumfries in 1815, Carsons mother was Isabella Lambert, the daughter of Captain Peter Lambert, part of an old Anglo-Irish family, the Lamberts of Castle Ellen, County Galway. Carson spent holidays at Castle Ellen, which was owned by his uncle and he was one of six children. Edward was educated at Portarlington School, Wesley College, Dublin and Trinity College, Dublin and he also played with the college hurling team. He later received a doctorate from the University of Dublin in June 1901. In 1877 Carson was called to the Irish Bar at Kings Inns and he gained a reputation for fearsome advocacy and supreme legal ability and became regarded as a brilliant barrister, one of the leading ones in Ireland at the time. He was also a master of the appeal to the jury by his legal wit. He was appointed Queens Counsel in 1889, in 1895, he was engaged by the Marquess of Queensberry to lead his defence against Oscar Wildes action for criminal libel. Wilde retaliated with an action, as homosexuality was, at the time. Kevin Myers states that Carsons initial response was to refuse to take the case, later, he discovered that Queensberry had been telling the truth about Wildes activity and was therefore not guilty of the libel of which Wilde accused him. He impugned Wildes works as morally repugnant and designed to corrupt the upbringing of the youth, Queensberry spent a considerable amount of money on private detectives who investigated Wildes activity in the London underworld of homosexual clubs and procurers. Wilde was bankrupted when he was ordered to pay the considerable legal. Based on the evidence of Queensberrys detectives and Carsons cross-examinations of Wilde at the trial and he was eventually found guilty and sentenced to two years hard labour, after which he moved to France, where he died penniless. In 1908 Carson appeared for the London Evening Standard in an action brought by George Cadbury. The Standard was controlled by Unionist interests which supported Joseph Chamberlains Imperial Preference views, the Cadbury family were Liberal supporters of free trade and had, in 1901, purchased The Daily News. The Standard articles alleged that Cadbury Bros Ltd, the Standard alleged that the Cadbury family knew that the reason cocoa from São Tomé was cheaper was because it was grown by slave labour
20.
Ulster Volunteer Force
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The Ulster Volunteer Force is an Ulster loyalist paramilitary group in Northern Ireland. It emerged in 1966 and is named after the original UVF of the early 20th century and its first leader was Gusty Spence, a former British soldier. The group undertook a campaign of almost thirty years during the Troubles. It declared a ceasefire in 1994 and officially ended its campaign in 2007, although some of its members have continued to engage in violence, the group is classified as a terrorist organisation by the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland and United States. The UVFs declared goals were to combat Irish republicanism – particularly the Irish Republican Army – and it was responsible for more than 500 deaths. The vast majority of its victims were Irish Catholic civilians, who were killed at random. During the conflict, its deadliest attack in Northern Ireland was the 1971 McGurks Bar bombing, the group also carried out attacks in the Republic of Ireland from 1969 onward. The biggest of these was the 1974 Dublin and Monaghan bombings, the no-warning car bombings had been carried out by units from the Belfast and Mid-Ulster brigades. Two UVF men were blown up in this poorly planned attack. The UVFs last major attack was the 1994 Loughinisland massacre, in which its members shot dead six Catholic civilians in a rural pub, until recent years, it was noted for secrecy and a policy of limited, selective membership. The other main loyalist paramilitary group during the conflict was the Ulster Defence Association, since the ceasefire, the UVF has been involved in rioting, organised crime, vigilantism and feuds with other loyalist groups. Some members have also found responsible for orchestrating a series of racist attacks. The UVFs stated goal was to combat Irish republicanism – particularly the Provisional Irish Republican Army –, the vast majority of its victims were Irish Catholic civilians, who were often killed at random. Whenever it claimed responsibility for its attacks, the UVF usually claimed that those targeted were IRA members or were giving help to the IRA. Other times, attacks on Catholic civilians were claimed as retaliation for IRA actions, many retaliatory attacks on Catholics were claimed using the covername Protestant Action Force, which first appeared in autumn 1974. They always signed their statements with the fictitious name Captain William Johnston, like the Ulster Defence Association, the UVFs modus operandi involved assassinations, mass shootings, bombings and kidnappings. It used sub machine-guns, assault rifles, pistols, grenades, incendiary bombs, booby trap bombs, referring to its activity in the early and mid-1970s, journalist Ed Moloney described no-warning pub bombings as the UVFs forte. Members were trained in bomb-making and it developed home-made explosives, however, from 1977 bombs largely disappeared from the UVFs arsenal owing to a lack of explosives and bomb-makers, plus a conscious decision to abandon their use in favour of more contained methods
21.
