1.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
2.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
3.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
4.
Atlantic hurricane
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An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the summer or fall. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity, Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph, while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30, in recent times, tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list. On average, in the North Atlantic basin 11.3 named storms occur each season, the climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season. In March 2004, Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones are steered by the flow throughout the depth of the troposphere. Specifically, air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks, south of the subtropical ridge, surface easterly winds prevail. If the subtropical ridge is weakened by a trough, a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve. Poleward of the ridge, westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east. The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east, generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storms maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure, in terms of wind speed, Hurricane Allen was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph. However, these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity, nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes. Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification, Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar, a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones, however, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar, is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane, since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land. However, with a pressure of 895 mbar, Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico
5.
1914 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1914 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record, with only one known tropical storm. Although hurricane season typically encompasses a much larger time-span, actual activity was confined to the middle of September, the only tropical cyclone of the year developed in the region of The Bahamas on September 15 and drifted northwestward, moving inland over Florida and Georgia. Thorough warnings before the storm prevented any major damage, the 1914 season is one of only two that did not produce any hurricanes. Due to the lack of technology, including satellite imagery, information is often sparse. With only one tropical cyclone, the 1914 season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record. It is one of only two Atlantic seasons without a storm of hurricane intensity, the other being the 1907 season, the sole tropical storms formation on September 14 represents the latest start to a hurricane season since officials records began in 1851. Information on the 1914 season is based on data from the Atlantic hurricane database. Several changes, mostly of a nature, were made to the September tropical storm. The other was assessed as a non-tropical system, the 2005 HURDAT reanalysis relied largely on historical weather maps and ship reports in place of modern technology, including satellite imagery. The first and only storm of the season originated in a westward-moving tropical wave denoted on weather maps from September 13. Decreases in air pressure occurred throughout the Bahamas, providing indications of a disturbance. The system became a depression at 00,00 UTC on September 15, approximately 200 mi east of Miami. It strengthened into a tropical storm about 12 hours later, leading to the issuance of warnings from the east coast of Florida to as far north as Hatteras. The system drifted northwest while gradually intensifying, and was situated south of the Georgia coast late on September 16 and it progressed inland over southern Georgia as it quickly weakened, but its intensity leveled off after around 18,00 UTC on September 17. The storm skirted the northern Gulf of Mexico as it swerved slightly south of due west, by early September 19, the depression had further deteriorated into an open trough—a poorly defined, elongated area of low pressure. The storm produced rainfall in the Southeastern United States, accompanied by gale-force winds along the coast. High tides occurred around St. Augustine, Florida, washing over the South Street Causeway, winds from the storm dispersed large amounts of dead grass from marshes in the area. No significant damage was reported due to thorough warnings before the cyclone, a 2005 reanalysis of the storm made some minor changes to its listing in the official hurricane database, setting back the time of formation and raising the peak intensity
6.
1915 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1915 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1915. The 1915 season was not very active in terms of the number of storms but it was fairly eventful, the first storm hit Cape Canaveral in early August, turned northeast, and dissipated over New England. The system dropped rainfall across portions of Florida, with a maximum of 16.61 inches recorded at St. Petersburg. The second storm of the year was first observed in the eastern Tropical Atlantic on August 5 and it tracked westward, intensifying into a hurricane on the 9th before crossing the Lesser Antilles on the 10th. As the hurricane continued through the Caribbean Sea, it passed just south of Puerto Rico, while south of Cuba it rapidly intensified, and it brushed the western tip of the country on August 15 as a strong Category 4 hurricane. Over the Gulf of Mexico the hurricane weakened slightly and it made landfall near Galveston, Texas as a low-end Category 4 hurricane on August 17. It turned northward, became extratropical on August 18, and dissipated on August 23, just fifteen years after the 1900 Galveston Hurricane, this hurricane damaged the already hurting Texas economy. Throughout its path, it caused a total of $50 million in damage and 400 casualties, Hurricane Three, which was first observed on August 28 in the central Tropical Atlantic, tracked northwestward to reach a peak of 120 mph winds. It stalled and drifted south near Bermuda, bringing heavy surf, the hurricane turned to the west, north, and finally recurved out to sea, becoming extratropical on September 10. On August 31, a storm developed southwest of Jamaica. It headed north-northwestward, strengthening to a Category 2 hurricane as it made landfall on western Cuba and it weakened to 90 mph winds when it hit near Apalachicola, Florida on September 4. The storm continued northward and dissipated on September 9 over southern Michigan, well-executed warnings kept the death toll to 0, and the hurricane only caused minor to moderate damage with high tides occurring. This strong tropical storm remained over the open ocean, the sixth and final storm of the year was first seen just west of the Lesser Antilles on September 22. It tracked through the Caribbean, strengthening to its peak of 145 mph on September 25, on September 29, it made landfall near Grand Isle as a strong Category 3 hurricane. A barometric reading of 951 mbar was at the time the lowest ever measured on land in the United States, the storm caused severe flooding and killed 275 people, a number possibly reduced to well-executed warnings. Winds tore off roofs and damaged buildings in New Orleans, where pressure was measured at down to 28.01, generations in south east Louisiana would refer to it as the Great Storm of 1915. Property damage in Louisiana was estimated at $13 million, with $5 million of that in the city of New Orleans, List of tropical cyclones List of Atlantic hurricane seasons Monthly Weather Review
7.
1917 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1917 Atlantic hurricane season featured nine known tropical cyclones, four of which made landfall. The first system appeared on July 6 east of the Windward Islands, after crossing the islands and traversing the Caribbean Sea, the storm struck Honduras, Belize, and Mexico, before dissipating on July 14. After more than three weeks without tropical cyclogenesis, another tropical storm developed west of Bermuda, as the storm brushed eastern New England, four ships sank near Nantucket, causing 41 fatalities. The same cyclone brought damaging winds to Nova Scotia before transitioning into a cyclone on August 10. A hurricane developed over the central Atlantic Ocean on August 30, elsewhere, the hurricane had little impact, becoming extratropical on September 5. After the third system, a series of four depressions formed. The fourth hurricane brought devastation to Jamaica, Cuba, and portions of the Gulf Coast of the United States, overall, the storm left six deaths and inflicted at least $170,000 in damage. The seasons activity can be quantified in an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 61, historical weather maps indicated a trough east of the Windward Islands on July 6. Around 06,00 UTC, a depression formed about 80 mi southeast of Barbados. Moving west-northwestward, the crossed the Windward Islands and entered the Caribbean Sea early on July 7. Later that day, the system intensified into a tropical storm, after peaking with winds of 50 mph on July 8, it began to weaken and fell to tropical depression intensity early on July 10. Early the next day, the depression struck Honduras, before emerging into the Caribbean Sea. The system struck Belize around 06,00 UTC on July 12, at midday on July 14, the storm struck south of Tampico, Tamaulipas. In the city of Veracruz,4 in of rain fell in a 24-hour period, an area of low pressure developed into a tropical storm to the west of Bermuda at 00,00 UTC on August 6. Initially the storm drifted westward and strengthened minimally, by August 9, it curved northward and began to accelerate. Offshore the island of Nantucket in Massachusetts, four ships were lost, the storm continued northeastward and made landfall in Saint John County, New Brunswick while becoming extratropical at 00,00 UTC on August 11. The remnants dissipated over the Labrador Sea later that day, in Nova Scotia, dozens of boats were beached. Wind speeds up to 64 mph in Yarmouth damaged trees, power lines, windows, crops were impacted throughout the Annapolis Valley
8.
