1.
1915 New Orleans hurricane
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The New Orleans Hurricane of 1915 was an intense Category 4 hurricane that made landfall near Grand Isle, Louisiana during the 1915 Atlantic hurricane season. The storm formed in late September were it moved westward and peaked in intensity of 145 mph where it made landfall on September 29, the hurricane killed 275 people and caused $13 million in damage. The storm was first reported near the Lesser Antilles between Puerto Rico and South America, in the Caribbean, it strengthened to a 145 mph Category 4 hurricane on September 25. As the hurricane moved closer to the Gulf Coast, hurricane warnings were put up from Florida to Louisiana, the storm made landfall near Grand Isle, Louisiana on September 29 as a strong Category 4 hurricane with 145 mph sustained winds. The storm then moved north and weakened into a storm as it crossed into Mississippi, Alabama. The storm became extratropical as it moved north, in New Orleans winds of 50 miles per hour reached the city at 7am, climbing to 60 miles an hour over the next 5 hours. Hurricane conditions were experienced from the afternoon into the night, with winds of 102 mph. There were reports of damage in New Orleans, with roofs blown off buildings, the clock on St. Louis Cathedral stopped at 5, 50pm, the height of the storm. The hurricane damaged the Times-Picayune building, hampering newspaper production, more church steeples in the city were blown down or significantly damaged than remained intact. The landmark Presbyterian Church on Lafayette Square collapsed, as did St. Annas Episcopal Church on Esplanade Avenue, half the rides at Spanish Fort were destroyed. Horticultural Hall in Audubon Park was destroyed, after power to drainage pumps failed, parts of the Mid-City neighborhood suffered significant flooding. Only 21 of the deaths were within the city. A 13-foot storm surge rolled into St. Bernard Parish, the Rigolets, areas along the Lower Coast were hit even harder than the city. A telegraph report states the situation, Whole country between Poydras and Buras inundated, conditions estimated worse than ever before. There were 23 dead in Venice, Louisiana, with numbers in coastal towns of Frenier. Plaquemines Parish experienced the worst fatalities with deaths estimated at over 200, in Plaquemines Parish, there was severe flooding and miles of levees were washed away. Thousands of people were left homeless, the hurricane also wrecked many of the oyster boats, damaging the local economy. Some communities, including Breton Island and the town of Saint Malo were completely destroyed, though it was not as deadly as the 1893 Chenier Caminanda hurricane, this hurricane was the deadliest Louisiana hurricane until Betsy 50 years later
2.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
3.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
4.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
5.
Atlantic hurricane
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An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the summer or fall. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity, Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph, while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30, in recent times, tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list. On average, in the North Atlantic basin 11.3 named storms occur each season, the climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season. In March 2004, Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones are steered by the flow throughout the depth of the troposphere. Specifically, air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks, south of the subtropical ridge, surface easterly winds prevail. If the subtropical ridge is weakened by a trough, a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve. Poleward of the ridge, westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east. The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east, generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storms maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure, in terms of wind speed, Hurricane Allen was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph. However, these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity, nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes. Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification, Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar, a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones, however, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar, is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane, since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land. However, with a pressure of 895 mbar, Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico
6.
1913 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1913 Atlantic hurricane season was the third consecutive year with a tropical cyclone developing before June. Although no hurricane season was defined at the time, the delineation of such is June 1 to November 30. The first system, a depression, developed on May 5 while the last transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 30. Of note, the seventh and eighth cyclones existed simultaneously from August 30 to September 4, of the seasons ten tropical cyclones, six became tropical storms and four strengthened into hurricanes. Furthermore, none of these strengthened into a major hurricane—Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale—marking the sixth such occurrence since 1900, the strongest hurricane of the season peaked as only a Category 1 with winds of 85 mph. That system left five deaths and at least $4 million in damage in North Carolina, the first hurricane of the season also caused one fatality in Texas, while damage in South Carolina from the fifth hurricane reached at least $75,000. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 36 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. Weather maps and ship data indicate the development of a depression in the southwestern Caribbean Sea around 06,00 UTC on June 21. Moving north-northwestward, the accelerated and intensified into a tropical storm on the following day. Early on June 23, the storm made landfall near the Honduras–Nicaragua border with winds of 40 mph, thereafter, it continued north-northwestward and oscillated slightly in strength. The system made landfall near Cancún, Quintana Roo, with winds of 45 mph late on June 25. After briefly crossing the Yucatan Peninsula, the cyclone emerged into the Gulf of Mexico, early on June 27, it deepened into a Category 1 hurricane and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph. The hurricane then curved northwestward and made landfall in Padre Island, Texas, after moving inland, the storm quickly weakened and dissipated over Val Verde County just under 24 hours later. Impact in Central America and Mexico is unknown, the storm brought heavy rainfall to portions of South Texas. At Montell,20.6 in of precipitation fell in about 19 hours, the resultant flooding caused considerable damage to lowlands, houses, and stock. Additionally, communication by telegraph and telephone were cut-off for several days, strong winds were also reported, with winds of 100 mph over Central Padre Island. Along the coast, storm surge peaked at 12.7 ft in Galveston, a low pressure area detached from a stationary front and developed into a tropical depression on August 14 while located about 185 mi west-southwest of Bermuda. The depression moved northeastward and intensified into a tropical storm on August 15
7.
