1.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
2.
1916
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As of the start of 1916, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Below, the events of World War I have the WWI prefix, january 1 – The British Royal Army Medical Corps carries out the first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. January 9 – WWI, Gallipoli Campaign, Last British troops evacuated from Gallipoli, as the Ottoman Empire prevails over a joint British, january 13 – WWI, Battle of Wadi, Ottoman Empire forces defeat the Allied British during the Mesopotamian campaign in modern-day Iraq. January 24 In Browning, Montana, the drops from +6.7 °C to -48.8 °C in one day. Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co, the Supreme Court of the United States upholds the national income tax. January 29 – WWI, Paris is bombed by German zeppelins for the first time, january 30 – The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and the British oficial Henry McMahon concerning the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire ends. January 31 – WWI, An attack is planned on Verdun, february 3 – Parliament buildings in Ottawa, Canada are burned down. February 9 –6.00 p. m. – Tristan Tzara founds the art movement Dadaism, february 11 Emma Goldman is arrested for lecturing on birth control in the United States. The Baltimore Symphony Orchestra presents its first concert in the United States, the Romanian football club Sportul Studențesc is founded in Bucharest. February 12 – WWI, Battle of Salaita Hill – South African, february 21 – WWI, The Battle of Verdun begins in France. March 7 – In Munich German automobile company BMW is founded, march 8–9 – Mexican Revolution, Pancho Villa leads about 500 Mexican raiders in an attack against Columbus, New Mexico, killing 12 U. S. soldiers. A garrison of the U. S. 13th Cavalry Regiment fights back, march 15 – United States President Woodrow Wilson sends 12,000 United States troops over the U. S. –Mexico border to pursue Pancho Villa, the 13th Cavalry regiment enters Mexican territory. March 16 – Mexican Revolution, The U. S. 7th and 10th Cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the border to join the hunt for Villa. March 22 The temporary Emperor of China, Yuan Shikai, abdicates the throne, J. R. R. Tolkien marries Edith Bratt in England. April – The toggle light switch is invented by William J. Newton, april 11 – WWI, Egyptian Expeditionary Force begins occupation of the Sinai Peninsula. April 20 – The Chicago Cubs play their first game at Weeghman Park, april 22 – The Chinese troop transport SS Hsin-Yu capsizes off the Chinese coast, at least 1,000 are killed. April 24–30 – The Easter Rising occurs in Ireland, april 27 – WWI, Gas attack at Hulluch in France, The 47th Brigade, 16th Division is decimated in one of the most heavily concentrated German gas attacks of the war. April 29 – WWI, Siege of Kut ends with the surrender of British forces to the Ottoman Empire at Kut-al-Amara on the Tigris in Basra Vilayet during the Mesopotamian campaign, may 16 United States Marines invade the Dominican Republic
3.
Head of state
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A head of state is the public persona that officially represents the national unity and legitimacy of a sovereign state. In some countries, the head of state is a figurehead with limited or no executive power, while in others. Former French president Charles de Gaulle, while developing the current Constitution of France, some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of models. An independent nation state normally has a head of state, the non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role. In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature and it also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. In parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system, usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament. For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, so, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure presidential system. These officials are excluded completely from the executive, they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, hence their states governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majestys Government or His/Her Excellencys Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist, the constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister and responsible to the Diet. The emperor is defined in the constitution as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people and he is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints the prime minister, Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. In contrast, the contact the President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the court to test its constitutionality. The most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the President of Israel, semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a minister who is chosen by the president
4.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
5.
Governor-General of New Zealand
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The Governor-General of New Zealand is the viceregal representative of the monarch of New Zealand, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The office is mandated by letters patent and the officeholder is formally titled the Governor-General, when travelling abroad, the governor-general is seen as the representative of New Zealand, and of the Queen of New Zealand. For this reason, the governor-general is viewed by some as the de facto head of state, under the Niue Constitution Act, the governor-general also represents the monarch in Niue. The governor-general initially represented the British monarch and the government of the United Kingdom, therefore, many officeholders have been British statesmen. In 1972, Sir Denis Blundell became the first New Zealand resident to be appointed to the office, governors-general are not appointed for a specific term, but are generally expected to serve for five years. The current Governor-General is Dame Patsy Reddy, who has served since 28 September 2016, administrative support for the governor-general is provided by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Appointment to the Office is made by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of New Zealand, the Prime Ministers advice has sometimes been the result of a decision by Cabinet, although there is no requirement for this. The appointment of Anand Satyanand met with the approval of every leader in the House of Representatives, by convention the Leader of the Opposition is also consulted on the appointment, however this too has not always been the case. This suggestion was in turn criticised by the Government, as Sir Edmund had backed Labour in 1975 as part of the Citizens for Rowling campaign, however, the right granted by the convention was not exercised directly by a New Zealand Prime Minister until 1967. Although non-partisan while in office, there have been a number of appointments of Governors-General to the office that have attracted considerable controversy, despite their political backgrounds, neither of these appointments could be said to have discharged their duties in a partisan way. There has often been speculation that a member of the Royal Family might take up the position, before the Governor-General enters office, his or her commission of appointment is publicly read in the presence of the Chief Justice of New Zealand and the members of the Executive Council. The Governor-General must take the Oath of Allegiance and the oath for the due execution of the office, from time to time, there have been proposals to elect the Governor-General. When first drafted by then Governor George Grey, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 contained provision for the Governor to be elected by New Zealands Parliament. This provision was removed from the enactment, probably because the Colonial Office wanted to keep a check on New Zealands colonial government. In 1887 Sir George Grey, by then also a former Premier, the Bill was narrowly defeated 46–48, being opposed by the government of Harry Atkinson. In 2006 political commentator Colin James suggested that the Governor-General could be elected by a 60% majority of votes cast in Parliament, James argued that the New Zealand public should be given the ability to choose the Queens representative, and that the current system is undemocratic and not transparent. National MP Nikki Kaye queried whether several one-member parties in parliament could veto the decision, the Republican Movement responded that the method would ensure appointments were made that most MPs and parties found acceptable. The Governor-General holds office at the pleasure of the Queen, under clause II of the Letters Patent
6.