1918 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1918 Atlantic hurricane season was relatively inactive, with only six known tropical cyclones forming in the Atlantic during the summer and fall. There were four suspected tropical depressions, including one that began the season in June and one ended the season when it dissipated in October. Four storms intensified into hurricanes, one of which attained Category 3 status on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, Storm data is largely based on the Atlantic hurricane database, which underwent a thorough revision for the Atlantic hurricane season of 1918 in 2008. Most of the cyclones directly impacted land, a northward-moving hurricane killed 34 people and severely damaged Cameron, Louisiana, and the surrounding area in early August. A few weeks later, Honduras and Belize experienced hurricane-force winds, Tropical storm-force winds were also experienced along the North Carolina coastline in late August as a hurricane brushed the Outer banks of the state. In early September, the remnants of a cyclone impacted Nova Scotia. The Atlantic hurricane database recognizes six tropical cyclones from the 1918 season. Four attained hurricane status, with winds of 75 mph or greater, the first hurricane of the season was the most intense storm, with a minimum central air pressure of 955 mbar. Four weak tropical depressions developed and remained below tropical storm force, the first formed in June, the first storm to reach tropical storm intensity developed on August 1, and the final tropical storm of the year dissipated on September 14. The early 1900s lacked modern forecasting and documentation, the hurricane database from these years is sometimes found to be incomplete or incorrect, and new storms are continually being added as part of the ongoing Atlantic hurricane reanalysis. The period from 1915 through 1920 was reanalyzed in 2008, four previously unknown tropical cyclones were identified using records including historical weather maps and ship reports, and information on the known storms was amended and corrected. These storms are referred to simply by their number in chronological order, the strongest storm of the season was a Category 3 hurricane that made landfall near Cameron, Louisiana. It caused nearly $5 million in damage, with 34 fatalities reported, Hurricane Two affected the northern coast of South America and the southern Lesser Antilles with tropical storm force winds. But the hurricane-force winds affected Honduras, and Belize, Hurricane Three hit North Carolina as a tropical storm. The storm appears to have strengthened into a hurricane just before landfall and this storm seems to be the hurricane that made landfall in North Carolina in the short story The Scarlet Ibis. The Scarlet Ibis, however, has the landfall in July and this Tropical Storm was the shortest lived storm of the 1918 season. Hurricane Five hit Nova Scotia after grazing Bermuda as a weak Category 2 hurricane, in Bermuda, winds of at least 60 mph bring down trees and shatter windows, while many boats are swamped or blown aground. This Tropical Storm affected Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, The Virgin Islands, the north and central Lesser Antilles, in addition to the six officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes, four tropical depressions in the 1918 season have been identified
9.
1957 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1957 Atlantic hurricane season was a generally inactive year for tropical cyclogenesis in the North Atlantic basin. There were eight tropical storms – two of which went unnamed – and three hurricanes, two of which intensified further to major hurricane intensity. The season officially began on June 15 and ended on November 15, the final storm dissipated on October 27, well before the official end of the season. In total, the resulted in at least 513 fatalities. Hurricane Audrey was the seasons most destructive and deadly storm, causing 416 deaths, Audrey made landfall just east of Sabine Pass, Texas, in the U. S. state of Louisiana as a strong Category 3 hurricane in late June. The highest rainfall total measured associated with a cyclone was 18.39 in in Quarantine, Louisiana. However, a reading of 19 in was measured in an unknown location in the Florida Panhandle during Tropical Storm One. The years other tropical systems curved out to sea without causing much impact, after the season, the name Audrey was retired. The Atlantic hurricane season began on June 15,1957. It was a season in which eight tropical cyclones formed. Of these hurricanes, two major hurricanes. In an average season, ten tropical cyclones form, of which five become hurricanes, five of the seasons eight tropical cyclones developed in the Gulf of Mexico, the most since the 1936 season, in which six formed in the gulf. The first tropical storm of the season formed on June 8, however, the first named storm, Audrey, formed afterwards, on June 25, these two storms were the only to form in June during the season. July featured no Atlantic tropical cyclones, Tropical Storm Bertha was the only system to form during August, developing in the Gulf of Mexico. Despite warm sea temperatures in the tropical Atlantic, no storms formed during the month. The low monthly activity was in due to an unfavorable wind pattern which prevailed across the Atlantic for much of the month. In September, however, conditions for tropical cyclogenesis were more favorable, four storms formed, of which two attained hurricane strength, higher than the mean activity of the last 70 Septembers. By contrast, only one storm formed in October, below the average of two in the month
10.
1966 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1966 Atlantic hurricane season featured the tropical cyclone with the longest track in the Atlantic basin – Hurricane Faith. Also during the year, the Miami, Florida Weather Office was re-designated the National Hurricane Center, the season officially began on June 1, and lasted until November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin and it was a near average season in terms of tropical storms, with a total of 11 named storms. The first system, Hurricane Alma, developed over eastern Nicaragua on June 4, Alma brought severe flooding to Honduras and later to Cuba, after crossing the western Caribbean Sea. The storm also brought minor impact to the Southeastern United States. Alma caused 91 deaths and about $210.1 million in damage, hurricanes Becky, Celia, and Dorothy, and Tropical Storm Ella all resulted in minimal or no impact on land. The next system, Hurricane Faith, developed near Cape Verde on August 21 and it tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean until north of Hispaniola. After paralleling the East Coast of the United States, Faith moved northeastward across the open Atlantic, overall, Faith traveled about 6,850 mi across the Atlantic. Although it never made landfall, the storm generated rough seas resulted in five deaths. The two next tropical storms – Greta and Hallie – caused negligible impact, the strongest tropical cyclone of the season was Hurricane Inez, a powerful Category 4 hurricane that devastated a large majority of the Caribbean, the Florida Keys, and parts of Mexico. Throughout its path, the storm caused about $226.5 million in damage, Tropical Storm Judith left only minor impacts in the Windward Islands. The final system, Hurricane Lois, developed east of Bermuda on November 4, later in its duration, Lois passed west of the Azores, bringing gale force winds to Corvo Island. The storm became extratropical northeast of the islands on November 11, a possible tropical cyclone in June and July and another in July brought minor damage to Florida and Louisiana, respectively. Overall, the storms of this season caused at least 1,096 fatalities. The Atlantic hurricane season began on June 1. During the year, the Miami, Florida Weather Office was re-designated the National Hurricane Center and it was a near average season in which eleven tropical storms formed, compared with the 1966–2009 average of 11.3 named storms. Seven of these reached hurricane status, slightly above of the 1966–2009 average of 6.2, furthermore, three storms reached major hurricane status, with the 1950-2000 mean being 2.3. Three hurricanes and one tropical storm made landfall during the season, causing at least 1,096 deaths, Hurricane Faith also caused fatalities, despite remaining well offshore
11.
2005 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history, shattering numerous records. The impact of the season was widespread and ruinous with an estimated 3,913 deaths, of the storms that made landfall, five of the seasons seven major hurricanes—Dennis, Emily, Katrina, Rita, and Wilma—were responsible for most of the destruction. Furthermore, Hurricane Stan combined with a system to cause deadly mudslides across Central America. The 2005 season was the first to observe more tropical cyclones in the Atlantic than the West Pacific, on average, the season officially began on June 1,2005, and lasted until November 30, although it effectively persisted into January 2006 due to continued storm activity. A record twenty-eight tropical and subtropical storms formed, of which a record fifteen became hurricanes, among these Category 5 storms were hurricanes Katrina and Wilma, respectively the costliest and the most intense Atlantic hurricanes on record. This year was notable because the list of storm names was used up. Governments National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, prior to and during the 2005 season, Gray issued four forecasts, each time increasing the predicted level of activity. The NOAA issued two forecasts, one shortly before the season and one two months into the season, drastically increasing the level of activity in the second release. Nonetheless, all forecasts fell far short of the activity of the season. On December 3,2004, Grays team issued its first extended-range forecast for the 2005 season, additionally, the team predicted a greatly increased chance of a major hurricane striking the East Coast of the United States and the Florida peninsula. Though the forecast predicted above-average activity, the level predicted was significantly less than the 2004 season, in addition, the chance of a storm impacting the United States was raised slightly. On May 16,2005,16 days before the season began, NOAA issued its outlook for the 2005 season, the accumulated cyclone energy value for the season was predicted to be 120–190% of the median ACE of 87.5 ×104 kt2. Shortly thereafter, on May 31, the day before the season began, Grays team revised its April forecast upwards to 15 named storms,8 hurricanes. The ACE value was now forecast to be 180 to 270% of the median, the NOAA also noted a higher than normal confidence in the forecast of above-normal activity. On August 5,2005, Gray and his associates followed suit and issued their updated forecast, although neither the NOAA nor Gray had ever forecast such high levels of activity, even the midseason outlooks fell far short of the actual level of activity. The actual ACE would prove to be 248 ×104 kt2 — 277% of the median, Arlene caused only moderate damage, although one swimmer was caught in a riptide and drowned in Miami Beach, Florida. Tropical Storm Bret formed in the Bay of Campeche on June 28, the storm damaged hundreds of homes and caused flooding which killed two people. Hurricane Cindy formed in the Gulf of Mexico on July 4, Cindy was upgraded to a hurricane in the post-storm analysis
12.