1914 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1914 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record, with only one known tropical storm. Although hurricane season typically encompasses a much larger time-span, actual activity was confined to the middle of September, the only tropical cyclone of the year developed in the region of The Bahamas on September 15 and drifted northwestward, moving inland over Florida and Georgia. Thorough warnings before the storm prevented any major damage, the 1914 season is one of only two that did not produce any hurricanes. Due to the lack of technology, including satellite imagery, information is often sparse. With only one tropical cyclone, the 1914 season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record. It is one of only two Atlantic seasons without a storm of hurricane intensity, the other being the 1907 season, the sole tropical storms formation on September 14 represents the latest start to a hurricane season since officials records began in 1851. Information on the 1914 season is based on data from the Atlantic hurricane database. Several changes, mostly of a nature, were made to the September tropical storm. The other was assessed as a non-tropical system, the 2005 HURDAT reanalysis relied largely on historical weather maps and ship reports in place of modern technology, including satellite imagery. The first and only storm of the season originated in a westward-moving tropical wave denoted on weather maps from September 13. Decreases in air pressure occurred throughout the Bahamas, providing indications of a disturbance. The system became a depression at 00,00 UTC on September 15, approximately 200 mi east of Miami. It strengthened into a tropical storm about 12 hours later, leading to the issuance of warnings from the east coast of Florida to as far north as Hatteras. The system drifted northwest while gradually intensifying, and was situated south of the Georgia coast late on September 16 and it progressed inland over southern Georgia as it quickly weakened, but its intensity leveled off after around 18,00 UTC on September 17. The storm skirted the northern Gulf of Mexico as it swerved slightly south of due west, by early September 19, the depression had further deteriorated into an open trough—a poorly defined, elongated area of low pressure. The storm produced rainfall in the Southeastern United States, accompanied by gale-force winds along the coast. High tides occurred around St. Augustine, Florida, washing over the South Street Causeway, winds from the storm dispersed large amounts of dead grass from marshes in the area. No significant damage was reported due to thorough warnings before the cyclone, a 2005 reanalysis of the storm made some minor changes to its listing in the official hurricane database, setting back the time of formation and raising the peak intensity
8.
1916 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1916 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1916. The season is one of two in which two major hurricanes were reported before the month of August, the other being the 2005 season. 1916 was an active season, especially for the time. Fifteen tropical cyclones formed during the course of the year, ten hurricanes formed, and five of those were major hurricanes. On May 13, a depression formed south of the Cuban coast. It quickly crossed the island and moved over the Straits of Florida, on May 14, it slowly strengthened to a minimal tropical storm, and it made landfall near Key Vaca, Florida with winds of 40 mph. It entered the Florida peninsula near Cape Sable, moving northward across the state, gale-force winds were reported east of the center. It transitioned to a cyclone on May 16. Initially, the cyclone was not included in the Atlantic hurricane database, a tropical disturbance organized into a tropical storm on June 29 in the southwest Caribbean Sea. It moved to the north-northwest, brushing the coast of Honduras before strengthening into a hurricane on July 2, the hurricane continued to intensify, reaching major hurricane strength in the northern Gulf of Mexico on July 4. It made landfall near Gulfport, Mississippi with 120 mph sustained winds on July 5, the damage was around $3 million with four deaths occurring. At the time, it was the earliest known hurricane to make landfall in the U. S. in any season. In Florida, winds of 104 mph was observed in Pensacola, people venturing outside were knocked down, while a few cars flipped over. Additionally, homes were unroofed, while chimneys and trees were toppled, at the aeronautic station, several hangars collapsed. Storm surge at Pensacola flooded an engine room at the power plant. Further inland, heavy rainfall left crop damage in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi. The storm left 34 deaths,4 of which occurred in Florida, the third tropical storm was first observed east of the Lesser Antilles on July 10. It tracked northwestward, crossing the islands before reaching hurricane strength north of Puerto Rico on July 15, the hurricane continued to the northwest, and reached a peak of 105 mph on July 16
9.
1917 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1917 Atlantic hurricane season featured nine known tropical cyclones, four of which made landfall. The first system appeared on July 6 east of the Windward Islands, after crossing the islands and traversing the Caribbean Sea, the storm struck Honduras, Belize, and Mexico, before dissipating on July 14. After more than three weeks without tropical cyclogenesis, another tropical storm developed west of Bermuda, as the storm brushed eastern New England, four ships sank near Nantucket, causing 41 fatalities. The same cyclone brought damaging winds to Nova Scotia before transitioning into a cyclone on August 10. A hurricane developed over the central Atlantic Ocean on August 30, elsewhere, the hurricane had little impact, becoming extratropical on September 5. After the third system, a series of four depressions formed. The fourth hurricane brought devastation to Jamaica, Cuba, and portions of the Gulf Coast of the United States, overall, the storm left six deaths and inflicted at least $170,000 in damage. The seasons activity can be quantified in an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 61, historical weather maps indicated a trough east of the Windward Islands on July 6. Around 06,00 UTC, a depression formed about 80 mi southeast of Barbados. Moving west-northwestward, the crossed the Windward Islands and entered the Caribbean Sea early on July 7. Later that day, the system intensified into a tropical storm, after peaking with winds of 50 mph on July 8, it began to weaken and fell to tropical depression intensity early on July 10. Early the next day, the depression struck Honduras, before emerging into the Caribbean Sea. The system struck Belize around 06,00 UTC on July 12, at midday on July 14, the storm struck south of Tampico, Tamaulipas. In the city of Veracruz,4 in of rain fell in a 24-hour period, an area of low pressure developed into a tropical storm to the west of Bermuda at 00,00 UTC on August 6. Initially the storm drifted westward and strengthened minimally, by August 9, it curved northward and began to accelerate. Offshore the island of Nantucket in Massachusetts, four ships were lost, the storm continued northeastward and made landfall in Saint John County, New Brunswick while becoming extratropical at 00,00 UTC on August 11. The remnants dissipated over the Labrador Sea later that day, in Nova Scotia, dozens of boats were beached. Wind speeds up to 64 mph in Yarmouth damaged trees, power lines, windows, crops were impacted throughout the Annapolis Valley
10.