Arthur Foljambe, 2nd Earl of Liverpool
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On his mothers side he descended from Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, the architect. He was educated at Eton and the Sandhurst before joining the Rifle Brigade, Foljambe served in the Second Boer War and was promoted to Captain. In July 1901 he was appointed an extra aide-de-camp to the Earl Cadogan and he retired from the army in 1906. Liverpool succeeded his father in the earldom in 1907 and took his seat in the House of Lords on the Liberal benches, in July 1909 he was appointed Comptroller of the Household in the Liberal administration of H. H. Asquith, a post he held until 1912. The latter year he was appointed Governor of New Zealand, in 1917 the office was raised in dignity to that of Governor-General of New Zealand. The same year Liverpool was also admitted to the Privy Council and his term was extended to cover the visit of the Prince of Wales. He retired as Governor-General in 1920 and was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 7 October 1920, during the First World War, Liverpool conferred his name upon a New Zealand infantry regiment. The New Zealand Rifle Brigade was formed in 1915, served with the New Zealand Division during the war and was disbanded in 1919, Lord Liverpool married the Hon. Annette Louise Monck, daughter of Henry Monck, 5th Viscount Monck, in 1897. In the 1918 New Year Honours, Annette, Countess of Liverpool was appointed Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire and he owned Hartsholme Hall from 1909 to 1939. He died at his home Canwick Hall in May 1941, aged 70, the Countess of Liverpool died in May 1948, aged 73. Works by or about Arthur Foljambe, 2nd Earl of Liverpool at Internet Archive
7.
19th New Zealand Parliament
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The 19th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It opened on 24 June 1915, following the 1914 election and it was dissolved on 27 November 1919 in preparation for 1919 election. The 19th Parliament opened on 24 June 1915, following the 1914 general election and it sat for six sessions, and was dissolved on 27 November 1919. The 19th Parliament was the term of the Reform Party government. William Massey, the leader of the Reform Party, remained Prime Minister, two small left-wing parties, the Social Democratic Party and the loosely grouped remnants of the United Labour Party, also held seats, and there was one left-wing independent. During the 19th Parliament, the Social Democrats and most of the United Labour Party merged to form the modern Labour Party, there were 616,043 electors on the European roll, with 521,525 voting, including 5,618 informal votes. Turnout including Maori voters was 540,075, the following table shows votes at and party strengths immediately after the 1914 election,76 general and 4 Māori electorates existed for the 19th Parliament. Thomas Rhodes, the Liberal Party MP for Thames, changed affiliation to the Reform Party in 1915, the Social Democratic Party and the loose United Labour Party grouping merged to form the modern Labour Party on 7 July 1916. One ULP member, Bill Veitch, rejected the merger, James Escott died on 28 July 1916. Pahiatua by-election,1916 — won by Harold Smith Robert McNab died on 3 February 1917, hawkes Bay by-election,1917 — won by John Findlay Taare Parata died on 8 January 1918. Southern Maori by-election,1918 — won by Hopere Uru Robert Fletcher died on 4 September 1918, wellington Central by-election,1918 — won by Peter Fraser Henry Okey died on 13 September 1918 Taranaki by-election,1918 — won by Sydney Smith Alfred Hindmarsh died on 13 November 1918. Wellington South by-election,1918 — won by Bob Semple David Buick died on 18 November 1918, palmerston by-election,1918 — won by Jimmy Nash James Colvin died on 29 October 1919. Seat remained vacant, as it was two months until the general election. William Stewart resigned in March 1917, Bay of Islands by-election,1915 — won by William Stewart Bay of Islands by-election,1917 — won by Vernon Reed Paddy Webb resigned in November 1917. He then challenged the government to fight the resulting by-election on the issue of conscription, the government declined the challenge, and did not contest the by-election. Grey by-election,1917 — won by Paddy Webb Alexander Herdman resigned in February 1918, Herdman, as Attorney-General, had just appointed himself to a judicial position, and was resigning in order to take up this role. Wellington North by-election,1918 — won by John Luke William Thomas Jennings lost his seat in May 1915 when his election the year was declared void. Taumarunui by-election,1915 — won by William Thomas Jennings Vernon Reed lost his seat in May 1915 when his election the year was declared void
8.