1916 Texas hurricane
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The 1916 Texas hurricane brought an extensive swath of destruction stretching from the Lesser Antilles westward to South Texas. Although the storms greatest impacts were in Texas, considerable damage was wrought on Jamaica, with minimal impacts in the Lesser Antilles, over its eight-day trek across the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the intense hurricane caused 24 deaths and accrued US$28.6 million in damage. The tropical cyclone developed as a tropical storm east of Barbados on August 12 based on ship, tracking westward, the tropical cyclone gradually intensified and reached hurricane strength on August 15 shortly before making landfall on Jamaica as a minimal hurricane. Additional strengthening occurred as the storm traversed the Yucatán Channel as a hurricane on August 17. After moving inland, the cyclone rapidly diminished and dissipated on August 20 over West Texas. At 06,00 UTC on August 12, ship observations near Barbados indicated that a trough of low pressure had become sufficiently organized to be considered a tropical storm. A possible precursor disturbance as indicated by low barometric pressures and strong winds was observed by ships as early as August 8, however, during this time these observations were inconclusive in regards to determining the formation of a tropical cyclone. Tracking steadily westward, the storm gradually intensified and reached hurricane intensity on August 15 while south of Hispaniola. Over the following few days, the hurricane curved slightly more northward and this new trajectory brought the storm to a landfall on the south-central coast of Jamaica with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph at around 18,00 UTC on August 15. In Kingston, Jamaica, the lowest documented pressure was 1006 mbar, after passing Jamaica, the hurricane continued to gradually intensify, and tracked through the Yucatán Channel on August 17. At 12,00 UTC that day, the storm reached hurricane strength just north of the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. The next day, the storm strengthened further to the equivalent of a Category 4 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale and this trend of intensification continued up until 22,00 UTC on August 18, when the hurricane made landfall near Baffin Bay, Texas. At this time, the cyclone reached its peak intensity with winds of 135 mph. After landfall, the hurricane quickly decayed over South Texas and was last noted as a depression near McCamey in West Texas on August 20. In San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago, a station documented 0.42 in of rain from the storm, however, no damage resulted from the weak disturbance as it passed the islands. However, as a tropical cyclone was ascertained in the eastern Caribbean Sea. At 7 am, local weather officials issued warnings to coastal sections. Telegraphs of the warnings were sent out to Cameron and Calhoun counties
13.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
14.
Straits of Florida
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It is 150 km wide at the narrowest point between Key West and the Cuban shore, and has been sounded to a depth of 6,000 feet. The strait carries the Florida Current, the beginning of the Gulf Stream, five wells were drilled in state waters south of the Florida Keys from 1947 to 1962. Gulf Oil drilled three wells in federal waters south of the Florida Keys in 1960 and 1961, all the wells were dry holes. The boundary between the Exclusive Economic Zones of the US and Cuba is halfway between Cuba and Florida, as determined by a 1977 treaty between the US and Cuba, Cuba has three producing offshore oil fields within 5 km of its north coast opposite Florida. The issue of allowing oil and gas exploration offshore Florida became a contested topic in the 2008 US elections. In fact, no drilling was taking place in that part of Cuban waters. In 2004 the Spanish oil company Repsol-YPF drilled in deep Cuban waters between Cuba and the Florida Keys, and found an oil deposit, the deposit was judged noncommercial, and the hole was plugged. In October 2008, Cuba signed an agreement with the Brazilian state oil company Petrobras, in July 2009, Cuba signed an agreement with the Russian government giving the Russian oil company Zarubezhneft oil exploration rights off the north shore of Cuba. By May 2011 Petrobas had withdrawn from the 2008 agreement due to poor prospects, in 2009 the Falkland Islands-registered company BPC Limited and Norwegian company Statoil announced a joint venture to drill for oil in Bahamian waters north of Cuba and southeast of Florida. Florida Straits, a film starring Fred Ward
15.
Cape Sable
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Cape Sable, Florida, is the southernmost point of the US mainland and mainland Florida. It is located in southwestern Florida, in Monroe County, and is part of the Everglades National Park. The cape is a peninsula issuing from the part of the Florida mainland, running west and curving around to the north, reaching Ponce de Leon Bay. It forms the southern and western margins of Whitewater Bay, the cape has many lakes and beaches. It is home to the diamondback terrapin and the Florida gopher tortoise. Before Hurricane Donna reduced their range, more than 3,000 of the now-endangered Cape Sable seaside sparrows used the cape, nearly the full length of the cape facing Florida Bay and the Gulf of Mexico is a fine sand beach extending inland less than 100 yards. Behind the beach in the eastern and middle parts of the cape is a marl prairie, inland from the marl prairie, and over all of the northern part of the cape behind the beaches, is a complex of marshes and mangrove covered land. The largest lake on the cape is Lake Ingraham, which is long and narrow, there is little evidence of any extensive settlement of Cape Sable by humans. There are adequate sources of water on the cape. There are a few small Indian shell mounds there, the Spanish reported a Tequesta village on the cape. The pre-Seminole tribes of south Florida did not practice agriculture, mariners and fishermen visited the Cape to take on fresh water. Hunters also visited the cape, which had more wildlife than the Florida Keys, during the Second Seminole War, residents of the Florida Keys worried about Seminoles using Cape Sable and threatening the keys. In 1840 a Seminole raiding party, which was believed to have traveled over Cape Sable, the United States government was concerned that Spanish authorities in Cuba were supplying the Seminole to support their resistance. They knew that Cuban fishermen, including the Spanish Indians who had evacuated to Cuba from Florida in 1821. The United States Army established Fort Poinsett on East Cape in 1838 to discourage contacts with the Spanish and this fort did not prevent the Seminole attack on Indian Key. In 1856, during the Third Seminole War, the Army established Fort Cross on Middle Cape, traces of Fort Poinsett could be seen until it was destroyed by the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935. Everglades National Park - Tebeau, Charlton W, coral Gables, Florida, University of Miami Press
16.
Caribbean Sea
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The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere. The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, the islands of the West Indies. The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas and has an area of about 2,754,000 km2, the seas deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at 7,686 m below sea level. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays, the Gulf of Gonâve, Gulf of Venezuela, Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, Gulf of Paria, the Caribbean Sea has the worlds second biggest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. It runs 1,000 km along the coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, the name Caribbean derives from the Caribs, one of the regions dominant Native American groups at the time of European contact during the late 15th century. During the first century of development, Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed, from the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region identified the South Sea as opposed to the North Sea. The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until 1492, at that time the Western Hemisphere in general was unknown to Europeans. Following the discovery of the islands by Columbus, the area was colonised by several Western cultures. As of 2015 the area is home to 22 island territories, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows, On the North. In the Windward Channel – a line joining Caleta Point and Pearl Point in Haïti, in the Mona Passage – a line joining Cape Engano and the extreme of Agujereada in Puerto Rico. From Galera Point through Trinidad to Galeota Point and thence to Baja Point in Venezuela, note that, although Barbados is an island on the same continental shelf, it is considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea largely situated on the Caribbean Plate, the Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to the north east of Trinidad, the larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc. The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era. It is assumed the proto-caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period, in the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Seas formation began in the Triassic, powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico which formed siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool, the emergence of deep basins in the Caribbean occurred during the Middle Jurassic rifting. The emergence of these marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean
17.
Honduras
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Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals
18.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
19.
Gulfport, Mississippi
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Gulfport is the second largest city in Mississippi after the state capital, Jackson. As of the 2010 census, the city of Gulfport had a population of 67,793. Gulfport is co-county seat with Biloxi of Harrison County, Mississippi, Gulfport is also home to the US Navy Atlantic Fleet Seabees. An early settlement near this location, known as Mississippi City, Mississippi City was the county seat of Harrison County from 1841 to 1902, but is now a suburb in east Gulfport. Gulfport was incorporated on July 28,1898, in 1902, the harbor was completed and the Port of Gulfport became a working seaport that now accounts for millions of dollars in annual sales and tax revenue for the state of Mississippi. Post Office and Customhouse was built, the Gulfport Post office was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. In March 1916, Mayor George M. Foote announced that the Andrew Carnegie Corporation was going to place a Carnegie Library in Gulfport, on August 17,1969 Gulfport and the Mississippi Gulf Coast was hit by Hurricane Camille. By central pressure, Camille was the second strongest U. S. land falling hurricane in recorded history, the area of total destruction in Harrison County, Mississippi was 68 square miles. The total estimated cost of damage was $1.42 billion and this made Camille the second-most expensive hurricane in the United States, up to that point. The storm directly killed 143 people along Alabama, Mississippi, in December 1993, the City annexed 33 square miles north of Gulfport making it the second largest city in Mississippi. On August 29,2005, Gulfport was hit by the eastern side of Hurricane Katrina. Much of the city was flooded or destroyed in one day by the strong, hurricane-force winds which lasted over 16 hours and a storm surge exceeding 28 feet in some sections. Hurricane Katrina damaged over 40 Mississippi libraries, gutting the Gulfport Public Library, first floor, the Sun Herald newspaper in Biloxi-Gulfport, under the executive editor Stanley R. Tiner, won the 2006 Pulitzer Prize in journalism for its Katrina coverage. The local ABC television affiliate, WLOX, won The Peabody Award for its Hurricane Katrina coverage. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 64.2 sq mi. Gulfport has a subtropical climate, which is strongly moderated by the Gulf of Mexico. Winters are short and generally warm, cold spells do occur, snow flurries are rare in the city, with no notable accumulation occurring most years. Summers are generally long, hot and humid, though the proximity to the Gulf prevents extreme summer highs
20.