1915 Galveston hurricane
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The 1915 Galveston hurricane was a deadly hurricane that struck Leeward Islands, Hispaniola, Cuba and Texas, in mid August of the 1915 Atlantic hurricane season. The 1915 storm caused a deal of destruction in its path, leaving 275-400 people dead. A Cape Verde type hurricane, the 1915 Hurricane was detected as a storm moving westward on August 5. Then it was observed on August 10 as a Category 1 hurricane. By that time, the storm was centered north of Barbados, on August 11, the eye of the hurricane passed south of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. A weather station in San Juan recorded a 29.60 inch pressure reading, the hurricane continued to move westward between 18 and 20 mph where it brushed Haiti and made landfall in Jamaica. A barometric pressure reading of 29.68 inch was reported in Jamaica, the 1915 hurricane then turned slightly west-northwest, brushing Cuba as it went along. Unfazed by the landfall on Jamaica, the hurricane rapidly intensified and was located near Isle of Pines, on the 15th, the hurricane was in the central Gulf of Mexico still moving in a northwesterly direction. On August 16, the center of the storm was approaching the east coast of Texas, on the 17th, the hurricane made landfall southwest of Galveston, Texas. Atmospheric pressure at landfall was at 27.76 inches and 135 mph winds, after leaving Galveston, the weakening storm took a turn to the northeast and passed Houston as a Category 1 hurricane before dropping to tropical storm status later that day. On August 20, the storm passed over Missouri and the Ohio Valley before finally becoming extratropical on August 23. Forecasters began to issue advisories to weather stations in the United States when the storm was detected on August 5, forecasters then began to issue warnings to Haiti and Cuba on August 11. Evacuation reports in both Cuba and Haiti, however, are unavailable, after the storm hit Jamaica, forecasters predicted the storm might hit southern and western Cuba. Between August 12 and 13, forecasters began to issue storm warnings to the Florida Keys and Miami. By August 13, the hurricane trekked westward as forecast, at 5 PM, the tropical storm warnings were then changed to hurricane warnings which extended to the Florida Panhandle. On the 14th, however, the hurricane did not recurve north and warnings for Miami and later the Florida Keys were dropped, because the 1915 hurricane was large, forecasters began to issue tropical storm warnings from coastal Louisiana to the Florida Panhandle. In addition, warnings were issued in Brownsville, Texas, since it was clear that the hurricane would make landfall in Texas, the warnings were changed for the entire Texas coastline. After the hurricane made landfall, officials continued to issue warnings until the storm dissipated on August 23, when the hurricane made landfall in Galveston, it brought heavy rains and strong winds, leaving $921 million in damage
11.
Gulf Coast of the United States
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The Gulf Coast of the United States is the coastline along which the Southern United States meets the Gulf of Mexico. The coastal states that have a shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico are Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, the economy of the Gulf Coast area is dominated by industries related to energy, petrochemicals, fishing, aerospace, agriculture, and tourism. The Gulf Coast is made of many inlets, bays, the coast is also intersected by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the Mississippi River. Much of the land along the Gulf Coast is, or was and these landforms protect numerous bays and inlets providing as a barrier to oncoming waves. The central part of the Gulf Coast, from eastern Texas through Louisiana, the eastern part of the Gulf Coast, predominantly Florida, is dotted with many bays and inlets. The Gulf Coast climate is humid subtropical for the most part, although the tip of Florida. Much of the year is warm to hot along the Gulf Coast, while the 3 winters months bring periods of cool, the area is vulnerable to hurricanes as well as floods and severe thunderstorms. Tornadoes are infrequent at the coast but do occur, however the frequency at which they occur in inland portions of Gulf Coast states is much greater. Earthquakes are extremely rare to the area, but a surprising 6.0 earthquake in the Gulf of Mexico on September 10,2006, the Gulf Coast is a major center of economic activity. The marshlands along the Louisiana and Texas coasts provide breeding grounds, the Port of South Louisiana and the Port of Houston are two of the ten busiest ports in the world by cargo volume. As of 2004, seven of the top ten busiest ports in the U. S. are on the Gulf Coast. The discovery of oil and gas deposits along the coast and offshore, the coast contains nearly 4,000 oil platforms. S. Before Europeans arrived in the region, the region was home to several kingdoms that had extensive trade networks with empires such as the Aztecs. Shark and alligator teeth and shells from the Gulf have been found as far north as Ohio, the first Europeans to settle the Gulf Coast were primarily the French and the Spanish. The Louisiana Purchase and the Texas Revolution made the Gulf Coast a part of the United States during the first half of the 19th century. As the U. S. population continued to expand its frontiers westward, the development of sugar and cotton production allowed the South to prosper. Two major events were turning points in the history of the Gulf Coast region. The first was the American Civil War, which caused damage to some economic sectors in the South
12.
Cape Canaveral
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Cape Canaveral, from the Spanish Cabo Cañaveral, is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, United States, near the center of the states Atlantic coast. Known as Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island and it was discovered by the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León in 1513. It is part of a known as the Space Coast. Since many U. S. spacecraft have been launched both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other. In homage to its heritage, the Florida Public Service Commission allocated area code 321 to the Cape Canaveral area. Other features of the include the Cape Canaveral lighthouse and Port Canaveral. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District, mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area. Humans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years, during the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, the Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, the Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language. In the early 16th century Cape Canaveral was noted on maps and it was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañareal. The name Canaveral is the third oldest surviving European place name in the US, the first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521–1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo. A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, an early alternative name was Cape of Currents. By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps, english privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century. A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians, other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribaults colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers. In December 1571 Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral, from 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success, diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the sailors they returned. The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was built and completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the shoals off the coast
13.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
14.
Lesser Antilles
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The Lesser Antilles are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most form a long, partly volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America, the islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles, when combined with the Lucayan Archipelago, all three are known as the West Indies. The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups, the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west. The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, the trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands. The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, the Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the South American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is not only for many of the islands. The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent, over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago, a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain. Several islands along the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of country are also occasionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in the section below, the main Lesser Antilles are, Virgin Islands St. Thomas St. John St. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region, a Brief History of the Caribbean. New York, Facts on File,1992, the dictionary definition of Lesser Antilles at Wiktionary
15.