New Zealand Reform Party
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The Reform Party, formally the New Zealand Political Reform League, was New Zealands second major political party, having been founded as a conservative response to the original Liberal Party. It was in government between 1912 and 1928, and later formed a coalition with the United Party, and then merged with United to form the modern National Party. The Liberal Party, founded by John Ballance and fortified by Richard Seddon, was dominant in New Zealand politics at the beginning of the 20th century. The conservative opposition, consisting only of independents, was disorganised and demoralised, gradually, however, the Liberals began to falter — the first blow came with the death of Richard Seddon, their popular leader, but other factors contributed to their decline. Importantly for conservatives, the Liberals were slowly losing support from small farmers, having achieved the land reforms, farmers had little reason to continue their support the Liberals, and drifted towards the socially conservative opposition. The Liberals were split between the farmers and the workers, attempting to both and therefore satisfying neither. The attempts of the Liberals to win back the vote were decried by conservatives as socialistic. The conservative opposition, which pledged its opposition to the alleged socialist tendencies of the Liberals, was strengthened, the foundation of the Reform Party was closely associated with this return of the opposition to political significance, and with growing agitation against the Liberal Partys alleged socialism. Also closely linked to the group were the Political Reform League, Aucklands National Association, the opposition began referring to itself as the Reform Party in 1909, and adopted a common platform for contesting elections. Among the partys important policy planks were farmers freehold and the reform of the public service, despite campaigning heavily against the governments socialism, it did not propose to undo the Liberal Partys labour and welfare reforms. In the 1911 elections, the Reform Party managed to win thirty-seven seats compared with thirty-three for the Liberals, supporters of the Liberals denied that Reform had won a mandate to rule, however, pointing out that the country quota worked to inflate Reforms vote. Nevertheless, it did not take long for the Liberal government, now ruling only with the support of independents, william Massey became Prime Minister on 10 July 1912. In government, the Reform Party implemented many of its policies regarding freehold, many other Liberal-era policies were not changed, however, and Reform gained further support from disillusioned members of the Liberal Party. A dockworkers strike in 1913 was also broken, the strikes prompted considerable concern about socialism in certain sectors of society, boosting Reforms results in the 1914 elections. In the 1919 elections, Reform further strengthened its position, despite the emergence of a single united Labour Party, in the 1922 elections, however, the approach of depression cost the government considerably, and Reform was forced to build an unstable coalition of independents. After a period under interim leader Francis Bell, Reform chose Gordon Coates as its new leader, Coates, while not regarded as politically astute, was relatively popular with the public, and campaigned well. In the 1925 elections, Reform won a high number of seats — fifty-five, compared with twelve for Labour. This victory was not as pronounced in the statistics for the vote, however — many believed that Reform had profited from the three-party configuration
9.
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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The Prime Minister of New Zealand is the head of government of New Zealand. The current prime minister is Bill English of the National Party, the prime minister is the most senior government minister, and chairs cabinet meetings. The office exists by a convention, which originated in New Zealands former colonial power. The convention stipulates that the Governor-General of New Zealand must select as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Representatives and this individual is typically the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The title prime minister had made its first formal appearance in the 1873 Schedule of the Civil List Act and this was changed in 1869 to premier. That title remained in use for more than 30 years, being changed by Richard Seddon to prime minister in 1901 during his tenure in office. Following the declaration of New Zealand as a dominion in 1907, the office of prime minister is not defined by codified laws, but by unwritten customs known as constitutional conventions which developed in Britain and were replicated in New Zealand. The Prime Minister is leader of the cabinet, and takes a coordinating role, the Cabinet Manual 2008 provides an outline of the prime ministers powers and responsibilities. The post of minister is, like other ministerial positions. However, the convention has long since established that the prime minister must have. Historically, this has meant that the prime minister is the parliamentary leader of the largest political party in the House of Representatives. By constitutional convention, the minister holds formal power to advise the sovereign. As head of government, the prime minister alone has the right to advise the governor-general to, Appoint, dismiss, call elections by advising the governor-general to dissolve parliament. The governor-general may reject the advice to dissolve parliament if the minister has recently lost a vote of confidence. The prime minister is regarded by convention as first among equals and they do hold the most senior post in government, but are also required to adhere to any decisions taken by cabinet, as per the convention of cabinet collective responsibility. The ability to appoint and dismiss ministers, furthermore, the MMP electoral system has complicated this, as the prime minister may have to consult with another party leader. The influence a prime minister is likely to have as leader of the dominant party and these powers may give more direct control over subordinates than is attached to the prime ministers role. The power gained simply from being central to most significant decision-making, in addition, like all other ministers and members of parliament, the prime minister receives annual allowances for travel and lodging, as do the prime ministers spouse and children
10.
William Massey
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William Ferguson Massey, often known as Bill Massey or Farmer Bill, was the 19th Prime Minister of New Zealand, from 1912 to 1925, and the founder of the Reform Party. He is widely considered to have one of the more skilled politicians of his time. After Richard Seddon, he is the second-longest-serving Prime Minister of New Zealand, Massey was born in 1856 into a Protestant farming family, and grew up in Limavady, County Londonderry in Ireland. His father John Massey and his mother Marianne née Ferguson were tenant farmers and his family arrived in New Zealand on 21 October 1862 on board the Indian Empire as Nonconformist settlers, although Massey remained in Ireland for a further eight years to complete his education. After arriving on 10 December 1870 on the City of Auckland, Massey worked as a farmhand for some years before acquiring his own farm in Mangere, south Auckland, in 1882 Massey married his neighbours daughter, Christina Allan Paul. Massey gradually became prominent in his community. This was partly due to his involvement in the school board, the debating society. Because of his prominence in these circles, he involved in political debate. In 1893 Massey stood as a candidate in the election in the Franklin electorate, losing to the Liberal candidate. In early 1894 he was invited to contest a by-election in the electorate of Waitemata. In the 1896 election he stood for the Franklin electorate, which he represented until he died in 1925, Massey joined the ranks of the independent MPs opposing the Liberal Party, led by Richard Seddon. They were poorly organised and dispirited, and had little chance of unseating the Liberals, William Russell, the Leader of the Opposition, was able to command only 15 votes. Massey brought increased vigour to the conservative faction, while the conservatives rallied for a time, support for the Liberals increased markedly during the Second Boer War, leaving the conservatives devastated. Masseys political career survived the period, despite a challenge by William Herries, after Seddons death the Liberals were led by Joseph Ward, who proved more vulnerable to Masseys attacks. In particular, Massey made gains by claiming that alleged corruption and his conservative politics also benefited him when voters grew concerned about militant unionism and the supposed threat of socialism. In February 1909, Massey announced the creation of the Reform Party from his New Zealand Political Reform League, the party was to be led by him and backed by his conservative colleagues. In the 1911 election the Reform Party won more seats than the Liberal Party, the Liberals, relying on support from independents who had not joined Reform, were able to stay in power until the following year, when they lost a vote of confidence. Massey was sworn in as Prime Minister on 10 July 1912, two days later it was reported in the press on 12 July that he had accepted the appointment of Honorary Commandant of the Auckland District of the Legion of Frontiersmen
11.