Hurricane Audrey
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Hurricane Audrey was an extremely destructive tropical cyclone which primarily impacted areas of the South Central United States in June 1957. Situated within favorable conditions for development, Audrey quickly strengthened. Moving generally northwards, it continued to strengthen as it approached the United States Gulf Coast, on June 27, the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 125 mph, making it a major hurricane. At the time, Audrey had a barometric pressure of 946 mbar. The hurricane made landfall at the intensity between the mouth of the Sabine River and Cameron, Louisiana later that day, causing unprecedented destruction across the region. Once inland, Audrey rapidly weakened and turned extratropical over Louisiana on June 28, prior to making landfall, Audrey severely disrupted offshore drilling operations in the Gulf of Mexico. Damages from offshore oil facilities alone was estimated at $16 million, Audrey caused much of its destruction near the border between Texas and Louisiana upon its first and only landfall. The hurricanes strong winds resulted in property and infrastructural damage. Power outages also resulted from the strong winds, the hurricanes storm surge was reported to have peaked as high as 12 ft, helping to inundate coastal areas. Damage from the surge alone extended 25 mi inland, the rough seas killed nine people offshore after capsizing the boat they were in. Further inland in Louisiana, the storm spawned two tornadoes, causing additional damage, the hurricane also dropped heavy rainfall, peaking at 10.63 in near Basile, Louisiana. In Louisiana and Texas, where Audrey first impacted, damages totaled $128 million, after moving inland and transitioning into an extratropical cyclone, Audrey caused additional damage across the interior United States. The storm produced 23 tornadoes across Mississippi and Alabama, causing $600,000 in losses, the resultant flooding resulted in ten fatalities. Elsewhere in the United States, the storm brought strong winds, further north in Canada,15 people were killed in Ontario and Quebec. Strong winds and torrential rainfall disrupted transportation services, in Quebec, ten people were killed in the Montreal area, making Audrey the deadliest hurricane to strike the Canadian province in recorded history. The storm was considered the worst storm to strike Quebec in at least 20 years. In the United States, Audrey killed at least 416 people, damage totaled $147 million in the country, at the time the fifth-costliest hurricane recorded in the US since 1900. The name Audrey was later retired from usage as an identifier for an Atlantic hurricane, between June 20 and 25,1957, an ill-defined tropical wave moved across the Caribbean Sea, over the Yucatán Peninsula, and into the Bay of Campeche
21.
Pensacola, Florida
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Pensacola is the westernmost city in the Florida Panhandle and the county seat of Escambia County, in the U. S. state of Florida. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 51,923. Pensacola is the city of the Pensacola metropolitan area, which had an estimated 461,227 residents in 2012. Pensacola is a sea port on Pensacola Bay, which is protected by the island of Santa Rosa. The main campus of the University of West Florida is situated north of the city center, the area was originally inhabited by Muskogean peoples. The Pensacola people lived there at the time of European contact, Spanish explorer Tristán de Luna founded a short-lived settlement in 1559. In 1698 the Spanish established a presidio in the area, from which the city gradually developed. The area changed several times as European powers competed in North America. During Floridas British rule, fortifications were strengthened, other nicknames include Worlds Whitest Beaches, Cradle of Naval Aviation, Western Gate to the Sunshine State, Americas First Settlement, Emerald Coast, Red Snapper Capital of the World, and P-Cola. The original inhabitants of the Pensacola Bay area were Native American peoples, at the time of European contact, a Muskogean-speaking tribe known to the Spanish as the Pensacola lived in the region. This name was not recorded until 1677, but the tribe appears to be the source of the name Pensacola for the bay and thence the city. Creek people, also Muskogean-speaking, came regularly from present-day southern Alabama to trade, so the peoples were part of a broader regional and even continental network of relations. The best-known Pensacola culture site in terms of archeology is the Bottle Creek site and this site has at least 18 large earthwork mounds, five of which are arranged around a central plaza. Its main occupation was from 1250 AD to 1550 and it was a ceremonial center for the Pensacola people and a gateway to their society. This site would have had access by a dugout canoe. The areas written recorded history begins in the 16th century, with documentation by Spanish explorers who were the first Europeans to reach the area. The expeditions of Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539 both visited Pensacola Bay, the latter of which documented the name Bay of Ochuse. In 1559, Tristán de Luna y Arellano landed with some 1,500 people on 11 ships from Veracruz, Mexico
22.
Alabama
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Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
23.
Mississippi
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Mississippi /ˌmɪsᵻˈsɪpi/ is a state in the southern region of the United States, with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico. Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River, the state has a population of approximately 3 million. It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States, located in the center of the state, Jackson is the state capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 175,000 people. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, where slaves worked on cotton plantations. After the war, the bottomlands to the interior were cleared, by the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two-thirds of the Deltas property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis. Clearing altered the Deltas ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi, much land is now held by agribusinesses. The states catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States, since the 1930s and the Great Migration, Mississippi has been majority white, albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U. S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were mostly black, whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws. In 2010, 37% of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U. S. state, since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s, most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party, African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta, an area of historic settlement during the plantation era. Since 2011 Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country, the states name is derived from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary. Settlers named it after the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi, in addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake, Mississippi is entirely composed of lowlands, the highest point being Woodall Mountain, in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains,807 feet above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Gulf coast, the states mean elevation is 300 feet above sea level. Most of Mississippi is part of the East Gulf Coastal Plain, the coastal plain is generally composed of low hills, such as the Pine Hills in the south and the North Central Hills. The Pontotoc Ridge and the Fall Line Hills in the northeast have somewhat higher elevations, yellow-brown loess soil is found in the western parts of the state. The northeast is a region of black earth that extends into the Alabama Black Belt. The coastline includes large bays at Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, the northwest remainder of the state consists of the Mississippi Delta, a section of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain
24.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
25.
Lesser Antilles
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The Lesser Antilles are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most form a long, partly volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America, the islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles, when combined with the Lucayan Archipelago, all three are known as the West Indies. The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups, the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west. The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, the trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands. The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, the Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the South American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is not only for many of the islands. The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent, over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago, a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain. Several islands along the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of country are also occasionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in the section below, the main Lesser Antilles are, Virgin Islands St. Thomas St. John St. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region, a Brief History of the Caribbean. New York, Facts on File,1992, the dictionary definition of Lesser Antilles at Wiktionary
26.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
27.