Caribbean Sea
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The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere. The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, the islands of the West Indies. The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas and has an area of about 2,754,000 km2, the seas deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at 7,686 m below sea level. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays, the Gulf of Gonâve, Gulf of Venezuela, Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, Gulf of Paria, the Caribbean Sea has the worlds second biggest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. It runs 1,000 km along the coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, the name Caribbean derives from the Caribs, one of the regions dominant Native American groups at the time of European contact during the late 15th century. During the first century of development, Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed, from the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region identified the South Sea as opposed to the North Sea. The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until 1492, at that time the Western Hemisphere in general was unknown to Europeans. Following the discovery of the islands by Columbus, the area was colonised by several Western cultures. As of 2015 the area is home to 22 island territories, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows, On the North. In the Windward Channel – a line joining Caleta Point and Pearl Point in Haïti, in the Mona Passage – a line joining Cape Engano and the extreme of Agujereada in Puerto Rico. From Galera Point through Trinidad to Galeota Point and thence to Baja Point in Venezuela, note that, although Barbados is an island on the same continental shelf, it is considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea largely situated on the Caribbean Plate, the Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to the north east of Trinidad, the larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc. The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era. It is assumed the proto-caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period, in the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Seas formation began in the Triassic, powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico which formed siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool, the emergence of deep basins in the Caribbean occurred during the Middle Jurassic rifting. The emergence of these marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean
16.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
17.
Hispaniola
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Hispaniola is the 22nd-largest island in the world, located in the Caribbean island group, the Greater Antilles. It is the second largest island in the Caribbean after Cuba, two sovereign nations share the 76, 192-square-kilometre island. The only other shared island in the Caribbean is Saint Martin, Hispaniola is the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, founded by Christopher Columbus on his voyages in 1492 and 1493. The island was called by various names by its native people, fernández de Oviedo and de las Casas both recorded that the island was called Haiti by the Taíno. DAnghiera added another name, Quizqueia, but later shows that the word does not seem to derive from the original Arawak Taíno language. When Columbus took possession of the island in 1492, he named it Insula Hispana, meaning the Spanish Island in Latin and La Isla Española, meaning the Spanish Island, in Spanish. De las Casas shortened the name to Española, and when d‘Anghiera detailed his account of the island in Latin, he rendered its name as Hispaniola. Due to Taíno, Spanish and French influences on the island, historically the whole island was referred to as Haiti, Hayti, Santo Domingo, St. Domingue. The name Haïti was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1804, as the name of independent Saint-Domingue. It was also adopted as the name of independent Santo Domingo, as the Republic of Spanish Haiti. Christopher Columbus inadvertently landed on the island during his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, where his flagship, a contingent of men were left at an outpost christened La Navidad, on the north coast of present-day Haiti. The island was inhabited by the Taíno, one of the indigenous Arawak peoples, the Taino were at first tolerant of Columbus and his crew, and helped him to construct La Navidad on what is now Môle-Saint-Nicolas, Haiti, in December 1492. European colonization of the began in earnest the following year. In 1496 the town of Nueva Isabela was founded, after being destroyed by a hurricane, it was rebuilt on the opposite side of the Ozama River and called Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European settlement in the Americas, several 16th century writers estimated the 1492 population of Hispaniola at over 1 million people. Twentieth-century estimates of the range from 60,000 to 8,000,000. Harsh enslavement by Spanish colonists, redirection of food supplies and labor towards the colonists, had a impact on both mortality and fertility over the first quarter century. Colonial administrators and Dominican and Hyeronimite priests observed that the search for gold, demographic data from two provinces in 1514 shows a low birth rate consistent with a 3. 5% annual population decline
18.
Jamaica
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Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
19.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
20.
Galveston, Texas
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Galveston is a coastal resort city on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U. S. state of Texas. The community of 209.3 square miles, with a population of 50,180 in 2015, is the county seat. It is within Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land metropolitan area, the Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its independence from Spain. The city was the port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution. During the 19th century, Galveston became a major U. S. commercial center and it was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane, whose effects included flooding and a storm surge. The natural disaster on the barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history. Much of Galvestons economy is centered in the tourism, health care, shipping, the 84-acre University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2,500 students is a major economic force of the city. Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and Akokisa tribes who called the island Auia, the Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November 1528, calling it Isla de Malhado. They began their trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City. During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785, the Spanish explorer José de Evia named the island Villa Gálvez or Gálveztown in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez. The islands first permanent European settlements were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis-Michel Aury to support Mexicos rebellion against Spain, in 1817, Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte. Lafitte organized Galveston into a kingdom he called Campeche, anointing himself the islands head of government. Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821, when the United States Navy forced him, in 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house. Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. Burnet relocated his government there. In 1836, the French-Canadian Michel Branamour Menard and several associates purchased 4,605 acres of land for $50,000 to found the town that would become the city of Galveston. As Anglo-Americans migrated to the city, they brought along or purchased enslaved African-Americans, some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront, in 1839, the City of Galveston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas. The city was by then a port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas. Together with ethnic Mexican residents, these tended to oppose slavery, support the Union during the Civil War
21.