Ulster loyalism
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Ulster loyalism is a political ideology found primarily among working class Ulster Protestants in Northern Ireland, whose status as a part of the United Kingdom has remained controversial. Most Ulster Protestants are descendants of settlers from Great Britain in the 17th and 18th centuries, like unionists, loyalists are attached to the British monarchy, support the continued existence of Northern Ireland, and oppose a united Ireland. Ulster loyalism has been described as a kind of ethnic nationalism and it is strongly associated with paramilitarism. Ulster loyalism emerged in the late 19th century, as a response to the Irish Home Rule movement, although most of Ireland was Catholic, in the province of Ulster, Protestants were the majority. Ulster was also more industrialized than other parts of Ireland and was dependent on trade with Britain. Loyalism began as a movement among Ulster Protestants who did not want to become part of an autonomous Ireland. While some Irish Catholics were also unionist, loyalism emphasized a Protestant, loyalists often use Ulster as an alternative name for Northern Ireland. Since partition, most loyalists have supported upholding Northern Irelands status as a part of the United Kingdom, i. e. unionism. Historically, the terms unionist and loyalist were often used interchangeably, however, since the resurgence of loyalist paramilitarism in the 1960s, a distinction between the two is made more often. The term loyalist is now used to describe working class unionists who are willing to use, or tacitly support. Loyalists are also described as being loyal primarily to the Protestant British monarchy rather than to the British government, garret FitzGerald argued that loyalists are loyal primarily to Ulster rather than to the Union. A small minority of loyalists have called for an independent Ulster Protestant state, in Northern Ireland there is a long tradition of militaristic loyalist Protestant marching bands. There are hundreds of bands who hold numerous parades each year. The yearly Eleventh Night bonfires and The Twelfth parades are strongly associated with loyalism, the term loyalist was first used in Irish politics in the 1790s to refer to Protestants who opposed Catholic Emancipation and Irish independence from Great Britain. Upon the partition of Ireland in 1921, six of the nine counties in the province of Ulster didnt join the new independent Irish Free State and remained a part of the United Kingdom. Academically cited records from 1926 indicate that at that stage 33. 5% of the Northern Ireland population was Roman Catholic, tensions between Northern Irelands Catholic population and its Protestant population led to a long-running bloody conflict known as the Troubles from the late 1960s to the late 1990s. This includes the British National Front, the British Peoples Party, bigger and more moderate right-wing unionist parties like the Ulster Unionists or Democratic Unionists usually seek to distance themselves from loyalist paramilitary activity. Loyalist paramilitary and vigilante groups have been active since the early 20th century, in 1912, the Ulster Volunteers were formed to stop the British Government granting self-rule to Ireland, or to exclude Ulster from it
22.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
23.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
24.
Unemployment benefits
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Unemployment benefits are social welfare payments made by the state or other authorized bodies to unemployed people. Benefits may be based on a compulsory para-governmental insurance system, depending on the jurisdiction and the status of the person, those sums may be small, covering only basic needs, or may compensate the lost time proportionally to the previous earned salary. Unemployment benefits are generally only to those registering as unemployed. In some countries, a significant proportion of unemployment benefits are distributed by trade/labour unions, the first unemployment benefit scheme was introduced in the United Kingdom with the National Insurance Act 1911 under the Liberal Party government of H. H. Asquith. The popular measures were to combat the influence of the Labour Party among the countrys working-class population. The Act gave the British working classes a contributory system of insurance against illness and it only applied to wage earners, however, and their families and the unwaged had to rely on other sources of support, if any. Key figures in the implementation of the Act included Robert Laurie Morant, the scheme was based on actuarial principles and it was funded by a fixed amount each from workers, employers, and taxpayers. It was restricted to particular industries, particularly more volatile ones like shipbuilding, after one week of unemployment, the worker was eligible for receiving 7 shillings/week for up to 15 weeks in a year. By 1913,2.3 million were insured under the scheme for unemployment benefit, the Unemployment Insurance Act 1920 created the dole system of payments for unemployed workers. Unemployment benefits were introduced in Germany in 1927, and in most European countries in the period after the Second World War with the expansion of the welfare state, Unemployment insurance in the United States originated in Wisconsin in 1932. Through the Social Security Act of 1935, the government of the United States effectively encouraged the individual states to adopt unemployment insurance plans. In Australia, social security benefits, including unemployment benefits, are funded through the taxation system, there is no compulsory national unemployment insurance fund. Rather, benefits are funded in the annual Federal Budget by the National Treasury and are administrated and distributed throughout the nation by the government agency, Benefit rates are indexed to the Consumer Price Index and are adjusted twice a year according to inflation or deflation. There are two types of payment available to those experiencing unemployment, the first, called Youth Allowance, is paid to young people aged 16–20. Youth Allowance is also paid to students aged 16–24. For single people under 18 years of age living with a parent or parents the basic rate is A$91.60 per week, for over-18- to 20-year-olds living at home this increases to A$110.15 per week. For those aged 18–20 not living at home the rate is A$167.35 per week, there are special rates for those with partners and/or children. The second kind of payment is called Newstart Allowance and is paid to unemployed people over the age of 21, the rate of Newstart allowance as at the 12th January 2010 for single people without children is A$228 per week, paid fortnightly
25.
Parental leave
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Parental leave or family leave is an employee benefit available in almost all countries. The term parental leave generally includes maternity, paternity, and adoption leave, in some countries and jurisdictions, family leave also includes leave provided to care for ill family members. Often, the benefits and eligibility requirements are stipulated by law. Unpaid parental or family leave is provided when an employer is required to hold a job while that employee is taking leave. Paid parental or family leave provides paid time off work to care for or make arrangements for the welfare of a child or dependent family member. The three most common models of funding are social insurance/social security, employer liability, and mixed policies that both social security and employer liability. Parental leave has been available as a legal right and/or governmental program for many years, a different study showed that of 186 countries examined, 96% offered some pay to mothers during leave, but only 81 of those countries offered the same for fathers. The United States and Suriname, while they do mandate unpaid parental leave, are the other countries that do not require employers to provide paid time off for new parents. Private employers sometimes provide either or both unpaid and paid parental leave outside of or in addition to any legal mandate, nussbaum proposed 10 central capabilities as the minimum requirement for a decent society. In Nussbaums model, states should provide the resources and freedoms to ensure people have the opportunity to achieve a threshold of each central capability. Whether parental leave contributes to gender equality depends upon whether laws consider a child to be the responsibility of parents and whether the leave is equal as to the sexes. Similarly, a 2015 study by Rønsen & Kitterød found that part of the effect of Norwegian parental leave policy contributed to, a more equal division of paid and unpaid work among parents. The advancement of equality has also been on the political agenda of Nordic countries for decades. Although, all Nordic countries have extended the total leave period, Iceland, Norway and Sweden have established equal 3 months quotas for the father. The only Nordic country that does not provide fathers with a quota is Denmark, however, the dual earner/dual care model seems to be the direction of all the Nordic countries are moving in the construction of their parental leave systems. Paid parental leave incentivizes labor market attachment for women both before and after birth, affecting GDP and national productivity, as the workforce is larger, parental leave increases income at the household level, as well, by supporting dual-earner families. Paid parental leave incentivizes childbirth, which affects the future workforce, the neoclassical model of labor markets predicts that if the cost of hiring women of child-bearing years is anticipated to increase, then the demand for women in the labor market will decrease. While gender discrimination is illegal, without some kind of remedy, women may seek out employment sectors that are family-friendly, resulting in occupational sex segregation
26.