New Bedford, Massachusetts
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New Bedford is a city in Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 95,072. The city, along with Fall River and Taunton, make up the three largest cities in the South Coast region of Massachusetts, the Greater Providence-Fall River-New Bedford area is home to the largest Portuguese-American community in the United States. Their population is believed to have been about 12,000, while exploring New England, Bartholomew Gosnold landed on Cuttyhunk Island on May 15,1602. From there, he explored Cape Cod and the neighboring areas, however, rather than settle the area, he returned to England at the request of his crew. Europeans first settled New Bedford in 1652, English Plymouth Colony settlers purchased the land from chief Massasoit of the Wampanoag tribe. Whether the transfer of the land was legitimately done has been the subject of intense controversy, like other native tribes, the Wampanoags did not share the settlers concepts of private property. The tribe may have believed they were granting usage rights to the land, the settlers used the land to build the colonial town of Old Dartmouth. The name was suggested by the Russell family, who were prominent citizens of the community, the Dukes of Bedford, a leading English aristocratic house, also bore the surname Russell. The late-18th century was a time of growth for the town, New Bedfords first newspaper, The Medley, was founded in 1792. On June 12,1792, the set up its first post office. William Tobey was its first postmaster, the construction of a bridge between New Bedford and present-day Fairhaven in 1796 also spurred growth. In 1847 the town of New Bedford officially became a city, at approximately the same time, New Bedford began to supplant Nantucket as the nations preeminent whaling port, thanks to its deeper harbor and location on the mainland. Whaling dominated the economy of the city for much of the century, many families of the city were involved with it as crew and officers of ships. Until 1800, New Bedford and its communities were, by and large, populated by Protestants of English, Scottish. During the first half of the 19th century many Irish people came to Massachusetts, in 1818, Irish immigrants established the Catholic mission that built St. Marys Church. As the Portuguese community began to increase, they established the first Portuguese parish in the city, French Canadians also secured a foothold in New Bedford at about the same time, and they built the Church of the Sacred Heart in 1877. Similarly, Polish immigrants began arriving in the late 19th century, a number of Jewish families, arriving in the late 19th century, were active in the whaling industry, selling provisions and outfitting ships
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Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project
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The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration seeks to correct and add new information about past North Atlantic hurricanes. This effort has involved reanalyses of ship observations from the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set as well as reanalyses done by other researchers over the years and it has been ongoing as of 2016, and should last another four years. HURDAT contains a number of errors which need to be corrected, the new data was constructed using old newspaper articles and the hemispheric weather map series. Hurricane histories for individual states had been constructed by the 1990s as well, since then, the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set has been utilized to check for older ship reports which were either not utilized nor available to previous researchers. By analyzing the density of ship tracks over time, it has estimated that between 1900 and 1966, an average of two storms per year are missing from HURDAT. This is mainly due to a lack of imagery and lack of reconnaissance aircraft prior to 1943. An additional storm per year is likely missing prior to the advent of new technologies, quikscat was launched in 1999, and has been credited with allowing Chantal to be named during the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. The last two help determine whether or not a low area is an extratropical cyclone, subtropical cyclone. Christopher Landsea noted that the efforts to reanalyze the Atlantic hurricane database will not be able to recover observations of open ocean tropical cyclones that were just never taken. Researchers cannot assume that the Atlantic tropical cyclone database presents a complete depiction of frequency of events before the advent of satellite imagery in the mid-1960s, moreover, newly available advanced tools and techniques are also contributing toward monitoring about one additional Atlantic tropical cyclone per year since 2002. The project has currently reanalyzed storms from the period 1886 to 1955, in 2001, data for the years 1851–1885 were added to the official database from the Fernández-Partagás series of publications. Also, a conference was held at the University of South Carolina which proposed to increase the scope of HURDAT from a starting year of 1851 to a start of 1800. The conference also discussed ways of exchanging information for the inclusion of older tropical cyclones, while the reanalysis has mostly proceeded sequentially, notable exceptions have been made for the reanalysis of some significant tropical cyclones. In 2002, for the anniversary of Hurricane Andrew, the reanalysis was completed for the hurricane. In 2014, a reanalysis was completed for Hurricane Camille. Work by Michael Chenoweth, in collaboration with Cary Mock, increased knowledge of tropical cyclones in the Caribbean Sea for 1750 to 1786, there is agreement within tropical cyclone circles of doing an Atlantic-style reanalysis for other ocean basins. Some efforts are underway to start similar reanalyses across the western and eastern north Pacific Ocean and these tropical cyclone reanalyses are important, as theories concerning climate change and tropical cyclone trends hinge upon the quality of these databases. HURDAT List of tropical cyclones Michael Chenoweth, the 18th Century Climate of Jamaica
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The Bahamas
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The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
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Charleston, South Carolina
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Charleston had an estimated population of 132,609 in 2015. Charleston was founded as Charles Town—honoring King Charles II of England—in 1670 and its initial location at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River was abandoned in 1680 for its present site, which became the 5th-largest city in North America within 10 years. Despite its size, it remained unincorporated throughout the period, its government was handled directly by the state legislature and by its Anglican parish wardens. It adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783 at the close of the Revolutionary War. The Confederates burned the town prior to its evacuation but continued demand for the cotton and rice, along with growing industry. In 2016, Charleston was ranked the Worlds Best City by Travel + Leisure, the city proper consists of six distinct areas, the Peninsula or Downtown, West Ashley, Johns Island, James Island, Daniel Island, and the Cainhoy Peninsula. The old town fit into 4–5 square miles as late as the First World War, the city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area. The present city has an area of 127.5 square miles. North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River, Charleston Harbor runs about 7 miles southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 miles, surrounded on all sides except its entrance. Sullivans Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to itself south, the entrance itself is about 1 mile wide, it was originally only 18 feet deep, but began to be enlarged in the 1870s. The tidal rivers are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline, there is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor and the Cooper River is deep. Charleston has a subtropical climate, with mild winters, hot, humid summers. Summer is the wettest season, almost half of the rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through November, winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain. Measurable snow only occurs several times per decade at the most, however,6.0 in fell at the airport on December 23,1989, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8.0 in snowfall. The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F on June 2,1985, and June 24,1944, and the lowest was 7 °F on February 14,1899. At the airport, where records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F on August 1,1999. Hurricanes are a threat to the area during the summer and early fall
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French Broad River
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The French Broad River flows 218 miles from near the town of Rosman in Transylvania County, North Carolina, into the state of Tennessee. Its confluence with the Holston River at Knoxville is the beginning of the Tennessee River, the French Broad River begins just west of the Eastern Continental Divide. From there it flows northeasterly through the Appalachian Mountains, the river follows a general northeasterly direction through Transylvania, Henderson, and Buncombe counties. In Buncombe County, the flows through the city of Asheville. Downstream of Asheville, the river north through Madison County. After passing through the resort of Hot Springs in the Bald Mountains. In Cocke County, the passes through the community of Del Rio. The river then enters the waters of Douglas Lake, which is created by the Tennessee Valley Authoritys Douglas Dam in Sevier County. Near Sevierville, the French Broad River receives the flow of the Little Pigeon River, after flowing through a wide gap in Bays Mountain, it enters Knox County. It joins the Holston River to form the Tennessee at a known as Forks of the River at the eastern edge of Knoxville. The French Broad River was named by European settlers centuries ago because it was one of the two rivers in western North Carolina. The Indigenous Americans of this area, the Cherokee Indians, called it different names, Poelico, Agiqua in the mountains, Tahkeeosteh from Asheville down, the French called it the Agiqua, borrowing one of the Cherokee names. Douglas Dam, built on the lower French Broad by the Tennessee Valley Authority during the 1940s, is one of the larger TVA developments on a tributary of the Tennessee River. In 1987, the North Carolina General Assembly established the French Broad River State Trail as a blueway which follows the river for 67 miles, the paddle trail is a part of North Carolina State Trails Program, which is a section of the NC Division of Parks and Recreation. A system of point locations was created along the river for the trail. The portion of the French Broad River in Tennessee was designated a scenic river by the Tennessee Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. Wilma Dykeman wrote the book The French Broad about the river, the book brought public attention to concerns about the polluted condition of parts of the river. The river is also the subject of the monograph Watershed, The French Broad River by Jeff Rich, the following is a partial list of crossings of the French Broad from Brevard to the confluence with the Tennessee River. S
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Asheville, North Carolina