Minister of Finance (New Zealand)
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The Minister of Finance, originally known as Colonial Treasurer, is a senior figure within the government of New Zealand. The position is considered to be the most important cabinet post after that of the Prime Minister. The current Minister of Finance is Steven Joyce, there are also two Associate Minister roles. They are currently held by Amy Adams and Simon Bridges, the Minister of Finance is responsible for producing an annual New Zealand budget outlining the governments proposed expenditure. According to Parliaments Standing Orders, the Minister of Finance may veto any bill which would have a significant impact on the governments budget plans. The Minister of Finance also supervises the Treasury, which is the primary advisor on matters of economic. As such, the Minister of Finance has broad control of the spending, making the position quite powerful. Some analysts, such as Jonathan Boston, claim that the Minister of Finance can sometimes hold more influence than the Prime Minister, gordon Coates, Finance Minister in the early 1930s, was sometimes such a figure. The office of Minister of Finance has existed since 1841, apart from the office of Prime Minister itself, the only other cabinet posts to have existed since the first cabinet are those of Attorney-General and Minister of Internal Affairs. Originally, the holder of the post was designated Colonial Treasurer and this occurred in 1907, during the cabinet of Joseph Ward. In the past, several Prime Ministers took on the post of Minister of Finance themselves, robert Muldoon, the last person to concurrently serve as Prime Minister and Minister of Finance, created considerable controversy by doing so. It is more common, however, for a Deputy Prime Minister to serve as Minister of Finance, bob Tizard, Michael Cullen and the current Prime Minister Bill English served as Deputy Prime Minister when in the position as Minister of Finance. After the 1996 elections, the role of the Minister of Finance was split between two portfolios – that of Minister of Finance and that of Treasurer. The position of Treasurer was senior to that of the Minister of Finance and it was established especially for Winston Peters, leader of New Zealand First, who demanded it as part of the deal
12.
Joseph Ward
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Sir Joseph George Ward, 1st Baronet, GCMG, PC was the 17th Prime Minister of New Zealand on two occasions in the early 20th century. Ward was born in Melbourne on 26 April 1856 to a Roman Catholic family of Irish descent and his father, who is believed to have been an alcoholic, died in 1860, aged 31 – Ward was raised by his mother, Hannah. In 1863, the moved to Bluff, in New Zealands Southland region, seeking better financial security – Hannah Ward established a shop. Ward received his education at primary schools in Melbourne and Bluff. He did not go to secondary school and he did, however, read extensively, and also picked up a good understanding of business from his mother. In 1869, Ward found a job at the Post Office, later, with the help of a loan from his mother, Ward began to work as a freelance trader, selling supplies to the newly established Southland farming community. Ward became involved in local politics very quickly and he was elected to the Campbelltown Borough Council in 1878, despite being only 21 years old – at age 25 he became Mayor, the youngest in New Zealand. He also served on the Bluff Harbour Board, eventually becoming its chairman, in 1887, Ward stood for Parliament, winning the seat of Awarua. Politically, Ward was a supporter of such as Julius Vogel and Robert Stout. Ward became known as a strong debater on economic matters, in 1891, when the newly founded Liberal Party came to power, the new Prime Minister, John Ballance, appointed Ward as Postmaster General. Later, when Richard Seddon became Prime Minister after Ballances death, Wards basic political outlook was that the state existed to support and promote private enterprise, and his conduct as Treasurer reflects this. Wards increasing occupation with government affairs led to neglect of his own interests, however. In 1896, a judge declared Ward hopelessly insolvent and this placed Ward, as Treasurer, in a politically difficult situation, and he was forced to resign his portfolios on 16 June. In 1897, he was forced to file for bankruptcy, which legally obligated him to resign his seat in Parliament, a loophole meant that there was nothing to stop him contesting it again, however. In the resulting by-election he was elected with an increased majority, gradually, Ward rebuilt his businesses, and paid off his creditors. Seddon, still Prime Minister, quickly reappointed him to Cabinet where he served as Minister of Railways, Ward gradually emerged as the most prominent of Seddons supporters, and was seen as a possible successor. As Seddons long tenure as Prime Minister continued, some suggested that Ward should challenge Seddon for the leadership, Ward was in London at the time. It was generally agreed in the party that Ward would succeed him, Ward was sworn in on 6 August 1906
13.