House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
27.
Government of Ireland Act 1914
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It was the third such bill introduced by a Liberal government in a 28-year period in response to the Irish Home Rule movement. The Act was the first law passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom that sought to establish a devolved government in any part of the UK. However, the implementation of both it and the equally controversial Welsh Church Act 1914 was formally postponed for a minimum of twelve months with the outbreak of the First World War, in 1909, a constitutional crisis arose when the House of Lords rejected David Lloyd Georges Finance Bill. The Irish Party, which had campaigned for home rule for Ireland since the 1870s, the Parliament Act 1911 replaced the unlimited veto of the Lords with one lasting only two years, ensuring that a bill passed by the Commons could not be blocked for more than two years. The Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, introduced the Bill on 11 April 1912, the abolition of Dublin Castle administration, though with the retention of the Lord Lieutenant. The financial situation was a concern, Irish taxes had yielded a surplus of £2 million in 1893, that had turned into a current spending net deficit of £1. 5m by 1910 that had to be raised by London. An annual Transferred Sum mechanism was proposed to maintain spending in Ireland as it was, the Bill was passed by the Commons by a majority of 10 votes in 1912 but the House of Lords rejected it 326 votes to 69 in January 1913. In 1913 it was reintroduced and again passed by the Commons but was rejected by the Lords by 302 votes to 64. In 1914 after the reading, the Bill was passed by the Commons on 25 May 1914 by a majority of 77. Having been defeated a third time in the Lords, the Government used the provisions of the Parliament Act to override the Lords, Unionists in Ulster were opposed to a home-rule Ireland governed from Dublin. Early in 1912, they began forming local militias. By April 1912, the Irish Unionist leader, Sir Edward Carson, on 28 September 1912, over 500,000 Unionists signed the Ulster Covenant pledging to defy Home Rule by all means possible. The Covenant was drawn up by Carson and organised by Sir James Craig, at the Bills third reading in the Commons on 21 May 1914 several members asked about a proposal to exclude the whole of Ulster for six years. Asquith was seeking any solution that would avoid a civil war and you have never tried to understand her position. You have never alleged, and you cannot allege, that this Bill gives her one atom of advantage, a government amending bill was introduced in the House of Lords on 23 June 1914 and passed there with amendments on 8 July. Carson and the Irish Unionist Party backed the bill, which envisaged temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the future Act. The Lords amendments to the bill were unacceptable to the government. What was still to be negotiated were the number of counties excluded, the compromise proposed by Asquith was straightforward
28.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
29.
Robert Falcon Scott
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On the first expedition, he set a new southern record by marching to latitude 82°S and discovered the Polar Plateau, on which the South Pole is located. During the second venture, Scott led a party of five which reached the South Pole on 17 January 1912, on their return journey, Scotts party discovered plant fossils, proving Antarctica was once forested and joined to other continents. Before his appointment to lead the Discovery Expedition, Scott had followed the career of an officer in the Royal Navy. Having taken this step, his name became associated with the Antarctic. Following the news of his death, Scott became a celebrated hero, in the closing decades of the 20th century, Scott became a figure of controversy, with questions raised about his competence and character. Scott was born on 6 June 1868, the child out of six and elder son of John Edward and Hannah Scott of Stoke Damerel. Scotts father was a brewer and magistrate, there were also naval and military traditions in the family, Scotts grandfather and four uncles all having served in the army or navy. John Scotts prosperity came from the ownership of a small Plymouth brewery which he inherited from his father, Robert Falcon Scotts early childhood years were spent in comfort, but some years later, when he was establishing his naval career, the family would suffer serious financial misfortune. In accordance with the tradition, Robert and his younger brother Archie were predestined for careers in the armed services. Having passed these exams Scott began his career in 1881. In July 1883, Scott passed out of Britannia as a midshipman, by October, he was en route to South Africa to join HMS Boadicea, the flagship of the Cape squadron, the first of several ships on which he served during his midshipman years. On this occasion,1 March 1887, Markham observed Midshipman Scotts cutter winning that race across the bay. Markhams habit was to collect likely young naval officers with a view to their undertaking polar exploration work in the future and he was impressed by Scotts intelligence, enthusiasm and charm, and the 18-year-old midshipman was duly noted. In March 1888 Scott passed his examinations for sub-lieutenant, with four first class out of five. His career progressed smoothly, with service on ships and promotion to lieutenant in 1889. In 1891, after a spell in foreign waters, he applied for the two-year torpedo training course on HMS Vernon. He graduated with first class certificates in both the theory and practical examinations, a small blot occurred in the summer of 1893 when, while commanding a torpedo boat, Scott ran it aground, a mishap which earned him a mild rebuke. According to Huntford, Scott disappears from records for eight months
30.