1900 Galveston hurricane
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It remains to the present day the deadliest single day event in US history. The hurricane appears to have started as a trough from West Africa, causing unsettled weather in the Caribbean. Owing to contradictory forecasts, the people of Galveston felt no alarm until the hurricane warning of September 7. Next morning a storm surge of 15 ft washed over the long, flat island-city which was only 8 ft above sea level, knocking buildings off their foundations, the disaster ended the Golden Era of Galveston, as the hurricane alarmed potential investors, who turned to Houston instead. The whole island of Galveston was presently raised by 17 ft, the Hurricane of 1900, also known as the Great Galveston Hurricane, made landfall on September 8,1900, in Galveston, Texas, in the United States. It had estimated winds of 145 miles per hour at landfall and it was the deadliest hurricane in US history, and the second costliest hurricane in U. S. history based on the dollars 2005 value. The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States, the hurricane occurred before the practice of assigning official code names to tropical storms was instituted, and thus it is commonly referred to under a variety of descriptive names. Typical names for the storm include the Galveston Hurricane of 1900, the Great Galveston Hurricane, and, especially in older documents and it is often referred to by Galveston locals as the Great Storm or the 1900 Storm. The storms origins are unclear, because of the limited observation ability at the end of the 19th century. Ship reports were the only tool for observing hurricanes at sea, and because wireless telegraphy was in its infancy. The 1900 storm, like many powerful Atlantic hurricanes, is believed to have begun as a Cape Verde–type hurricane—a tropical wave moving off the western coast of Africa. The first formal sighting of the hurricanes precursor occurred on August 27, about 1,000 miles east of the Windward Islands, the storm passed through the Leeward Islands on August 30, probably as a tropical depression as indicated by barometric pressure reports from Antigua. Three days later, Antigua reported a severe thunderstorm passing over, followed by the hot, by September 1, U. S. Weather Bureau observers were reporting on a storm of moderate intensity southeast of Cuba. Continuing westward, the storm made landfall on southwest Cuba on September 3, on September 5, it emerged into the Florida Straits as a tropical storm or a weak hurricane. However, a region of high pressure had pushed the storm to the west into the Gulf of Mexico, details of the storm were not widespread, damage to telegraph lines limited communication. The Weather Bureaus central office in Washington, D. C. ordered storm warnings raised from Pensacola, Florida, by the afternoon of September 7, large swells from the southeast were observed on the Gulf, and clouds at all altitudes began moving in from the northeast. Both of these observations are consistent with a hurricane approaching from the east, the Galveston Weather Bureau office raised its double square flags, a hurricane warning was in effect. The ship Louisiana encountered the hurricane at 1 p. m. that day after departing New Orleans, captain Halsey estimated wind speeds of 100 mph
22.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
23.
Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
24.
Apalachicola, Florida
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Apalachicola is a city in Franklin County, Florida, United States, on the shore of Apalachicola Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of Mexico. The population was 2,231 at the 2010 census, Apalachicola is the county seat of Franklin County. Apalachicola comes from the Apalachicola tribe and is a combination of the Hitchiti words apalahchi, meaning on the other side, in original reference to the settlement and the subgroup within the Seminole tribe, it probably meant people on the other side of the river. Many inhabitants of Apalachicola have said their name means land of the friendly people, a British trading post called Cottonton was founded at this site on the mouth of the Apalachicola River. Gradually after acquisition by the United States and related development in Alabama and Georgia, in 1827, the town was incorporated as West Point. Apalachicola received its current name in 1831, by an act of the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida, trinity Episcopal Church was incorporated by an act of the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida on February 11,1837. The building was one of the earliest prefabricated buildings in the United States, the framework was shipped by schooner from New York City and assembled in Apalachicola with wooden pegs. Botanist Alvan Wentworth Chapman settled in Apalachicola in 1847, in 1860, he published his major work, Flora of the Southern United States. The former elementary school is named in his honor, in 1849, Apalachicola physician Dr. John Gorrie discovered the cold-air process of refrigeration and patented an ice machine in 1850. He had experimented to find ways to lower the temperatures of fever patients. His patent laid the groundwork for development of refrigeration and air conditioning, making Florida. The city has a monument to him, and a replica of his ice machine is on display in the John Gorrie Museum, the John Gorrie Memorial Bridge, originally built in 1935 and rebuilt in 1988, carries U. S.98 across Apalachicola Bay to Eastpoint. Before the development of railways in the Gulf states, Apalachicola was the third busiest port on the Gulf of Mexico, the AN Railway, formerly the Apalachicola Northern Railroad, serves the city. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the sponge trade, Apalachicola is still the home port for a variety of seafood workers, including oyster harvesters and shrimpers. More than 90% of Floridas oyster production is harvested from Apalachicola Bay, every year the town hosts the Florida Seafood Festival. The bay is protected by St. Vincent Island, Flag Island, Sand Island, St. George Island. On April 3,1862, during the American Civil War, union forces occupied west Florida during much of the war. In 1979, Exxon relocated their experimental subsea production system from offshore Louisiana to an artificial reef site off Apalachicola
25.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
26.
Caribbean
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The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
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Grand Isle, Louisiana
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Grand Isle is a town in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, located on a barrier island of the same name in the Gulf of Mexico. The island is at the mouth of Barataria Bay where it meets the gulf, as of the 2010 census, the towns resident population was 1,296, during summers, the population including tourists and seasonal residents sometimes increases to over 20,000. Grand Isle is statistically part of the New Orleans−Metairie−Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area, Grand Isles main street is the seaside start of Louisiana Highway 1, which stretches 436.2 miles away to the northwest corner of the state, ending near Shreveport, Louisiana. LA 1s automobile causeway at the west end of the island is the land access to or from Grand Isle. Direct access to Grand Isles seat of government is 95 miles away in suburban Jefferson Parish. Grand Isle has been repeatedly pummeled by hurricanes through its history, on average, Grand Isle has been affected by tropical storms or hurricanes every 2.68 years, with direct hits on average every 7.88 years. Some of the more severe are listed here, in 1860 a 6-foot storm surge and great winds resulted in the total devastation of the island. In the 1893 Atlantic hurricane season Grand Isle was devastated by a 16-foot storm surge, in the 1909 Atlantic hurricane season the island was hit with a second 16-foot storm surge. A Category 4 hurricane devastated Grand Isle on 29 September during the 1915 Atlantic hurricane season, Grand Isle was hit by a 3. 6-foot storm surge on 22 August during the 1947 Atlantic hurricane season. In 1956 Hurricane Flossy damaged the island, Hurricane Betsy in September 1965 and Tropical Storm Frances in 1998 put the entire island under water. On 26 September 2002, Grand Isle was hit by Hurricane Isidore, soon followed by Hurricane Lili passing to the west of the island, Hurricane Cindy scored a direct hit on Grand Isle on July 5,2005. Even though damage was limited to power outages and beach erosion. Hurricane Katrina pounded Grand Isle for two days, August 28–29,2005, destroying or damaging homes and camps along the entire island, Katrinas surge reached 5 ft at Grand Isle. Large waves severely damaged the bridge linking Grand Isle to the mainland. Less than a later, Grand Isle was further affected by Hurricane Rita. By mid October, a number of businesses were open on the island. Hurricane Gustav reached shore west of the island on September 1,2008, at 9 am CDT and it was one of the few locations in Louisiana affected while the storm was still classified as major hurricane. While both storms eyes passed the island at similar distances, Katrinas eastern passing caused greatest damage on the bay side of island
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
30.