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Asheville is a city in and the county seat of Buncombe County, North Carolina, United States. It is the largest city in Western North Carolina, and the 11th largest city in North Carolina, the citys population was 87,236 according to the 2013 estimates. It is the city in the four-county Asheville metropolitan area. Asheville is home to the United States National Climatic Data Center, before the arrival of the Europeans, the land where Asheville now exists lay within the boundaries of the Cherokee Nation. In 1540, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto came to the area, bringing the first European visitors along with European diseases, the area was used as an open hunting ground until the middle of the 19th century. The history of Asheville, as a town, began in 1784, in that year, Colonel Samuel Davidson and his family settled in the Swannanoa Valley, redeeming a soldiers land grant from the state of North Carolina. Soon after building a log cabin at the bank of Christian Creek, Davidson was lured into the woods by a band of Cherokee hunters, Davidsons wife, child and female slave fled on foot overnight to Davidsons Fort 16 miles away. In response to the killing, Davidsons twin brother Major William Davidson and brother-in-law Colonel Daniel Smith formed an expedition to retrieve Samuel Davidsons body and avenge his murder. Months after the expedition, Major Davidson and other members of his family returned to the area. The United States Census of 1790 counted 1,000 residents of the area, Buncombe County was officially formed in 1792. The county seat, named Morristown in 1793, was established on a plateau where two old Indian trails crossed, in 1797, Morristown was incorporated and renamed Asheville after North Carolina Governor Samuel Ashe. For a time, an Enfield rifle manufacturing facility was located in the town, in late April 1865 troops under the overall command of Union Gen. Stoneman captured Asheville. Hartley, Stonemans Raid, p.362 After a negotiated departure, the years following the war were a time of economic and social hardship in Buncombe County, as throughout most of the defeated South. On October 2,1880, the Western North Carolina Railroad completed its line from Salisbury to Asheville, almost immediately it was sold and resold to the Richmond and Danville Railroad Company, becoming part of the Southern Railway in 1894. With the completion of the first railway, Asheville experienced a slow but steady growth as industrial plants increased in number and size, textile mills were established and plants were set up for the manufacture of wood and mica products, foodstuffs, and other commodities. The 21-mile distance between Hendersonville and Asheville of the former Asheville and Spartanburg Railroad was completed in 1886, by that point, the line was operated as part of the Richmond and Danville Railroad until 1894 and controlled by the Southern Railway afterward. Asheville had the first electric railway lines in the state of North Carolina. These would be replaced by buses in 1934, Asheville prospered in the decades of the 1910s and 1920s and at one point was the third largest city in the state, behind Charlotte and Wilmington
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Administrative divisions of Mexico
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The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence
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Tamaulipas
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Tamaulipas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas, is one of the 31 states which, with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 43 municipalities and its capital city is Ciudad Victoria, the capital city was named after Guadalupe Victoria, the first President of Mexico. It is located in Northeastern Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Veracruz to the southeast, San Luis Potosí to the southwest and Nuevo León to the west. To the north, it has a 370 km stretch of the U. S. –Mexico border along the state of Texas and this state is known to be both a territorial struggle for the Gulf Cartel and the Los Zetas. The name Tamaulipas is derived from Tamaholipa, a Huastec term in which the tam- prefix signifies place, there is no scholarly agreement on the meaning of holipa, but high hills is a common interpretation. Another explanation of the name is that it is derived from Ta ma holipam. In addition to the city, Ciudad Victoria, the states largest cities include Reynosa, Matamoros, Nuevo Laredo. The area known as Tamaulipas has been inhabited for at least 8,000 years, several different cultures have come and gone during that period. Tamaulipas was originally populated by the Olmec people and later by Chichimec and Huastec tribes, between 1445 and 1466, Mexica armies commanded by Moctezuma I Ilhuicamina conquered much of the territory and transformed it into a tributary region for the Mexica empire. However, the Aztecs never fully conquered certain mostly nomadic indigenous groups in the area, although Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs rather quickly, it took a gradual process for Spain to subjugate the inhabitants of Tamaulipas in the 16th and 17th centuries. The first permanent Spanish settlement in the area was Tampico in 1554, further settlement was done by Franciscan missionaries, widespread cattle and sheep ranching by the Spanish bolstered the area’s economy while forcing native populations from their original lands. Repeated indigenous rebellions kept the area unstable and weakened colonial interest in the region, what is now Tamaulipas was first incorporated as a separate province of New Spain in 1746 with the name Nuevo Santander. The local government capital during this time moved from Santander to San Carlos, the territory of this time spanned from the San Antonio river to the north east to the Gulf of Mexico, then south to the Panuco River near Tampico and west to the Sierra Madre Mountains. The area became a haven for rebellious Indians who fled there after increased Spanish settlements in Nuevo León, one of these groups was known as Lipan. By 1790 Europeans turned their attention from the groups and focused on containing the Apache invaders. In northeastern Coahuila and adjacent Texas, Spanish and Apache displacements created an ethnic mix. Here the local Indians mixed with displaced groups from Coahuila and Chihuahua, some groups, to escape the pressure, combined and migrated north into the Central Texas highlands. In 1824, after the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, during the fights between centralists and federalists that soon followed, the successful Texas Revolution led to the creation of the Republic of Texas in 1836
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Jamaica
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Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
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Padre Island
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Padre Island is the largest of the Texas barrier islands and is the worlds longest barrier island. It is part of the U. S. state of Texas, the island is located along Texas southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico and is noted for its white sandy beaches at the south end. He also founded the first mission in present-day Cameron County, Padre Island is the second-largest island by area in the contiguous United States, after Long Island in New York on the Atlantic Coast. It is about 113 miles long and 1.8 miles wide, stretching from the city of Corpus Christi, in the north, the island is oriented north-south, bordered by the Gulf of Mexico on the east, and Laguna Madre on the west. The islands northern end connects to Mustang Island by roadway, the southern end of the island is separated from Brazos Island by the Brazos Santiago Pass. The town of South Padre Island is located on its southern end, since 1964, the island has been divided by the artificial Port Mansfield Channel. The terms North Padre Island and South Padre Island are often used to refer to the portions of the island. Padre Island is included within the jurisdictions of Cameron, Kenedy, Kleberg, Nueces, the island was used and occupied seasonally by the Karankawa Indians at the time of European encounter. During Spanish rule, Father José Nicolás Ballí, owned the island in the 19th century, Padre Island had been granted in 1759 to his Spanish colonist grandfather, Nicolás Ballí, by King Charles III of Spain. The younger Ballís parents were both Spanish immigrants to Mexico and owned vast amounts of land by royal grants, José Nicolás Ballí served as a secular priest and missionary, he also managed large amounts of land where he ran a ranching operation. In 1804 he founded the first ethnic Mexican settlement on the island as the town of El Rancho Santa Cruz de Buena Vista, in 1827 after Mexico achieved independence, Father Ballí requested a clear title to the property of Padre Island. His mother Rosa María Hinojosa de Ballí had made a joint application with him for eleven leagues of the island, after Ballí died in 1829, the government granted title to the island to him posthumously, issued jointly in his name and that of his nephew Juan José Ballí. He had bequeathed half the island to his nephew, who had worked with him on his ranch, geologically speaking, Padre Island is a young island, having formed in just the last several thousand years. It is one of 300 barrier islands stretching from Maine to Mexico and these natural barrier islands act to protect the mainland from the direct onslaught of storms. Padre Island began forming as a sand bar some 4500 years ago. Geologic speculation indicates the island may be 1000 to 1500 years younger. It is theorized that Padre Island formed from offshore shoals, with later growth aided by spit accretion, after a history of shifting, abandonment and reestablishment by storm breaches, many tidal inlets were slowly closed. Short islands were joined to form todays longer islands, Padre Island graphically illustrates the life and sequences of a barrier shoreline, accretionary or building phase, equilibrium or stability phase, and erosion or destructional state
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Naguabo, Puerto Rico
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Naguabo is a municipality in Puerto Rico located in the east coast of the island, north of Humacao, south of Río Grande and Ceiba, and east of Las Piedras. Naguabo is spread over 8 wards and Naguabo Pueblo and it is part of the San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area. Naguabo is said to be the birthplace of the pastelillo de chapín and it is trunkfish wrapped inside a flour dough that is deep fried. Pastelillo de chapín can be found in almost any seaside establishment on the island, Naguabo is located in the southeast region of Puerto Rico. The northern part is within the Luquillo Mountain Range, which contain the Picos of the Este and it operates from 6,00 a. m. using the Pisicorre bus. Historia de Naguabo by Carmelo Rosario Natal List of Puerto Ricans History of Puerto Rico Did you know-Puerto Rico
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Aguada, Puerto Rico