Barry Jackson (director)
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Sir Barry Vincent Jackson, was an English theatre director, entrepreneur and the founder of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre and, alongside George Bernard Shaw, the Malvern Festival. Jackson was born on 6 September 1879 in Kings Norton, Worcestershire into a wealthy merchant grocers family and his father, George Jackson was a prominent businessman who had always held a passion for the theatre and so named his son in admiration of actor Barry Sullivan. From a young age, Jackson was exposed to the theatre and to the arts, from school where he was educated, to regularly attending the theatre, opera. The young Jackson saw his first Shakespeare production, The Taming of the Shrew, in his teenage years, he travelled around Europe, visiting Greece and Italy, living in Geneva for eighteen months where he studied French and learnt to paint. He desired to become an artist, but his father persuaded him to take a job in the office of Frank Osborn in Birmingham. His time there did now inspire him creativity, as he had turned his focus to writing and performing plays with a group of his friends. Along with his friends they christened the company, The Pilgrim Players and this was to be the amateur foundations for the future Birmingham Repertory Theatre Company. Their first public appearance took place on 2 October 1907 at the Mission Hall in Inge Street, the following year performances moved to the Edgbaston Assembly Rooms. The company was gaining in reputation and popularity in the city. Jackson was confident in the potential that the company possessed. He employed Drinkwater as the company Secretary from 1909, and from 1911, at the start of 1912, Barry Jackson began to identify and develop plans to build a permanent theatre for the expanding company. He had clear ideas about the design which he discussed with the architect S. N. Cooke, Jackson had an exceptional eye for young talent, later employing many young actors who later went on to become stars in their own right. Some of the names included, Laurence Olivier, Peggy Ashcroft, Edith Evans, Stewart Granger. He toured plays to the parks, established a theatre school. As the theatres reputation grew more talent was to develop on its stage with the likes of Paul Scofield, Julie Christie, Albert Finney, Peter Brook directed at the Rep just after World War II and transferred with Sir Barry and Paul Scofield to Stratford. As well as being the founder and Governing Director of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre, from 1929, he gave his support to the Montreal Repertory Theatre and worked closely with Martha Allan promoting Canadian theatre. From 1933, the Sir Barry Jackson Trophy was awarded to the best Canadian play staged at the Dominion Drama Festival, Sir Barry returned to Birmingham Repertory Theatre in 1948, but retired from running the company. The now knighted, Jackson purchased a home at Blackhill in the Malverns in 1929, from 1929–1937, he joined forces with the Malvern Theatre manager, Roy Limbert to put on an annual summer festival
31.
Birmingham Repertory Theatre
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Birmingham Repertory Theatre, commonly called Birmingham Rep or just The Rep, is a producing theatre based on Centenary Square in Birmingham, England. It is the longest-established of Britains building-based theatre companies and one of its most consistently innovative, the company retains its commitment to new writing and in the five years to 2013 commissioned and produced 130 new plays. Their success and reputation led them to professional and rename themselves the Birmingham Repertory Company in 1911. By September 1912 Jackson had bought a site in Station Street in Birmingham City Centre, construction started the following month and the building – now the Old Rep – opened with a production of Twelfth Night only four months later, on 15 February 1913. The Reps stated mission was to enlarge and increase the sense of the public. There had been earlier repertory theatres in Manchester, Glasgow and Liverpool, the Rep developed its reputation with a series of artistic achievements whose effects would be felt far beyond Birmingham. John Drinkwater had been one of the members of the Pilgrim Players and was employed as the Reps first manager when it opened in 1913. Of longest-lasting influence however was the production of Cymbeline that opened in Birmingham in April 1923 and this was the first performance of Shakespeare to take place in modern dress and it bewildered critics, leading to what Jackson happily called a national and worldwide controversy. The company also came to be recognised as the leading training ground for actors and actresses who would later establish themselves as stars in London. John Gielguds performance as Romeo with the company in 1924 was his first major role, peggy Ashcroft made her professional debut with Birmingham seasons in 1926 and 1927. By the late 1920s Jackson occupied a central and commanding role in high-brow British theatre with Birmingham the nerve-centre of his activities, at least one production was presented in London every year from 1919 to 1935. Jackson single-handedly financed the theatre for two decades, personally losing over £100,000. A fundraising appeal in 1934 raised only £3,000 of its £20,000 target, however, although this relieved Jackson of financial responsibility for the company, he would retain full artistic control until his death in 1961. The Reps radical reputation attracted young talent, actors who first rose to prominence at the pre-war Rep included Laurence Olivier, Cedric Hardwicke, Gwen Ffrangcon-Davies, Edith Evans, Stewart Granger and Ralph Richardson. All British theatres were closed for the first month of the war, the director Peter Brook launched his career at the Rep in 1945 and directed three plays with Paul Scofield in 1945. Other post war actors included Stanley Baker, Albert Finney, Ian Richardson, Julie Christie, sir Barry Jackson remained managing director of the theatre until his death in 1961. The building itself won a Royal Institute of British Architects award in 1972, in 1972, the Studio opened, it became an example of innovative theatre nationwide. It targeted young audiences and showcased new writing, including the premiere of Death Story by David Edgar
32.