Atlantic hurricane season
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The Atlantic hurricane season is the period in a year when hurricanes usually form in the Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic are called hurricanes, tropical storms, in addition, there have been several storms over the years that have not been fully tropical and are categorized as subtropical depressions and subtropical storms. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However, each basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, Tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a pre-determined list. On average,10.1 named storms occur each season, the most active season was 2005, during which 28 tropical cyclones formed, of which a record 15 became hurricanes. The least active season was 1914, with one known tropical cyclone developing during that year. The Atlantic hurricane season is a time when most tropical cyclones are expected to develop across the northern Atlantic Ocean and it is currently defined as the time frame from June 1 through November 30, though in the past the season was defined as a shorter time frame. The basic concept of a hurricane season began during 1935, when dedicated wire circuits known as hurricane circuits began to be set up along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, a process completed by 1955. It was originally the time frame when the tropics were monitored routinely for tropical cyclone activity, over the years, the beginning date was shifted back to June 1, while the end date was shifted to November 15, before settling at November 30 by 1965. Since regular satellite surveillance began, hurricane hunter aircraft fly only into areas which are first spotted by satellite imagery. If systems occur outside the hurricane season, special Tropical Weather Outlooks will be issued. Possible tropical cyclones are depicted with a closed isobar, while systems with less certainty to develop are depicted as spot lows with no isobar surrounding them. The original database of positions and intensities were put together in the 1960s in support of the Apollo space program to help provide statistical track forecast guidance. HURDAT was not designed with all of these uses in mind when it was first put together, HURDAT contains numerous systematic as well as some random errors in the database. Additionally, analysis techniques have changed over the years at NHC as their understanding of tropical cyclones has developed, another difficulty in applying the hurricane database to studies concerned with landfalling events is the lack of exact location, time and intensity at hurricane landfall. HURDAT is regularly updated annually to reflect the seasons activity. The older portion of the database has been revised since 2001
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1909 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1909 Atlantic hurricane season was an average Atlantic hurricane season. The season produced eleven tropical cyclones, of all eleven became tropical storms, six became hurricanes. The seasons first storm developed on June 15 while the last storm transitioned into a cyclone on November 14. The most notable storm during the season formed in late August, the hurricane devastated the Lesser Antilles, the Greater Antilles, and Mexico, leaving around 4,000 fatalities and more than $50 million in damage. The 1909 season was very deadly and destructive, featuring at least 4,661 fatalities, in mid-July, the fourth storm of the season hit Freeport, Texas, as a Category 3 hurricane, killing 41 people, and causing $2 million in damage. In mid-September, the storm of the season made landfall near Grand Isle, Louisiana, as a Category 3 hurricane, killing at least 350 people. The storms storm surge is responsible for destroying thousands of homes, in late August, the tenth storm of the season developed, and tracked across Cuba, the Bahamas, and Marathon, Florida, as a Category 3 hurricane. At least $2 million in damage was caused, and at least 22 deaths were recorded, lastly, the final storm of the season struck eastern Jamaica and Hispaniola as a hurricane before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone northeast of the Bahamas. The storm killed 30 people, and caused $7 million in damage, Tropical cyclogenesis began on or shortly before June 15, when the first system was initially detected in the southwestern Caribbean Sea. The month of June featured two other storms, one cyclone formed in July, the Velasco hurricane. August was the most active month, with four storms, including the Monterrey hurricane, there were two systems in September. The former, the Grand Isle hurricane, was the most intense cyclone of the season, peaking with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph. October and November each featured one storm, the Florida Keys hurricane, the twelfth and final cyclone of the season, the Greater Antilles hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over the Atlantic Ocean to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles on November 14. The season had a total of 12 tropical storms,6 of which intensified into a hurricane and this was the most tropical storms in a season since the total of thirteen in 1901. The reanalysis from Christopher Landsea et al. in 2011 resulted in the addition of two storms, which are listed as the first and seventh storms. Additionally, the storm of the second was also upgraded to a hurricane, increasing the number of landfalling hurricanes in the United States to five. All of the seasons 12 tropical cyclones made landfall, collectively, the storms caused over $76.3 million in damage and at least 4,661 fatalities. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 93, the first tropical cyclone of the season was first identified as a tropical depression near the southeastern Nicaragua coastline on June 15
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1910 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1910 Atlantic hurricane season was the period during the summer and fall of 1910 in which tropical cyclones formed in the North Atlantic Ocean. The season was inactive, with only five storms, however. The season got off to a start with the formation of a tropical storm in the Caribbean Sea on August 23. September saw two storms, and the final tropical cyclone—Hurricane Five—existed during October, all but one of the storms made landfall, and the only cyclone which remained at sea had some effects on the island of Bermuda. The seasons first storm had limited reported impacts on land, Hurricane Three dropped torrential rainfall on Puerto Rico before striking the same region as the previous cyclone. Hurricane Four bypassed Bermuda to the east, where property damage was reported. Hurricane Five was the most catastrophic storm of the season, buffeting western Cuba for a period of time as it slowly executed a counterclockwise loop. Death tolls from the hurricane are estimated in the hundreds, despite producing gale-force winds, the system was likely extratropical in nature, and any time it may have spent as a tropical storm was brief. The first tropical cyclone of the season developed on August 23, not believed to have strengthened further, the storm tracked west-northwestward and struck southwestern Hispaniola. It quickly weakened to a depression as it turned more toward the northwest. On August 26, the depression passed through the Bahamas, east of the Florida Peninsula, heading due north, the storm had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by the next day. The storm reportedly caused heavy precipitation on August 29 and 30 in Georgia, on August 26, a tropical depression formed in the central Gulf of Mexico. It drifted westward for several days, and by August 30 it intensified into a storm while turning more southwestward. The storm peaked in intensity as a tropical storm shortly thereafter. On August 31 the storm moved inland near the mouth of the Rio Grande, advisories were issued for coastal areas before which strong winds and high tides affected the Texas coast. The cyclone inflicted some property damage in the Brownsville area, winds unroofed houses at Port Isabel and destroyed some Mexican huts. The storm also blew fishing craft aground, no initial reports of fatalities were received, but two towns were left cut off from communication with Brownsville. A tropical storm developed east of the Leeward Islands on September 5 and it continued westward through the islands and is estimated to have attained winds corresponding to Category 2 status on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale
33.