Chief Justice of New Zealand
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The Chief Justice of New Zealand is the head of the New Zealand judiciary, and presides over the Supreme Court of New Zealand. Before the establishment of the court in 2004 the Chief Justice was the presiding judge in the High Court of New Zealand and was also ex officio a member of the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. The office is established by the Judicature Act 1908, the Governor-General of New Zealand appoints the Chief Justice on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Chief Justice acts in place of the Governor-General if one has not been appointed or if the appointee is unable to perform his or her duties, when acting in place of the Governor-General, the Chief Justice is known as the Administrator of the Government. Sir James Prendergast GCMG Rt Hon, sir Charles Skerrett KCMG KC Rt Hon. Sir Michael Myers GCMG KC Rt Hon, sir Humphrey OLeary KCMG KC Rt Hon. Sir Harold Barrowclough KCMG CB DSO MC ED Rt Hon, sir Richard Wild GBE KCMG QC Rt Hon. Sir Ronald Davison GBE CMG QC Rt Hon, sir Thomas Eichelbaum GBE QC Rt Hon. Dame Sian Elias GNZM PC QC Ministry of Justice - The Chief Justice Administrators of the Government
14.
Robert Stout
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Sir Robert Stout KCMG was a New Zealand politician who was the 13th Premier of New Zealand on two occasions in the late 19th century, and later Chief Justice of New Zealand. He was the person to hold both these offices. He was noted for his support of causes such as womens suffrage. Born in the town of Lerwick in Scotlands Shetland Islands, Stout retained an attachment to the Shetland Islands throughout his life. He received an education and eventually qualified as a teacher. He also qualified as a surveyor in 1860 and he became highly interested in politics through his extended family, which often met to discuss and debate political issues of the day. Stout was exposed to different political philosophies during his youth. In 1863, Stout emigrated to Dunedin, New Zealand, once there, he quickly became involved in political debate, which he greatly enjoyed. He also became active in the Freethought circles of the city, after failing to find employment as a surveyor on the Otago gold-fields, Stout returned to education, holding a number of senior teaching positions at the high-school level. Eventually, however, Stout moved away from education and entered the legal profession, in 1867 he was working in the law firm of William Downie Stewart, Sr. He was called to the bar in 1871, and proved to be a highly successful trial-lawyer and he also became one of Otago Universitys first students, studying political economy and the theory of morality. He later became the universitys first law-lecturer, Stouts political career started with his election to the Otago Provincial Council. Stout successfully contested an August 1875 by-election in the Caversham electorate and he unsuccessfully opposed moves by the central government to abolish the provinces. At the 1875 election a few later, he was returned in the City of Dunedin electorate. On 13 March 1878, Stout became Attorney-General in the government of Premier George Grey and he had a hand in a number of significant pieces of legislation while in this role. On 25 July 1878, Stout gained the role of Minister of Lands. A strong advocate of reform, Stout worked towards the goal of state ownership of land. He often expressed fears that private ownership would lead to the sort of powerful landlord class that existed in Britain, Stout also supported taxation of privately owned land, especially gains in value
15.
Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)
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The Leader of the Opposition in New Zealand is the politician who, at least in theory, commands the support of the non-government bloc of members in the Parliament of New Zealand. In the debating chamber the Leader of the Opposition sits directly opposite the Prime Minister, the current Leader of the Opposition is Andrew Little, the Leader of the Labour Party. By convention, the Leader of the Opposition is the leader of the largest party of the Opposition, the Leader of the Opposition does not have a large official role, as most of the posts functions are ceremonial. Nevertheless, there are ways in which the Leader of the Opposition participates directly in affairs of state. The Leader of the Opposition also receives a higher salary than other members of the Opposition, for much of the countrys early history, the role was not a formal one. It was only when the Liberal Party was formed that any unified leadership appeared in Parliament, john Ballance, leader of the Liberals is usually considered the first Leader of the Opposition in the modern sense. When Ballance led the Liberals into government in 1891, they faced no opposition in a party sense. However, their opponents gradually coalesced around a leader, William Massey, who became Opposition leader in 1903, and in 1909 became the first leader of the new Reform Party. After this, the Leader of the Opposition would always be the leader of the largest party in the House of Representatives that had not undertaken to support the Government of the day. One notable exception to this was during World War I, when the opposition Liberal Party accepted the governing Reform Partys offer to form a wartime coalition, Prime Minister Massey also extended the offer to the new Labour Party who rejected it. This made Labour the largest party not in government, however their leader Alfred Hindmarsh was not recognized as the Leader of the Opposition, joseph Ward, who became Deputy Prime Minister in the wartime cabinet still retained the title, albeit in name only. During the 1910s and 1920s, the role of Opposition alternated between the Liberal and Reform parties, after the 1925 Election there was no official Leader of the Opposition until Rex Mason of Labour won the seat of Eden in the by-election held on 15 April 1926. Labour became superseded the Liberals as the opposition and their leader Harry Holland became Leader of the Opposition. The 1928 General Election put United in government for the last time, Reform then became the Opposition, however in 1931 Reform entered into coalition with the Liberals, and Labour then became the Opposition, despite being the third party. With the introduction of the MMP voting system, first used in the 1996 general elections, now, though the leader of the largest non-Government party still becomes the Leader of the Opposition, there will usually be several parties who are in opposition. An example of this arose after the 2002 general elections, when the National Party gained only 27 seats and this prompted calls from a number of parties, notably New Zealand First and the Greens, for the abolition or reform of the post. It was argued by these parties that the position had become an anachronism in the modern multi-party environment, however, with the resurrection of the National Party in the 2005 general election, a more traditional relationship between Government and Opposition has been restored. A table of Leaders of the Opposition is below, the table begins in 1891, when the first real political party was founded
16.