Suffragette
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Suffragettes were members of womens organizations in the late-19th and early-20th centuries which advocated the extension of the franchise, or the right to vote in public elections, to women. It particularly refers to militants in the United Kingdom such as members of the Womens Social and Political Union, suffragist is a more general term for members of the suffrage movement. The term suffragette is particularly associated with activists in the British WSPU, led by Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst, Women in South Australia achieved the same right and became the first to obtain the right to stand for parliament in 1895. Women in Britain over the age of 30, meeting certain property qualifications, were given the right to vote in 1918, opinion amongst historians today is divided as to whether the militant tactics of the suffragettes helped or hindered their cause. British suffragettes were mostly women from upper and middle-class backgrounds, frustrated by their social, mill introduced the idea of womens suffrage on the platform he presented to the British electorate in 1865. He was subsequently joined by men and women fighting for the same cause. The term suffragette was first used as a term of derision by the journalist Charles E, hands in the London Daily Mail to describe activists in the movement for womens suffrage, in particular members of the Womens Social and Political Union. But the women he intended to ridicule embraced the term saying suffraGETtes implied not only that they wanted the vote, the National Union of Womens Suffrage Societies, founded in 1897, was formed from local suffrage societies. The union was led by Millicent Fawcett, who believed in constitutional campaigning, issuing leaflets, organising meetings and presenting petitions, in 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst founded a new organisation, the Womens Social and Political Union. She thought the movement would have to become radical and militant if it was going to be effective, the Daily Mail gave them the name Suffragettes. Some radical techniques used by the suffragettes, especially hunger strikes, were learned from Russian exiles from tsarism who had escaped to England, many suffragists at the time, and most historians since, have argued that the actions of the militant suffragettes damaged their cause. Opponents at the time saw evidence that women were too emotional, from 1909, the Pank-A-Squith board game was sold by the WSPU to raise awareness of their campaign and raise money. The name is derived from Pankhurst the surname of the leaders of the WSPU, and Asquith, the surname of the Prime Minister at the time and a largely hated figure by the movement. The Peoples History Museum in Manchester has a Pank-A-Squith board game on display in the main galleries, one suffragette, Emily Davison, died under the Kings horse Anmer at the Epsom Derby of 4 June 1913. It is debated whether she was trying to pin a Votes for Women banner on the Kings horse or not, many of her fellow suffragettes were imprisoned and refused food as a scare tactic against the government. The Liberal government of the day led by Asquith responded with the Cat, another prominent British Suffragette, Sophia Duleep Singh was almost forgotten for 70 years. In the early-20th century until the First World War, approximately one thousand suffragettes were imprisoned in Britain, most early incarcerations were for public order offences and failure to pay outstanding fines. The first suffragettes to be imprisoned were Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney in October 1905 and this cause was taken up by the Womens Social and Political Union, a large organisation in Britain, that lobbied for womens suffrage led by militant suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst
33.
David Lloyd George
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David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, OM, PC was a British Liberal politician and statesman. As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lloyd George was a key figure in the introduction of reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government, during and he was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of the Central Powers. He made an impact on British public life than any other 20th-century leader. Furthermore, in foreign affairs he played a role in winning the First World War, redrawing the map of Europe at the peace conference. His main political problem was that he was not loyal to his Liberal party—he was always a political maverick, while he was Prime Minister he favoured the Conservatives in his coalition in the 1918 elections, leaving the Liberal party as a hopeless minority. He became leader of the Liberal Party in the late 1920s, by the 1930s he was a marginalised and widely mistrusted figure. He gave weak support to the Second World War amidst fears that he was favourable toward Germany, Lloyd George was born on 17 January 1863 in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, to Welsh parents, and was brought up as a Welsh-speaker. He is so far the only British Prime Minister to have been Welsh and his father, William George, had been a teacher in both London and Liverpool. He also taught in the Hope Street Sunday Schools, which were administered by the Unitarians, in March of the same year, on account of his failing health, William George returned with his family to his native Pembrokeshire. He took up farming but died in June 1864 of pneumonia, Lloyd George was educated at the local Anglican school Llanystumdwy National School and later under tutors. He added his uncles surname to become Lloyd George and his surname is usually given as Lloyd George and sometimes as George. The influence of his childhood showed through in his entire career, brought up a devout evangelical, as a young man he suddenly lost his religious faith. Biographer Don Cregier says he became a Deist and perhaps an agnostic, though he remained a chapel-goer and he kept quiet about that, however, and was hailed as one of the foremost fighting leaders of a fanatical Welsh Nonconformity. It was also during this period of his life that Lloyd George first became interested in the issue of land ownership, by the age of twenty-one, he had already read and taken notes on Henry Georges Progress and Poverty. This strongly influenced Lloyd Georges politics later in life through the Peoples Budget which heavily drew on the georgist tax reform ideas, the practice flourished, and he established branch offices in surrounding towns, taking his brother William into partnership in 1887. Although many Prime Ministers have been barristers, Lloyd George is to date the only solicitor to have held that office, by then he was politically active, having campaigned for the Liberal Party in the 1885 election, attracted by Joseph Chamberlains unauthorised programme of reforms. The election resulted firstly in a stalemate with neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives having a majority, William Gladstones proposal to bring about Irish Home Rule split the party, with Chamberlain eventually leading the breakaway Liberal Unionists
34.
Walton Heath Golf Club
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Walton Heath Golf Club is a golf club near Walton-on-the-Hill in Surrey, England, that was founded in 1903. The club comprises two 18-hole golf courses, both of which are known for having heather covering many of the areas of rough. The Old Course was the first to open in 1904, and has a length of 7,462 yards. The New Course was initially opened as a 9-hole course in 1907, but was extended to 18 holes, which were completed by 1913. Both the courses were designed by Herbert Fowler, who would design a number of other courses in both the United Kingdom and United States. The club has only ever had three club professionals, including five time British Open champion James Braid who held the post until 1950. Both courses at Walton Heath have been rated in the UKs top 100 courses. Walton Heath is the venue of a number of amateur tournaments. It has also hosted several high profile professional events including the 1981 Ryder Cup, the club also hosted five editions of the European Open, a European Tour event, between 1978 and 1991. Since 2005, Walton Heath has been the venue for the U. S. Open European qualifying tournament, in the first year, New Zealander Michael Campbell qualified at Walton Heath, and went on to win the Open at Pinehurst. Walton Heath hosted The Senior Open Championship, one of the five majors recognised by the Champions Tour, the event was eventually won by Russ Cochran Walton Heath Golf Club – official site
35.