1911 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1911 Atlantic hurricane season was relatively inactive, with only six known tropical cyclones forming in the Atlantic during the summer and fall. There were three suspected tropical depressions, including one that began the season in February and one ended the season when it dissipated in December. Three storms intensified into hurricanes, two of which attained Category 2 status on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale, storm data is largely based on the Atlantic hurricane database, which underwent a thorough revision for the period between 1911 and 1914 in 2005. Most of the cyclones directly impacted land, a westward-moving hurricane killed 17 people and severely damaged Charleston, South Carolina, and the surrounding area in late August. A couple of earlier, the Pensacola, Florida area had a storm in the Gulf of Mexico that produced winds of 80 mph over land. The fourth storm of the struck the coast of Nicaragua, killing 10. The Atlantic hurricane database recognizes six tropical cyclones from the 1911 season. Only three attained hurricane status, with winds of 75 mph or greater, the third hurricane of the season was the most intense storm, with a minimum central air pressure of 972 mbar. A week after its dissipation, another hurricane formed with wind speeds that matched the previous storm, three weak tropical depressions developed and remained below tropical storm force, the first formed in February and the third in December. The first storm to tropical storm intensity developed on August 4. The early 1900s lacked modern forecasting and documentation, the hurricane database from these years is sometimes found to be incomplete or incorrect, and new storms are continually being added as part of the ongoing Atlantic hurricane reanalysis. The period from 1911 through 1914 was reanalyzed in 2005, two previously unknown tropical cyclones were identified using records including historical weather maps and ship reports, and information on the known storms was amended and corrected. These storms are referred to simply by their number in chronological order, identified by its lack of associated frontal boundaries and closed circulation center, the first tropical cyclone of the 1911 season formed on August 4 over southern Alabama in the United States. At only tropical depression strength, it tracked eastward and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean the next day, several days later, while located near Bermuda, the depression became a tropical storm and turned northeastward. The storm lasted several days until dissipating on August 11. The storm produced rainfall on the Bermuda, but no gale-force winds were reported. The storm was unknown until the 2005 Atlantic hurricane database revision recognized it as a tropical storm, based on ship observations in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico, a low-pressure area developed north of Key West in early August. It developed into a depression at 12,00 UTC on August 8
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1912 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1912 Atlantic hurricane season featured the first major hurricane – Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale – in the month of November. There were eleven tropical cyclones, seven of which became tropical storms, four of those strengthened into hurricanes, the seasons first cyclone developed on April 4, while the final dissipated on November 21. The seasons most intense and most devastating tropical cyclone was the final storm and it produced heavy rainfall on Jamaica, leading to at least 100 fatalities and about $1.5 million in damage. The storm was blamed for five deaths in Cuba. Other tropical cyclones that left notable impact include the fourth and sixth hurricanes, one fatality occurred after a barge capsized. The sixth hurricane brought rough seas and heavy precipitation to northeastern Mexico and south Texas, the storm left 15 deaths and about $28,000 in damage. Overall, the cyclones of this season collectively caused at least 122 fatalities. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 57, on June 7, ships in the Gulf of Mexico reported a low pressure area with a closed circulation about 100 mi southeast of Port Eads, Louisiana. Initially, the storm moved southeastward, before turning west-southwestward late on June 8. Strengthening slightly, the cyclone turned to the northwest by June 11, around 12,00 UTC on the following day, a ship observed a barometric pressure of 995 mbar, the lowest known in relation to the storm. Based on this, maximum sustained winds were estimated at 70 mph, early on June 13, the storm curved northeastward and made landfall near Franklin, Louisiana, around 05,00 UTC. The system slowly weakened and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the Outer Banks of North Carolina, by 12,00 UTC on June 16, the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression. About 24 hours later, the depression dissipated about 150 mi north of Bermuda, in Louisiana, heavy rainfall resulted in some flooding in inland areas. Precipitation in Georgia and South Carolina caused rivers to approach or reach flood stage, necessitating a flood warning at Cheraw, South Carolina. There, the Pee Dee River crested at 27.5 ft, some locations in eastern North Carolina reported strong winds, particularly at Fayetteville, where there was a severe local storm. A ship initially encountered this storm about 65 mi north-northeast of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas on July 12, the storm initially moved northwestward and strengthened slowly. Early on July 14, the cyclone turned west-northwestward, later that day, a ship recorded a barometric pressure of 1,011 mbar, which was the lowest pressure in relation to the cyclone. Around 12,00 UTC on July 15, the system peaked with sustained winds of 50 mph, based on an observation from Savannah
35.