New Zealand Liberal Party
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The New Zealand Liberal Party was the first real political party in New Zealand. It governed from 1891 until 1912, the Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small land-owning farmers who supported Liberal ideals, by buying large tracts of Maori land and selling it to small farmers on credit. In 1893 it extended voting rights to women, making New Zealand the first country in the world to enact universal female suffrage, New Zealand gained international attention for the Liberal reforms, especially how the state regulated labour relations. Of special note were innovations in the areas of maximum hour regulations, minimum wage laws, the goal was to encourage unions but discourage strikes and class conflict. The impact was strong on the reform movement in the United States. Coleman argues that the Liberals in 1891 lacked a clearcut ideology to guide them, instead they approached the nations problems pragmatically, keeping in mind the constraints imposed by democratic public opinion. To deal with the issue of distribution, they worked out innovative solutions to access, tenure. Out of office after 1912, the Liberals gradually found themselves pressed between the conservative Reform Party and the growing Labour Party, the Liberals fragmented in the 1920s, and the remnants of the Liberal Party eventually merged with Reform in 1936 to establish the modern National Party. Prior to the establishment of the Liberal Party, MPs were all independent, some of these factions were occasionally referred to as parties, but were vague and ill-defined. Towards the 1880s, however, factions had gradually become stabilised along lines of liberalism and conservatism, the key figure in the establishment of the Liberal Party was John Ballance. Ballance, an MP, had served in a number of liberal-orientated governments, and had held office in posts such as Treasurer, Minister of Defence and he had a well-established reputation as a liberal, and was known for supporting land reform, womens suffrage, and Māori rights. In the 1890 elections, Ballance led his faction to victory. Ballance and his allies, recognising the benefit that they had gained from their unity, the Liberal Party, with common policies and a well-defined leadership, was proclaimed. The Liberal Party drew its support from two basic sources — the cities, and small farmers, in the cities, the Liberals were supported particularly strongly by workers and labourers, but also by the more socially progressive members of the middle class. In the countryside, the Liberals won support from farmers who lacked the ability to compete with the large runholders. Both groups saw themselves as being mistreated and oppressed by what had been described as New Zealands early colonial gentry — the well-educated and aristocratic land-owners and commercial magnates. It was this group that most strongly opposed the Liberal Party, in power, the Liberals enacted a large number of reforms. This was made possible by their unity — previously, reforms had stalled due to the need for long, among the changes introduced were land reforms, progressive taxes on land and income, and legislation to improve the working conditions of urban labourers
17.
Mayor of Auckland
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The Mayor of Auckland is the directly elected head of the Auckland Council, the local government authority for the Auckland Region in New Zealand, which it controls as a unitary authority. The mayor has significant executive powers, their own staff and the ability to appoint the chairpersons of the councils committees, the position was first elected on 9 October 2010 for the establishment of the Auckland Council on 1 November 2010. The Council replaced seven territorial authority councils and the Auckland Regional Council, before 2010, the term Mayor of Auckland applied to the mayor of Auckland City Council. The mayoral office had a budget of $4.1 million, Brown preferred not to use the honorific His Worship. Contenders in the 2013 Auckland mayoral election included Brown, John Minto, Brown announced in November 2015 that he would not contest the 2016 mayoralty election. There were 19 contenders for the position, and Phil Goff won against Victoria Crone, John Palino, and Chlöe Swarbrick
18.
Mayor of Hamilton, New Zealand
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The Mayor of Hamilton, New Zealand is the head of the municipal government of Hamilton, New Zealand, and presides over the Hamilton City Council. The incumbent is Andrew King, who was first elected in the 2016 local government elections, mayoral elections were originally held annually but have been triennial since 1935. Elections were initially held in December, in April or May from 1901–1947, in 1989, Evans was the first woman to be elected Mayor of Hamilton. Following her retirement in 1998, all subsequent incumbents were defeated at their next election until Julie Hardakers 2013 re-election, published for the Hamilton City Council by Whitcoulls Limited, pp317–318 and Hamilton City Council Annual Plans. Hamilton City Council Annual Statement of Accounts and Waikato Times index at Hamilton City Libraries
19.
Mayor of Wellington City
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The Mayor of Wellington City is the head of the municipal government of Wellington, New Zealand, and presides over the Wellington City Council. Adjacent local bodies – Lower Hutt, Upper Hutt, and Porirua – have their own mayors, the Mayor is directly elected using STV. The current Mayor is Justin Lester, elected in October 2016, the development of local government in Wellington was erratic. The first attempt to establish governmental institutions, the so-called Wellington Republic, was short lived and based on rules written by the New Zealand Company, colonel William Wakefield was to be the first President. The office of mayor was established, but there were two holders of this office under the Ordinance. George Hunter received the most votes in the election for 12 Burgesses to the new council on 3 October 1842 and was declared mayor and he died suddenly on 19 July 1843. William Guyton was then declared mayor, as runner-up in 1842, after a brief period of little local government, the Province of Wellington was established in 1852, and most of Wellingtons affairs were handled by the provincial government. Initially, the elected one of their own as mayor towards the end of the year. The role was awarded to the longest serving councillor. The system changed upon the introduction of The Municipal Corporations Acts Amendment Act,1875 and it legislated that mayors must be elected at large by eligible voters. The inaugural mayoral election was held in 1875 resulting in William Hutchison being the first mayor to be elected by voters, in 1863, a Town Board was established with three wards, but no Mayor. On 16 September 1870, Wellington was officially incorporated as a city, and a new mayoralty created, the establishment of the new council was primarily driven by John Plimmer, called by some the Father of Wellington. Since then the office of Mayor has been held by 34 people, five people have been Mayor on two separate occasions, and the longest-serving Mayor was Sir Frank Kitts, from 1956 to 1974
20.