Royal Flying Corps
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The Royal Flying Corps was the air arm of the British Army before and during the First World War, until it merged with the Royal Naval Air Service on 1 April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force. During the early part of the war, the RFC supported the British Army by artillery co-operation, at the start of World War I the RFC, commanded by Brigadier-General Sir David Henderson, consisted of five squadrons – one observation balloon squadron and four aeroplane squadrons. These were first used for spotting on 13 September 1914. Aerial photography was attempted during 1914, but again only became effective the next year, by 1918, photographic images could be taken from 15,000 feet and were interpreted by over 3,000 personnel. By this time parachutes had been used by balloonists for three years, on 17 August 1917, South African General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. On 1 April 1918, the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service, after starting in 1914 with some 2,073 personnel, by the start of 1919 the RAF had 4,000 combat aircraft and 114,000 personnel in some 150 squadrons. The recommendations of the committee were accepted and on 13 April 1912 King George V signed a royal warrant establishing the Royal Flying Corps, the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers became the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps a month later on 13 May. The Flying Corps initial allowed strength was 133 officers, and by the end of year it had 12 manned balloons and 36 aeroplanes. The RFC originally came under the responsibility of Brigadier-General Henderson, the Director of Military Training, and had branches for the Army. Major Sykes commanded the Military Wing and Commander C R Samson commanded the Naval Wing, the RFCs motto was Per ardua ad astra. This remains the motto of the Royal Air Force and other Commonwealth air forces, the RFCs first fatal crash was on 5 July 1912 near Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain. Loraine and his observer, Staff Sergeant R. H. V, an order was issued after the crash stating Flying will continue this evening as usual, thus beginning a tradition. Four months later on 11 December 1912 Parke was killed when the Handley Page monoplane in which he was flying from Hendon to Oxford crashed. The Naval Wing, with pilots and aircraft than the Military Wing. In November 1914 the Royal Flying Corps, even taking the loss of the Naval Wing into account, had expanded sufficiently to warrant the creation of wings consisting of two or more squadrons and these wings were commanded by lieutenant-colonels. In October 1915 the Royal Flying Corps had undergone further expansion which justified the creation of brigades, further expansion led to the creation of divisions, with the Training Division being established in August 1917 and RFC Middle East, being raised to divisional status in December 1917. Finally, the air raids on London and the south-east of England led to the creation of the London Air Defence Area in August 1917 under the command of Ashmore who was promoted to major-general. Two of the first three RFC squadrons were formed from the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers, No.1 Company becoming No.1 Squadron, RFC, a second heavier-than-air squadron, No.2 Squadron, RFC, was also formed on the same day
36.
Fixed-wing aircraft
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A fixed-wing aircraft is an aircraft, such as an aeroplane, which is capable of flight using wings that generate lift caused by the vehicles forward airspeed and the shape of the wings. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft, in which the form a rotor mounted on a spinning shaft. Glider fixed-wing aircraft, including free-flying gliders of various kinds and tethered kites, powered fixed-wing aircraft that gain forward thrust from an engine include powered paragliders, powered hang gliders and some ground effect vehicles. The wings of an aircraft are not necessarily rigid, kites, hang-gliders, variable-sweep wing aircraft. Most fixed-wing aircraft are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, kites were used approximately 2,800 years ago in China, where materials ideal for kite building were readily available. Some authors hold that leaf kites were being flown much earlier in what is now Indonesia, by at least 549 AD paper kites were being flown, as it was recorded in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources list other uses of kites for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations. Stories of kites were brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, although they were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries kites were being used as vehicles for scientific research. This machine may have been suspended for its flight, some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas and the 11th-century monk Eilmer of Malmesbury, both experiments injured their pilots. In 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. In 1884, the American John J. Montgomery made controlled flights in a glider as a part of a series of gliders built between 1883-1886, other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave Chanute. In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and his box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of aircraft engine, he did not create. Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, in 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off, the craft was uncontrollable, which Maxim, it is presumed, realized, because he subsequently abandoned work on it. By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods, the flight was certified by the FAI. This was the first controlled flight, to be officially recognised, the Bleriot VIII design of 1908 was an early aircraft design that had the modern monoplane tractor configuration
37.