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Aguada is a municipality of Puerto Rico, located in the western coastal valley region bordering the Atlantic Ocean, east of Rincón, west of Aguadilla and Moca, and north of Anasco and Mayaguez. It is part of the Aguadilla-Isabela-San Sebastián Metropolitan Statistical Area, Aguadas population is spread over 17 wards and Aguada Pueblo, which is the downtown area and the administrative center of the city. According to sources, a Taíno settlement called Aymamón was located close to the Culebrinas River, although there is dispute to it, some sources believe that Christopher Columbus entered the island of Puerto Rico through Aguada on his second voyage in November 1493. The nearby city of Aguadilla also claims to be the site of Columbus arrival, while there is no specific historical proof, it is known that many of the first attempts to set up a town on the island were in Aguada. In July 1510, Cristóbal de Sotomayor received control of the area from Juan Ponce de León, however, in 1511 the settlement was attacked and burned by the local Taínos. That same year, the King ordered a monastery established in the island, the name of the region was then changed to San Francisco de Asís de la Aguada, since the friars were Franciscan. The monastery was finished in 1516, in 1526, King Charles I of Spain officially founded the Aguada settlement. However, in 1529, Taínos attacked the monastery killing the friars, still, Aguada resurfaced and became a stopover point for ships on their way to Spain from South America. In September 17,1662, King Charles II of Spain emitted a Royal Decree declaring Aguada as a village, and assigning Juan López de Segura as First Lieutenant. On 1737, Philip V, King of Spain, declared that all mail en route to Venezuela and other South American countries from Puerto Rico must exit from Aguadas ports, also, an increase in population has been attributed to possible desertions from foreign merchant ships. In the early years of the 20th Century, two disasters affected the town of Aguada, First, a huge fire in 1912 destroyed most of the town buildings, including the old city hall, which contained all the city archives. Also, an earthquake in 1918 destroyed the church and other structures, Aguada is located in the west coast of the island of Puerto Rico. It borders the Atlantic Ocean and Aguadilla on the north, Moca on the east, Añasco on the south, Aguada is part of the Coastal Plains of the West, which features alluvial and fertile terrain. Although the terrain is mostly plain, there are mountains to the south. Among the mountains located in Aguada are the Atalaya peak, located within the limits of Aguada, also, the San Francisco mountain, which is the birthpoint of the Cordillera Central, and Cerro Gordo, peaking at 260m. Aguadas hydrographic system is composed of the Río Culebrinas, Caño Madre Vieja, Río Grande, Río Cañas, Río Culebra, Río Guayabo, all of these rivers flow into the Mona Passage. There are 19 barrios or wards in Aguada, Aguada is part of the Porta del Sol touristic region in Puerto Rico, the Porta del Sol website highlights Aguadas town square and beaches as its most notable touristic attractions. It also mentions landmarks like the Espinar Hermitage Ruins and a children playground, another landmarks and places of interest in Aguada are, Aguada Museum located in a former railroad station building
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Humacao, Puerto Rico
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Humacao is a municipality in Puerto Rico located in the eastern coast of the island, north of Yabucoa, south of Naguabo, east of Las Piedras, and west of Vieques Passage. Humacao is spread over 10 wards and Humacao Pueblo and it is part of the San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area. The region of what is now Humacao belonged to the Taíno region of Jumaca, the region was led by cacique Jumacao. The Taíno settlement was located on the shores of what is called now the Humacao River, in the letter, Jumacao argued that their people were virtually prisoners of Spain. It is said that King Charles was so moved by the letter that he ordered the Governor to obey the terms of the treaty, during the early 16th Century, the region was populated by cattle ranchers. However, since most of them resided in San Juan. At the beginning of the 18th Century, specifically around 1721–1722, still, some settlers remained and by 1776, historian Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra visited the area and wrote about the population there. By 1793, the church was recognized as parish and the settlement was recognized as town. By 1894, Humacao was recognized as a city, due to its thriving population, buildings and structures like a hospital, a theater, and a prison were built in the city. In 1899, after the United States invasion of the island as a result of the Spanish–American War and this lasted until 1914, when the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico voted on splitting both towns again. Recently, Humacao has been led by mayor Marcelo Trujillo Panisse for more than a decade, a basketball star in his early years, Trujillo has pushed for the development of infrastructure facilities for sports and the fine arts in the city. On March,2008, a new Roman Catholic diocese was established as the Fajardo-Humacao diocese and its first bishop is Monsignor Eusebio Chebito Ramos Morales, a maunabeño who was rector of the Humacaos main parish in the 1990s. Humacao is located in the southeast coast of Puerto Rico and it is bordered by the municipalities of Naguabo to the north, Yabucoa to the south, and Las Piedras to the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders the city in the east, Humacao is located in the region of the Eastern Coastal Plains, with most of its territory being flat. There are minor elevations to the southwest, like Candelero Hill, Humacaos territory covers 45 square miles. Two islands belong to Humacao, Cayo Santiago and Cayo Batata, Humacaos hydrographic system consists of many rivers and creeks like Humacao, Antón Ruíz, and Candelero. Some of its creeks are Frontera, Mariana, and Del Obispo, one of the most notable tourist mainstays is the Palmas del Mar resort, which is the islands largest resort. This megaresort is composed of over 3,000 acres of land, the resort contains over 20 tennis courts, two world-class golf courses, beaches, several restaurants and a riding center
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Aguadilla, Puerto Rico
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Aguadilla is spread over 15 wards and Aguadilla Pueblo, the administrative center of the city. It is a city of the Aguadilla-Isabela-San Sebastián Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to sources, a Taíno settlement called Amamón was located close to the Culebrinas River, the present territory of Aguadilla was originally part of the territory of Aguada. In 1775, the foundation of Aguadilla by Don Luis de Córdova was approved, but it wasnt until 1780 that the territory was properly segregated, making the founding of the town official. Originally, Aguadilla was constituted by the Victoria and Higüey wards and this region was already inhabited and known as Aguadilla before 1770. In 1776, Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in his description of the towns of the island, nevertheless, according to Dr. Agustín Stahl in his Foundation of Aguadilla, it was not until 1780 that the town was officially founded. The construction of a new church and the proceedings to become an independent village began in the 1775, the population in the Village of Aguadilla continued to increase constantly mainly due to its excellent port and strategic location in the route of the boats. In 1831, according to Don Pedro Tomás de Córdova, the party of Aguadilla belonged to Aguada, Don Pedro Tomás de Córdova mentions the road of Aguadilla formed by Punta Borinquen and San Francisco, as the fordeadero of the ships that travel from Europe to Havana and Mexico. He adds that its port is the most frequented in the Island due to the proportions that it offers to refresh all class of ship, in 1860, Aguadilla was officially declared a village. In January 1841 a Royal Order transferred the judicial party from Aguada to Aguadilla, in 1878, according to Don Manuel Ebeda y Delgado, the territorial organization of Aguadilla had varied a little. At this time Plainela, Higüey, and Mangual wards are not mentioned, the Dos Palmas ward appears as Palmar. Also at this time, three new wards are mentioned, Guerrero, Caimital Alto, and Caimital Bajo, in 1898, even with the change of sovereignty in the island, the territorial organization of Aguadilla is the same to that of 1878. Nevertheless, in the Census of 1899, downtown Aguadilla appears constituted by Higüey, Iglesia, Nueva, Santa Barbara, malezas ward appears subdivided into Maleza Alta and Maleza Baja. Aguadilla was the site of the U. S. militarys Ramey Air Force Base for almost five decades, during this period, Aguadilla was home to the Strategic Air Command 72d Bombardment Wing, Heavy equipped with B-52s, a very strategic facility during the Cold War. Many Americans stationed in the area did not even realize that the all around them were even American citizens. Though the infrastructure exists, it was handed over to the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in 1973. The aerial facilities are now controlled by the Puerto Rico Ports Authority. The facilities now make up the Rafael Hernandez International Airport, the barracks now host the Faro Inn Suites, a 79-room hotel
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San Juan, Puerto Rico
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San Juan is the capital and most populous municipality in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 395,326 making it the 46th-largest city under the jurisdiction of the United States, San Juan was founded by Spanish colonists in 1521, who called it Ciudad de Puerto Rico. Puerto Ricos capital is the second oldest European-established capital city in the Americas, after Santo Domingo, today, San Juan is Puerto Ricos most important seaport, and is the islands manufacturing, financial, cultural, and tourism center. San Juan is also a city of the San Juan-Caguas-Fajardo Combined Statistical Area. In 1508, Juan Ponce de León founded the settlement which he called Caparra. In 1521, the settlement was given its formal name. On the other hand, the name for the island became the name for the city only after the occupation of the island by the United States. San Juan, as a settlement of the Spanish Empire, was used by merchant, because of its prominence in the Caribbean, a network of fortifications was built to protect the transports of gold and silver from the New World to Europe. Because of the cargoes, San Juan became a target of the foreign powers of the time. The city was witness to attacks from the English led by Sir Francis Drake in 1595 and by George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, artillery from San Juans fort, El Morro, repelled Drake, however, Clifford managed to land troops and lay siege to the city. After a few months of English occupation, Clifford was forced to abandon the siege when his troops began to suffer from exhaustion, in 1625 the city was sacked by Dutch forces led by Captain Balduino Enrico, but El Morro withstood the assault and was not taken. The Dutch were counterattacked by Captain Juan de Amezquita and 50 members of the militia on land. The land battle left 60 Dutch soldiers dead and Enrico with a wound to his neck which he received from the hands of Amezquita. The Dutch ships at sea were boarded by Puerto Ricans who defeated those aboard, after a long battle, the Spanish soldiers and volunteers of the citys militia were able to defend the city from the attack and save the island from an invasion. On October 21, Enrico set La Fortaleza and the city ablaze, captains Amezquita and Andre Botello decided to put a stop to the destruction and led 200 men in an attack against the enemys front and rear guard. They drove Enrico and his men from their trenches and into the ocean in their haste to reach their ships, the British attack in 1797, during the French Revolutionary Wars, led by Sir Ralph Abercromby. His army laid siege to the city but was forced to withdraw in defeat as the Puerto Rican defenses proved more resilient than those of Trinidad. The USS Yale captured a Spanish freighter, the Rita in San Juan Bay, on May 9, Yale fought a brief battle with an auxiliary cruiser of Spain, name unknown, resulting in a Spanish victory
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Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico
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Santurce is one of the districts of San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States. It is also the biggest and most populated of all the districts in the capital, with a total population of 94,067, Santurce has a bigger population than most of the municipalities of Puerto Rico. As a result, it is one of the most densely populated areas of the island. Santurce is one of the top ten most-populated areas of the island, the 2000 U. S. Census recorded a total population of 94,067 people living in an area of 5.24 square miles. It is the most populous borough in Puerto Rico and one of the most densely populated areas of San Juan, geographically speaking, Santurce is a peninsula that is attached to the mainland in the east, where it borders with the Isla Verde district of Carolina. It is 7.6 km long from west to east, to the south is the Martín Peña Channel, which separates Santurce from the northern barrios of former municipio Río Piedras, Hato Rey Norte, Hato Rey Central, and Oriente. To the west is San Juan Bay, where three bridges, Puente Dos Hermanos, Puente G. Esteves and Puente San Antonio connect Santurce with La Isleta where Old San Juan is located. It has an area of 8.70 square miles composed of 5.24 square miles of land and 3.46 square miles of water area. The topography is flat with low hills toward the central areas and swampy areas to the south along the Martín Peña Channel. The highest point is at Monteflores with 23 meters, Santurce is located along the north-eastern coast of Puerto Rico. It lies south of the Atlantic Ocean, east of Old San Juan, the district occupies an area of 5.24 square miles of land and 3.46 of water. Santurce was originally settled by the native Indians and later by slaves of African ancestry who arrived from the neighboring Danish West Indies, throughout the centuries, the district continued to grow due to its crossfade location between San Juan and its southern suburbs. Many years after his arrival he was granted the title of Count of Santurce by the Spanish Crown, with his newly acquired title and influence, the district was renamed after his title. The neighboring Condado also received its present-name from Ubarris title, as the name literally translates to county. The Treaty of Paris provided that Cuba would become independent from Spain and it ceded to the United States Puerto Rico, and other adjacent islands then under Spanish sovereignty in the Caribbean, as well as Guam and the Philippines in Asia-Pacific region. The United States Army established the now historical Camp Las Casas, the camp was the main training base of the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry The Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was a segregated U. S. Army Regiment which was later renamed the 65th Infantry Regiment. Correction on the statement, The 65th Infantry Regiment was not segregated. It was a Regular Army Regiment that accepted personnel of every race but blacks, there was a black Regiment in the Island for that purpose, the base continued in operation until 1946, when it was finally closed and the Residencial Las Casas now stands
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Hispaniola
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Hispaniola is the 22nd-largest island in the world, located in the Caribbean island group, the Greater Antilles. It is the second largest island in the Caribbean after Cuba, two sovereign nations share the 76, 192-square-kilometre island. The only other shared island in the Caribbean is Saint Martin, Hispaniola is the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, founded by Christopher Columbus on his voyages in 1492 and 1493. The island was called by various names by its native people, fernández de Oviedo and de las Casas both recorded that the island was called Haiti by the Taíno. DAnghiera added another name, Quizqueia, but later shows that the word does not seem to derive from the original Arawak Taíno language. When Columbus took possession of the island in 1492, he named it Insula Hispana, meaning the Spanish Island in Latin and La Isla Española, meaning the Spanish Island, in Spanish. De las Casas shortened the name to Española, and when d‘Anghiera detailed his account of the island in Latin, he rendered its name as Hispaniola. Due to Taíno, Spanish and French influences on the island, historically the whole island was referred to as Haiti, Hayti, Santo Domingo, St. Domingue. The name Haïti was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1804, as the name of independent Saint-Domingue. It was also adopted as the name of independent Santo Domingo, as the Republic of Spanish Haiti. Christopher Columbus inadvertently landed on the island during his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, where his flagship, a contingent of men were left at an outpost christened La Navidad, on the north coast of present-day Haiti. The island was inhabited by the Taíno, one of the indigenous Arawak peoples, the Taino were at first tolerant of Columbus and his crew, and helped him to construct La Navidad on what is now Môle-Saint-Nicolas, Haiti, in December 1492. European colonization of the began in earnest the following year. In 1496 the town of Nueva Isabela was founded, after being destroyed by a hurricane, it was rebuilt on the opposite side of the Ozama River and called Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European settlement in the Americas, several 16th century writers estimated the 1492 population of Hispaniola at over 1 million people. Twentieth-century estimates of the range from 60,000 to 8,000,000. Harsh enslavement by Spanish colonists, redirection of food supplies and labor towards the colonists, had a impact on both mortality and fertility over the first quarter century. Colonial administrators and Dominican and Hyeronimite priests observed that the search for gold, demographic data from two provinces in 1514 shows a low birth rate consistent with a 3. 5% annual population decline
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USS Tennessee (ACR-10)
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The second USS Tennessee, also referred to as Armored Cruiser No. 10, and later renamed Memphis, was a United States Navy armored cruiser, after a brief visit to Puerto Rico on the return voyage, the warships arrived back at Hampton Roads on 26 November. On 14 June, Tennessee sailed for Europe in company with Washington and reached Royan and she returned home in August but departed Hampton Roads on 12 October for the Pacific, where she became flagship for the second division of the Pacific Fleet. Tennessee then patrolled off the California coast until 24 August 1908 but suffered a boiler explosion on 5 June. Since the ships 16 boilers were sub-divided into separate watertight compartments, once repairs had been made and her tour had ended, Tennessee sailed for Samoa, arriving at Pago Pago on 23 September to resume service with the Pacific Fleet. On 15 May 1910, she arrived at Bahía Blanca to represent the United States at the celebration of the independence of Argentina. She returned to Hampton Roads on 22 November and then engaged in battle practice off the Virginia coast into February 1911. Following a Mardi Gras visit to New Orleans and a visit to New York City early in March, placed in reserve at the Portsmouth Navy Yard on 15 June 1911, she remained on the east coast for 18 months before departing Philadelphia on 12 November 1912 for the Mediterranean. Arriving off Smyrna, Turkey on 1 December, she remained there protecting American citizens and property during the First Balkan War until 3 May 1913, when she headed home. After reaching Hampton Roads on the 23rd, Tennessee operated on the East Coast until entering the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at Philadelphia on 23 October, on 2 May 1914, she became receiving ship at the New York Navy Yard. On 4 November, Tennessee arrived in Beirut, what was then Syria, in August, she transported the 1st Regiment, Marine Expeditionary Force, and the Marine Artillery Battalion to Haiti. From 28 January-24 February 1916, the served as flagship of a cruiser squadron off Port-au-Prince. In March, she embarked a group of dignitaries at Hampton Roads for a two-month, round trip cruise to Montevideo, Uruguay. On 25 May 1916, Tennessee was renamed Memphis, honoring the city of Memphis, Tennessee, shortly after 12,00, Memphis began to roll heavily and Captain Beach observed an unexpected heavy swell developing. Memphis and Castine both made preparations to leave the harbor and began to steam, Memphis expected to be able to get underway at about 16,35. Conditions in the harbor had deteriorated badly by 15,45, by 16,25, water began to enter the ship via her funnels,70 ft above the waterline, putting out the fires in her boilers and preventing her from raising enough steam to get underway. She began to strike the harbor bottom at 16,40, damaging her propellers just as she was raising enough steam to begin moving. The waves rolled her heavily, caused her to strike the harbor bottom, by 17,00, she had been driven under cliffs along the coast of the harbor and was resting on the harbor bottom
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Belize
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Belize, formerly British Honduras, is an independent country on the eastern coast of Central America. Belize is bordered on the north by Mexico, on the south and west by Guatemala and its mainland is about 290 km long and 110 km wide. Belize has an area of 22,800 square kilometres and a population of 368,310 and it has the lowest population density in Central America. The countrys population growth rate of 1. 87% per year is the second highest in the region, Belizes abundance of terrestrial and marine species and its diversity of ecosystems gives it a key place in the globally significant Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Belize has a society, composed of many cultures and languages that reflect its rich history. English is the language of Belize, with Belizean Kriol being the unofficial language. Over half the population is multilingual, with Spanish being the second most common spoken language, Belize is considered a Central American and Caribbean nation with strong ties to both the Latin American and Caribbean regions. Belize is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, Belize is known for its September Celebrations, its extensive coral reefs, and punta music. The origin of the name Belize remains unclear, the earliest known record of the name appears in the journal of the Dominican priest Fray José Delgado, dating to 1677. Delgado recorded the names of three rivers that he crossed while travelling north along the Caribbean coast, Rio Soyte, Rio Xibum. The names of these waterways, which correspond to the Sittee River, Sibun River and it is likely that Delgados Balis was actually the Mayan word belix, meaning muddy-watered. Others have suggested that the name derives from a Spanish pronunciation of the name of the Scottish buccaneer Peter Wallace, there is no proof that Wallace settled in this area and some scholars have characterized this claim as a myth. Writers and historians have suggested other possible etymologies, including postulated French. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly 500 years of European domination, prior to about 2500 BC, some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages, they later domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Maya core culture, between about 2500 BC and 250 AD, the basic institutions of Maya civilisation emerged. The peak of this occurred during the classic period, which began about 250 AD. The Maya civilisation spread across what is now Belize around 1500 BC, the recorded history of the middle and southern regions is dominated by Caracol, an urban political centre that may have supported over 140,000 people. North of the Maya Mountains, the most important political centre was Lamanai, in the late Classic Era of Maya civilisation, as many as 1 million people may have lived in the area that is now Belize