1918 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1918 Atlantic hurricane season was relatively inactive, with only six known tropical cyclones forming in the Atlantic during the summer and fall. There were four suspected tropical depressions, including one that began the season in June and one ended the season when it dissipated in October. Four storms intensified into hurricanes, one of which attained Category 3 status on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, Storm data is largely based on the Atlantic hurricane database, which underwent a thorough revision for the Atlantic hurricane season of 1918 in 2008. Most of the cyclones directly impacted land, a northward-moving hurricane killed 34 people and severely damaged Cameron, Louisiana, and the surrounding area in early August. A few weeks later, Honduras and Belize experienced hurricane-force winds, Tropical storm-force winds were also experienced along the North Carolina coastline in late August as a hurricane brushed the Outer banks of the state. In early September, the remnants of a cyclone impacted Nova Scotia. The Atlantic hurricane database recognizes six tropical cyclones from the 1918 season. Four attained hurricane status, with winds of 75 mph or greater, the first hurricane of the season was the most intense storm, with a minimum central air pressure of 955 mbar. Four weak tropical depressions developed and remained below tropical storm force, the first formed in June, the first storm to reach tropical storm intensity developed on August 1, and the final tropical storm of the year dissipated on September 14. The early 1900s lacked modern forecasting and documentation, the hurricane database from these years is sometimes found to be incomplete or incorrect, and new storms are continually being added as part of the ongoing Atlantic hurricane reanalysis. The period from 1915 through 1920 was reanalyzed in 2008, four previously unknown tropical cyclones were identified using records including historical weather maps and ship reports, and information on the known storms was amended and corrected. These storms are referred to simply by their number in chronological order, the strongest storm of the season was a Category 3 hurricane that made landfall near Cameron, Louisiana. It caused nearly $5 million in damage, with 34 fatalities reported, Hurricane Two affected the northern coast of South America and the southern Lesser Antilles with tropical storm force winds. But the hurricane-force winds affected Honduras, and Belize, Hurricane Three hit North Carolina as a tropical storm. The storm appears to have strengthened into a hurricane just before landfall and this storm seems to be the hurricane that made landfall in North Carolina in the short story The Scarlet Ibis. The Scarlet Ibis, however, has the landfall in July and this Tropical Storm was the shortest lived storm of the 1918 season. Hurricane Five hit Nova Scotia after grazing Bermuda as a weak Category 2 hurricane, in Bermuda, winds of at least 60 mph bring down trees and shatter windows, while many boats are swamped or blown aground. This Tropical Storm affected Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, The Virgin Islands, the north and central Lesser Antilles, in addition to the six officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes, four tropical depressions in the 1918 season have been identified
36.
1919 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1919 Atlantic hurricane season was among the least active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic on record, featuring only five tropical storms. A tropical storm in July brought minor damage to Pensacola, Florida, another two tropical depressions formed in August, the first of which brought rainfall to the Lesser Antilles. The most intense cyclone of the season was the Florida Keys hurricane. Many deaths occurred after ships capsized in Bahamas, the Florida Keys, strong winds left about $2 million in damage in Key West. After crossing the Gulf of Mexico, severe impact was reported in Texas, overall, the hurricane caused 828 fatalities and $22 million in damage, $20 million of which was inflicted in Texas alone. Three other tropical cyclones developed in September, including two tropical storms and one tropical depression, all of which left negligible impact on land, the final tropical system of the season also did not affect land and became extratropical on November 15. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 55 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. Historical weather maps indicate a tropical wave in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 2, around 18,00 UTC, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm. Moving north-northwestward, it peaked with sustained winds winds of 65 mph. The storm remained very small in diameter at all times, at 11,00 UTC on July 4, the storm made landfall near Navarre, Florida at the same intensity. Early the next day, it weakened to a tropical depression, in Pensacola, Florida, the auxiliary schooner Nautilus of the E. E. Saunders Fish Companys fleet was destroyed, resulting in $1,500 in damage. The schooner W. D. Hossack was abandoned by the crew, though this vessel was salvaged by the schooner Bluefields. Light damage to crops was also reported, a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on September 2, while located near Guadeloupe. Early on September 3, the became a tropical storm. It oscillated slightly in intensity during the few days, while brushing Puerto Rico. By September 5, the storm headed northward toward the southeastern Bahamas, the system crossed Mayaguana and began curving northwestward. Early on September 7, the strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, while curving just north of due west. After intensifying into a Category 2 hurricane later that day, the hurricane struck Long Island, around 12,00 UTC on September 8, the storm strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane, shortly before striking Andros
37.
1920 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1920 Atlantic hurricane season featured tropical storms and hurricanes only in the month of September. Although no hurricane season was defined at the time, the delineation of such is June 1 to November 30. The first system, a hurricane, developed on September 7 while the last, of note, four of the six cyclones co-existed with another tropical cyclone during the season. Of the seasons six tropical cyclones, five tropical storms. Furthermore, none of these strengthened into a major hurricane—Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale—marking the seventh such occurrence since 1900, the strongest hurricane of the season peaked as only as a strong Category 2 with winds of 110 mph. The second hurricane caused one death and $1.45 million in damage in Louisiana, the left one fatality in North Carolina. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 30 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. The first known storm of the season was identified on September 7 as a 40 mph tropical storm over Atlantic Ocean. Traveling towards the northwest, the storm intensified, attaining hurricane-status late on September 9. The following day, a ship in the vicinity of the recorded a pressure of 985 mbar. Around 1200 UTC, the hurricane turned towards the north and intensified into a modern-day Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale early on September 11, the storm continued to intensify through September 12 when it reached its peak intensity with winds of 110 mph. After maintaining this intensity for 18 hours, the hurricane began to weaken as it turned towards the northwest, by 0000 UTC on September 14, the storm weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. The system began to undergo a transition, completing the process early the next day. The system tracked nearly due east before dissipating on September 16 to the north of the Azores islands, an area of disturbed weather developed into a tropical depression northwest of Colombia on September 16. Afterwards, it weakened over land, before dissipating on September 23 over eastern Kansas. As it approached the United States Gulf Coast, the forced a estimated 4,500 people to evacuate off of Galveston Island. At landfall, the hurricane generated strong winds along a swath of the coast, uprooting trees and causing damage to homes. Heavy rainfall associated with the peaked at 11.9 in in Robertsdale