RAF Montrose
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RAF Montrose was a Royal Air Force station in Forfarshire in Scotland. On 26 February 1913, it became the first operational military aerodrome to be established in the United Kingdom, in 1912, the British government planned twelve Air Stations operated by the Royal Flying Corps. On 13 February 1913 five aircraft of No.2 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps took off from RAF Farnborough under the command of Major C J Burke, the 450 miles journey north was completed in a series of stages over the following 13 days. The aircraft landed at Upper Dysart Farm on 26 February,3 miles south of Montrose, not considering the site ideal, after surveying the area Major Burke gained agreement to move the base to Broomfield Farm,1 mile north of the town. At the end of 1913 Army Engineers erected three hangars of Indian Army Shed design on the site, enabling the squadron to move there in New Year 1914, World War I started on 28 July 1914 and in August of that year No.2 squadron moved to France. The first pilot to land in France after the declaration of war was Lieutenant H. D, another of the squadrons’ pilots, 2nd Lt. W B Rhodes-Moorhouse became the first pilot to be awarded the Victoria Cross. Unfortunately it was awarded posthumously on 26 April 1915, No.2 squadron never returned to Montrose but as the war progressed several new ones were stationed there. Moved to France in February 1916 No.80 Squadron -1 September 1917, flying Sopwith Camel. Sent to France at the start of 1918 in a fighter role No.82 Reserve Squadron formed January 1917 No.83 Squadron -7 January 1917, flying the F. E. 2b as a bomber, and some FE2ds. Starting in 1924 the Major Burkes Sheds were again used, this time for the maintenance, in 1935 the British government decided to expand the RAF in the face of a growing threat from Germany and a key requirement was for more trained military pilots. RAF Montrose, virtually unchanged from the First World War, was re-opened on 1 January 1936 as No.8 Flying Training School. Between that date and the end of the Battle of Britain an estimated 800 pilots trained, many of the British WWII Fighter Aces were trained at Montrose. During World War II, many squadrons and the RNAS served at RAF Montrose. Commonwealth, Polish, Czech, American, Russian, Turkish, Free French, operational duties included serving as a location for the Spitfires and Hurricanes which formed part of the air defence for the city of Edinburgh. From August 1944 RAF Kinnell served as the satellite for No.2 Fighter Interception Squadron until July 1945. The station also flew missions to Norway for reconnaissance, supply drops for the Norwegian resistance movement. On 25 October 1940 three German Junkers Ju 88 aircraft dropped 24 bombs on the station killing five, injuring 18 and they and the pilots who died in local training accidents are buried in a Commonwealth War Graves Commission plot in the local church. Activity was minimal until the crisis in Hong Kong and the onset of the Korean War when the unit became very busy, RAF Montrose closed permanently on 4 June 1952
38.
Sea of Marmara
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The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Black Sea and the Dardanelles strait to the Aegean Sea. The former also separates Istanbul into its Asian and European sides, the sea has an area of 11,350 km² with the greatest depth reaching 1,370 m. The sea takes its name from the island of Marmara, which is rich in sources of marble, from the Greek μάρμαρον, marble. The seas ancient Greek name Propontis derives from pro- and pontos, deriving from the fact that the Greeks sailed through it to reach the Black Sea, Pontos. The surface salinity of the sea averages about 22 parts per thousand, which is greater than that of the Black Sea. The water is more saline at the sea bottom, averaging salinities of around 38 parts per thousand. This high-density saline water, like that of the Black Sea, water from the Susurluk, Biga and Gonen Rivers also reduces the salinity of the sea, though with less influence than on the Black Sea. With little land in Thrace draining southward, almost all of these rivers flow from Anatolia, the sea contains the archipelago of the Prince Islands and Marmara Island, Avşa and Paşalimanı. The south coast of the sea is heavily indented, and includes the Gulf of İzmit, the Gulf of Gemlik Gulf of Bandırma and the Gulf of Erdek. During a storm on December 29,1999, the Russian oil tanker Volgoneft broke in two in the Sea of Marmara, and more than 1,500 tonnes of oil were spilled into the water. The North Anatolian Fault, which has triggered many major earthquakes in recent years, such as the August and November 1999 earthquakes in Izmit and Düzce, respectively, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Sea of Marmara as follows, On the West. The Dardanelles limit of the Aegean Sea, a line joining Cape Rumili with Cape Anatoli
39.
Penal labour
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Penal labour is a generic term for various kinds of unfree labour which prisoners are required to perform, typically manual labour. The work may be light or hard, depending on the context, forms of sentence involving penal labour have included involuntary servitude, penal servitude and imprisonment with hard labour. The term may refer to several related scenarios, labour as a form of punishment, the system used as a means to secure labour. These scenarios can be applied to those imprisoned for political, religious, war, large-scale implementations of penal labour include labour camps, prison farms, penal colonies, penal military units, penal transportation, or aboard prison ships. Punitive labour, also known as labour, prison labour. Punitive labour encompasses two types, productive labour, such as work, and intrinsically pointless tasks used as primitive occupational therapy. Sometimes authorities turn prison labour into an industry, as on a farm or in a prison workshop. On the other hand, for example in Victorian prisons, inmates commonly were made to work the treadmill, in some cases, similar punishments included turning the crank machine or carrying cannonballs. Semi-punitive labour also included oakum-picking, teasing apart old tarry rope to make caulking material for sailing vessels, section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891 makes provision for enactments which authorise a sentence of penal servitude but do not specify a maximum duration. It must now be subject to section 1 of the Criminal Justice Act 1948. Sentences of penal servitude were served in prisons and were controlled by the Home Office. After sentencing, convicts would be classified according to the seriousness of the offence of which they were convicted, first time offenders would be classified in the Star class, persons not suitable for the Star class, but without serious convictions would be classified in the intermediate class. Habitual offenders would be classified in the Recidivist class, care was taken to ensure that convicts in one class did not mix with convicts in another. Penal servitude included hard labour as a standard feature, notable recipients of hard labour under British law include Oscar Wilde and John William Gott. In Inveraray Jail from 1839 prisoners worked up to ten hours a day, most male prisoners made herring nets or picked oakum, those with skills were often employed where the skills could be used, such as shoemaking, tailoring or joinery. Female prisoners picked oakum, knitted stockings or sewed, forms of labour for punishment included the treadmill, shot drill, and the crank machine. Prisoners had to six or more hours a day, climbing the equivalent of 5,000 to 14,000 vertical feet. While the purpose was mainly punitive, the mills could have used to grind grain, pump water
40.