Mayor of Christchurch
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The Mayor of Christchurch is the head of the municipal government of Christchurch, New Zealand, and presides over the Christchurch City Council. The mayor is elected using a First Past the Post electoral system. The current mayor, Lianne Dalziel, was first elected in the October 2013 mayoral election and was re-elected in October 2016, the current deputy mayor is Andrew Turner. Christchurch was initially governed by the chairman of the town council, in 1868, the chairman became the city councils first mayor as determined by his fellow city councillors. Since 1875, the mayor is elected by voters and, after an uncontested election. Christchurch became a city by Royal charter on 31 July 1856, since 1862, chairmen were in charge of local government. Five chairmen presided in the years, The town council held a meeting on 10 June 1868 to elect its first mayor. In those days, councillors were elected for terms, and once a year elected one of their group as mayor. Thomson moved that Wilson be elected as the first mayor of Christchurch, the chairman put the motion to the meeting and it was carried unanimously. With the meeting, the council had brought itself under the Municipal Corporations Act 1867, hence, the last chairman became the first mayor in 1868. The first chairman became mayor 44 years later in 1906, there have been 46 holders of the position. The longest-serving was Sir Hamish Hay, who held the post for 15 years, the shortest mayoralty was by Tommy Taylor in 1911, who died three months after being elected. Wilsons term, at just over six months, was the second shortest, Vicki Buck and the current mayor, Lianne Dalziel, have been the only female mayors so far. Initially, councillors elected one of their own as mayor towards the end of the year, most elections were unanimous, and the newly elected mayor was instantly regarded as the head of the council. The system changed with the introduction of The Municipal Corporations Acts Amendment Act,1875, fred Hobbs, the incumbent, was the only candidate nominated, so he was declared elected unopposed on 17 December 1875. James Gapes was the first mayor elected at large on 20 December 1876, the newly elected person was from that point the mayor-elect, until he was sworn in, Gapes was sworn in on 2 January 1877. Despite this, Taylors death in 1911 resulted in councillors electing their fellow councillor John Joseph Dougall as mayor as required by the legislation for such cases, mayors were initially appointed and then elected for one year, elections started following the Municipal Corporations Act of 1876. This was changed to biennial elections on the last Wednesday in April with the Municipal Corporations Amendment Act,1913, the act came into force in March 1915 and thus first applied at the April 1915 mayoral election
21.
Henry Holland (mayor)
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Henry Holland CBE was a New Zealand politician of the Reform Party, and Mayor of Christchurch from 1912 to 1919. Holland was born in Nafferton, East Yorkshire, England in 1859 and his parents were the farmers Ann and Robert Holland. The family emigrated to New Zealand when Henry Holland was four, Holland was made a Justice of the Peace in 1907, and in 1911 was elected to the Christchurch City Council for the Central Ward. He was a friend of Tommy Taylor, the 1912 mayoral election was held on 24 April, and it was contested by the incumbent John Joseph Dougall, Holland, and Henry Thacker. Like the previous election in April 1911, the incumbent came last, Holland was successful with 4,127 votes, with Thacker and Dougall receiving 2,931 and 2,637 votes, respectively. Holland was installed as mayor on 1 May 1912, Holland was Mayor of Christchurch for seven years. The 1917 mayoral election was contested by Holland and the MP James McCombs along the lines of win-the-war, the result was a crushing defeat of McCombs, Holland received 12,177 votes and McCombs received 5,381. Holland retired from the mayoralty in 1919, the election was contested by three candidates, Henry Holland was the Member of Parliament for Christchurch North from 1925 to 1935, when he retired. Holland and his wife, Jane, were awarded the OBE for service in World War I and he was subsequently promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In 1935, he was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal and his son, Sidney Holland, was the 25th Prime Minister from 1949–1957. Holland died on 29 December 1944 and was buried at Linwood Cemetery
22.
Mayor of Dunedin
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The Mayor of Dunedin is the head of the municipal government of Dunedin, New Zealand, and presides over the Dunedin City Council. The Mayor is directly elected, using the Single Transferable Vote system in 2007, the current Mayor is Dave Cull who was first elected in 2010 and confirmed in 2013. The mayor has always elected at large, with the inaugural election in 1865. Up until 1915, the term of mayor was for one year only, from 1915 to 1935, the term was two years. Since the 1935 mayoral election, the term has been three years, the role of Deputy Mayor was established in 1917. City Of Dunedin, A Century of Civic Enterprise, DCC website - election results DCC website - councillors since 1865
23.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
24.
