1.
1915 New Orleans hurricane
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The New Orleans Hurricane of 1915 was an intense Category 4 hurricane that made landfall near Grand Isle, Louisiana during the 1915 Atlantic hurricane season. The storm formed in late September were it moved westward and peaked in intensity of 145 mph where it made landfall on September 29, the hurricane killed 275 people and caused $13 million in damage. The storm was first reported near the Lesser Antilles between Puerto Rico and South America, in the Caribbean, it strengthened to a 145 mph Category 4 hurricane on September 25. As the hurricane moved closer to the Gulf Coast, hurricane warnings were put up from Florida to Louisiana, the storm made landfall near Grand Isle, Louisiana on September 29 as a strong Category 4 hurricane with 145 mph sustained winds. The storm then moved north and weakened into a storm as it crossed into Mississippi, Alabama. The storm became extratropical as it moved north, in New Orleans winds of 50 miles per hour reached the city at 7am, climbing to 60 miles an hour over the next 5 hours. Hurricane conditions were experienced from the afternoon into the night, with winds of 102 mph. There were reports of damage in New Orleans, with roofs blown off buildings, the clock on St. Louis Cathedral stopped at 5, 50pm, the height of the storm. The hurricane damaged the Times-Picayune building, hampering newspaper production, more church steeples in the city were blown down or significantly damaged than remained intact. The landmark Presbyterian Church on Lafayette Square collapsed, as did St. Annas Episcopal Church on Esplanade Avenue, half the rides at Spanish Fort were destroyed. Horticultural Hall in Audubon Park was destroyed, after power to drainage pumps failed, parts of the Mid-City neighborhood suffered significant flooding. Only 21 of the deaths were within the city. A 13-foot storm surge rolled into St. Bernard Parish, the Rigolets, areas along the Lower Coast were hit even harder than the city. A telegraph report states the situation, Whole country between Poydras and Buras inundated, conditions estimated worse than ever before. There were 23 dead in Venice, Louisiana, with numbers in coastal towns of Frenier. Plaquemines Parish experienced the worst fatalities with deaths estimated at over 200, in Plaquemines Parish, there was severe flooding and miles of levees were washed away. Thousands of people were left homeless, the hurricane also wrecked many of the oyster boats, damaging the local economy. Some communities, including Breton Island and the town of Saint Malo were completely destroyed, though it was not as deadly as the 1893 Chenier Caminanda hurricane, this hurricane was the deadliest Louisiana hurricane until Betsy 50 years later
2.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
3.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
4.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
5.
Atlantic hurricane
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An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the summer or fall. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity, Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph, while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30, in recent times, tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list. On average, in the North Atlantic basin 11.3 named storms occur each season, the climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season. In March 2004, Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones are steered by the flow throughout the depth of the troposphere. Specifically, air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks, south of the subtropical ridge, surface easterly winds prevail. If the subtropical ridge is weakened by a trough, a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve. Poleward of the ridge, westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east. The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east, generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storms maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure, in terms of wind speed, Hurricane Allen was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph. However, these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity, nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes. Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification, Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar, a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones, however, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar, is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane, since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land. However, with a pressure of 895 mbar, Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico
6.
1913 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1913 Atlantic hurricane season was the third consecutive year with a tropical cyclone developing before June. Although no hurricane season was defined at the time, the delineation of such is June 1 to November 30. The first system, a depression, developed on May 5 while the last transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 30. Of note, the seventh and eighth cyclones existed simultaneously from August 30 to September 4, of the seasons ten tropical cyclones, six became tropical storms and four strengthened into hurricanes. Furthermore, none of these strengthened into a major hurricane—Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale—marking the sixth such occurrence since 1900, the strongest hurricane of the season peaked as only a Category 1 with winds of 85 mph. That system left five deaths and at least $4 million in damage in North Carolina, the first hurricane of the season also caused one fatality in Texas, while damage in South Carolina from the fifth hurricane reached at least $75,000. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 36 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. Weather maps and ship data indicate the development of a depression in the southwestern Caribbean Sea around 06,00 UTC on June 21. Moving north-northwestward, the accelerated and intensified into a tropical storm on the following day. Early on June 23, the storm made landfall near the Honduras–Nicaragua border with winds of 40 mph, thereafter, it continued north-northwestward and oscillated slightly in strength. The system made landfall near Cancún, Quintana Roo, with winds of 45 mph late on June 25. After briefly crossing the Yucatan Peninsula, the cyclone emerged into the Gulf of Mexico, early on June 27, it deepened into a Category 1 hurricane and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph. The hurricane then curved northwestward and made landfall in Padre Island, Texas, after moving inland, the storm quickly weakened and dissipated over Val Verde County just under 24 hours later. Impact in Central America and Mexico is unknown, the storm brought heavy rainfall to portions of South Texas. At Montell,20.6 in of precipitation fell in about 19 hours, the resultant flooding caused considerable damage to lowlands, houses, and stock. Additionally, communication by telegraph and telephone were cut-off for several days, strong winds were also reported, with winds of 100 mph over Central Padre Island. Along the coast, storm surge peaked at 12.7 ft in Galveston, a low pressure area detached from a stationary front and developed into a tropical depression on August 14 while located about 185 mi west-southwest of Bermuda. The depression moved northeastward and intensified into a tropical storm on August 15
7.