Nevill Ground
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The Nevill Ground is a cricket venue located in Royal Tunbridge Wells, Kent, England. It is owned by Tunbridge Wells Borough Council and is used by Tunbridge Wells Cricket Club as well as annually for Tunbridge Wells Cricket Week by Kent County Cricket Club. It was opened in 1898 and was first used by Kent in 1901 and has been used by them annually since then, despite a suffragette arson attack that destroyed the pavilion in 1913. It played host to one One Day International during the 1983 Cricket World Cup, the Nevill Ground is known for having rhododendron bushes around the perimeter. The Nevill Ground was established in 1895 after the purchase of the land by the Tunbridge Wells Cricket, Football and Athletic Club and it was purchased on a 99-year lease from the Marquess of Abergavenny as the land was part of his Eridge Park estate. The Nevill Ground was named after William Nevill, 1st Marquess of Abergavenny, building of the grounds facilities started in 1896 with it being officially opened by the Marquess of Abergavenny in 1898. In the early 20th century, the county boundary between Kent and East Sussex ran through the Nevill Grounds pitch, rhododendron bushes were also planted in the Nevill Grounds early history. The rhododendrons around the pitch are considered by commentators as one of the defining images of the Nevill Ground. The end opposite the pavilion is known as the Railway End due to the Hastings Line running close by end of the ground. The first pavilion was designed by architect C. H. Strange and it was built in 1903 at a cost of £1,200 and was destroyed in a suffragette arson attack in April 1913. During the First World War, the Nevill Ground was requisitioned by the British army to graze cavalry horses and this damaged the pitch and it took a few years for it to recover. During the Second World War, the Nevill Ground was again requisitioned for military purposes, in 1946, ownership of the ground was transferred from the Tunbridge Wells Cricket, Football and Athletic Club to Tunbridge Wells Borough Council. In 1995, a permanent brick stand was built and became known as the Bluemantle Stand after the Bluemantle Cricket Club members who helped to build it, the Bluemantle Stand was built on the site of the original pavilion. Every Tunbridge Wells Cricket Week, Tunbridge Wells Borough Council erects a temporary grandstand at the Nevill Ground, on 11 April 1913, the cricket pavilion was burnt down by militant suffragettes due to Kent having a policy of no-admittance to women. The fire was started in the rooms with the perpetrator setting fire to cricket nets that were being stored in there. The fire was discovered by a passing lamplighter, the fire brigade extinguished the fire in an hour, too late to save the pavilion. In front of the remains of the pavilion, firemen found suffragette literature, an electric lantern, the fire also destroyed photographs of the first Canterbury Cricket Week and the Bluemantle Cricket Clubs archives. The attack may have been provoked by a comment from an unknown Kent official who is reported to have said It is not true that women are banned from the pavilion, who do you think makes the teas
41.
Cricket pavilion
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A cricket pavilion is a pavilion at a cricket ground. It is the building within which the players usually change in dressing rooms. Pavilions can vary from modest and purely practical buildings at small venues to large, the pavilions at Lords Cricket Ground and The Oval are typical of the Victorian architectural style often seen at most famous English grounds. The cricket pavilion in the University Parks at Oxford was designed by the leading Victorian architect Sir Thomas Graham Jackson, other famous historical pavilions are Old Trafford and the Members Pavilion at the Sydney Cricket Ground. Entry is only enabled for members and their seats are reserved by a member or player. A non-member is not entitled to enter the Members Pavilion due to the security present, amongst the most distinctive of modern pavilions is that named after Sir Garfield Sobers at the Kensington Oval in Barbados. Other modern pavilions are those at the Rose Bowl in England, dugouts or benches are generally used instead of pavilions in Twenty20 cricket. Andy Zs A to Z. cricinfo. com
42.
Royal Tunbridge Wells
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Royal Tunbridge Wells is a large affluent town in western Kent, England, about 40 miles south-east of central London by road,34.5 miles by rail. The town is close to the border of the county of East Sussex and it is situated at the northern edge of the High Weald, the sandstone geology of which is exemplified by the rock formations at the Wellington Rocks and High Rocks. Though its popularity waned with the advent of sea bathing, the town remains popular, the town has a population of around 56,500 and is the administrative centre of Tunbridge Wells Borough and the UK parliamentary constituency of Tunbridge Wells. The area which is now Tunbridge Wells was part of the parish of Speldhurst for hundreds of years, but the origin of the town as it is today, however, came in the seventeenth century. In 1606 Dudley, Lord North, a courtier to James I who was staying at a lodge in Eridge in the hope that the country air might improve his ailing constitution. He drank from the spring and, when his health improved and he persuaded his rich friends in London to try it, and by the time Queen Henrietta Maria, wife of King Charles I, visited in 1630 it had established itself as a spa retreat. Also in 1676 a subscription for a chapel of ease was opened, and in 1684 the Church of King Charles the Martyr was duly built and the town began to develop around it. Tradesmen in the town dealt in the luxury goods demanded by their patrons, which would certainly have included Tunbridge ware, a kind of decoratively inlaid woodwork. They have made the very commodious by the many good building all about it. All the people buy their own provisions at the market, which is just by the wells and is furnished with great plenty of all sorts of fish and fowl. and two rooms for the lottery and hazard board. He remained in position until his death in 1762. By the early nineteenth century Tunbridge Wells experienced growth as a place for the well-to-do to visit, during this time Decimus Burton developed John Wards Calverley Park estate. In 1889 the town was awarded the status of a Borough,1902 saw the opening of an Opera House, and in 1909 the town received its Royal prefix. The Second World War affected Tunbridge Wells in a different way—it became so swollen with refugees from London that accommodation was severely strained, over 3,800 buildings were damaged by bombing, but only 15 people lost their lives. Royal Tunbridge Wells is one of three towns in England to have been granted this. Although Wells has a form, it refers to the principal source. Royal Tunbridge Wells is the centre for both Tunbridge Wells Borough and the parliamentary constituency of Tunbridge Wells. The Borough is governed by 48 Councillors, representing 20 wards, elections are held for 16 Council seats each year on a rotational basis, with elections to Kent County Council taking place in the fourth year of the cycle
1913 in the United Kingdom 
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