1914 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1914 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record, with only one known tropical storm. Although hurricane season typically encompasses a much larger time-span, actual activity was confined to the middle of September, the only tropical cyclone of the year developed in the region of The Bahamas on September 15 and drifted northwestward, moving inland over Florida and Georgia. Thorough warnings before the storm prevented any major damage, the 1914 season is one of only two that did not produce any hurricanes. Due to the lack of technology, including satellite imagery, information is often sparse. With only one tropical cyclone, the 1914 season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record. It is one of only two Atlantic seasons without a storm of hurricane intensity, the other being the 1907 season, the sole tropical storms formation on September 14 represents the latest start to a hurricane season since officials records began in 1851. Information on the 1914 season is based on data from the Atlantic hurricane database. Several changes, mostly of a nature, were made to the September tropical storm. The other was assessed as a non-tropical system, the 2005 HURDAT reanalysis relied largely on historical weather maps and ship reports in place of modern technology, including satellite imagery. The first and only storm of the season originated in a westward-moving tropical wave denoted on weather maps from September 13. Decreases in air pressure occurred throughout the Bahamas, providing indications of a disturbance. The system became a depression at 00,00 UTC on September 15, approximately 200 mi east of Miami. It strengthened into a tropical storm about 12 hours later, leading to the issuance of warnings from the east coast of Florida to as far north as Hatteras. The system drifted northwest while gradually intensifying, and was situated south of the Georgia coast late on September 16 and it progressed inland over southern Georgia as it quickly weakened, but its intensity leveled off after around 18,00 UTC on September 17. The storm skirted the northern Gulf of Mexico as it swerved slightly south of due west, by early September 19, the depression had further deteriorated into an open trough—a poorly defined, elongated area of low pressure. The storm produced rainfall in the Southeastern United States, accompanied by gale-force winds along the coast. High tides occurred around St. Augustine, Florida, washing over the South Street Causeway, winds from the storm dispersed large amounts of dead grass from marshes in the area. No significant damage was reported due to thorough warnings before the cyclone, a 2005 reanalysis of the storm made some minor changes to its listing in the official hurricane database, setting back the time of formation and raising the peak intensity
8.
1916 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1916 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1916. The season is one of two in which two major hurricanes were reported before the month of August, the other being the 2005 season. 1916 was an active season, especially for the time. Fifteen tropical cyclones formed during the course of the year, ten hurricanes formed, and five of those were major hurricanes. On May 13, a depression formed south of the Cuban coast. It quickly crossed the island and moved over the Straits of Florida, on May 14, it slowly strengthened to a minimal tropical storm, and it made landfall near Key Vaca, Florida with winds of 40 mph. It entered the Florida peninsula near Cape Sable, moving northward across the state, gale-force winds were reported east of the center. It transitioned to a cyclone on May 16. Initially, the cyclone was not included in the Atlantic hurricane database, a tropical disturbance organized into a tropical storm on June 29 in the southwest Caribbean Sea. It moved to the north-northwest, brushing the coast of Honduras before strengthening into a hurricane on July 2, the hurricane continued to intensify, reaching major hurricane strength in the northern Gulf of Mexico on July 4. It made landfall near Gulfport, Mississippi with 120 mph sustained winds on July 5, the damage was around $3 million with four deaths occurring. At the time, it was the earliest known hurricane to make landfall in the U. S. in any season. In Florida, winds of 104 mph was observed in Pensacola, people venturing outside were knocked down, while a few cars flipped over. Additionally, homes were unroofed, while chimneys and trees were toppled, at the aeronautic station, several hangars collapsed. Storm surge at Pensacola flooded an engine room at the power plant. Further inland, heavy rainfall left crop damage in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi. The storm left 34 deaths,4 of which occurred in Florida, the third tropical storm was first observed east of the Lesser Antilles on July 10. It tracked northwestward, crossing the islands before reaching hurricane strength north of Puerto Rico on July 15, the hurricane continued to the northwest, and reached a peak of 105 mph on July 16