New Zealand Expeditionary Force
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The New Zealand Expeditionary Force was the title of the military forces sent from New Zealand to fight alongside other British Empire and Dominion troops during World War I and World War II. Ultimately, the NZEF of World War I became known as the First New Zealand Expeditionary Force, the NZEF of World War II was known as the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force. The New Zealand Expeditionary Force was the title of the forces sent from New Zealand to fight for Britain during World War I. Upon the outbreak of war, New Zealand immediately offered to provide two brigades—one of infantry and one of mounted troops—with a total of 8,500 men. This contingent sailed for Australia within two months of the start of the war and then joined with the Australian Imperial Force in a convoy sailing for Egypt. New Zealand, like Australia, had a policy of compulsory military training. Conscription was introduced on 1 August 1916 and by the end of the war 124,000 men—nearly half the male population of 250. Of these, about 100,000 had been sent overseas, the NZEF was closely tied to the AIF for much of the war. This division, along with the Australian 1st Division, formed the famous Australian, after the end of the Gallipoli campaign, the NZEF formed its own infantry division, the New Zealand Division, which served on the Western Front for the rest of the war. General Godley was promoted to a command and given II ANZAC Corps. The mounted arm of the NZEF was the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, the brigade remained in Egypt and, combined with the 1st and 2nd Australian Light Horse Brigades, made up the ANZAC Mounted Division which served through the Sinai and Palestine campaign. The New Zealand Expeditionary Force was finally disbanded on 31 December 1921, at the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, it was decided that New Zealand should provide an Expeditionary Force of one division, under then Major-General Bernard Freyberg. This force became known as the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force, the first echelon of 2NZEF Headquarters and a Brigade Group landed in Egypt in February 1940. The second echelon, also a Brigade Group, was diverted to Britain on Italys entry into the war, the third echelon arrived in Egypt in September 1940 and concentration of the division was completed just before it was deployed to northern Greece in March 1941. Under the command of Major-General William Stevens, the 2NZEF began demobilising in late 1945, the 2NZEF also had a Pacific Section, which was initially responsible for the defence of Fiji. The basis for the Pacific Section was initially an infantry brigade—the —which arrived on Viti Levu, following the entry of the Japanese Empire into the war, in early 1942, the 2NZEF contingent in Fiji was expanded to two brigades, and formally designated Pacific Section, 2NZEF. Under the command of Major General Owen Mead, the Pacific Section was withdrawn from Fiji back to New Zealand when the United States 37th Division took over defence responsibility, the Pacific Section later became the 3rd Division, the main unit of the 2NZEF in the Pacific. In order to cope with this crisis the New Zealand Government saw no other than to disband one of the countrys two infantry divisions
25.
New Zealand Division
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The New Zealand Division was an infantry division of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force raised for service in the First World War. It was commanded by Major General Andrew Hamilton Russell for the duration of the war, the division saw service on the Western Front in France and Belgium, fighting in major battles at the Somme, Messines and Broodseinde Ridge throughout 1916 and 1917. All were notable successes for the New Zealanders but the division suffered a defeat at Passchendaele on 12 October 1917. In early 1918, the division helped blunt the German Spring Offensive at the Somme, during the Hundred Days Offensive that followed, it was one of the lead divisions of the Third Army and advanced 100 kilometres in 75 days. The divisions last major engagement of the war was at Le Quesnoy in early November 1918, during the latter stages of the war, the New Zealand Division was one of the strongest divisions of the Dominion serving on the Western Front. After the armistice, it served on occupation duties in Germany before being disbanded in 1919, by October 1914, there were sufficient volunteers to form two brigades, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Brigade. In December 1915, the much depleted New Zealand and Australian Division was evacuated from Gallipoli, although there were concerns that the Turks might attack the canal, it was envisaged that the division would soon be called upon to serve elsewhere. Commanded by Major General Andrew Hamilton Russell, it was replenished with reinforcements from Australia and New Zealand and began a program of intensive training. Since the deployment of the body of the NZEF, the numbers of volunteers had steadily increased to the point that they could no longer be integrated into either of the two existing brigades. The New Zealand Division officially came into being at Moascar, Egypt, on 1 March 1916, Russell, a well regarded senior officer of the Territorial Force who had performed well during the Gallipoli Campaign, was appointed the commander of the new formation. The former New Zealand Infantry Brigade was to be the first of three brigades of the division. The 1st Brigade was commanded by Brigadier General Francis Earl Johnston, the 2nd Brigade was formed from reinforcements currently in Egypt, this was commanded by another Gallipoli veteran, Brigadier General William Garnett Braithwaite. The third infantry brigade, known as the Rifle Brigade, was commanded by Brigadier General Harry Fulton, there were also three brigades of field artillery and one of howitzers. In total, the division had some 15,000 men in its ranks, along with the Australian 1st and 2nd Divisions, the New Zealand Division was to form part of I ANZAC Corps, under the command of Godley. In early March, the New Zealand Division assumed responsibility for the section of the Suez Canal guarded by the 2nd Division, after three weeks of sentry duty, the New Zealand Division returned to its Moascar base before it too was shipped to France in early April. The Armentières front line was regarded by the Allies as a sector where new units could undergo familiarisation without being called upon for intensive offensive operations. Nevertheless, it was not an introduction to the front for the New Zealanders. On arriving in their sector, they found the arrangements to be poor and immediately set about improving the trenches
26.
Marseille
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Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice
27.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
28.
Sinai Peninsula
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The Sinai Peninsula or simply Sinai is a peninsula in Egypt, situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, serving as a land bridge between Asia and Africa. It is the part of Egyptian territory located in Asia. Sinai has an area of about 60,000 km2. The bulk of the peninsula is divided administratively into two of Egypts 27 governorates, the Sinai Peninsula has been a part of Egypt from the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt. In periods of occupation, the Sinai was, like the rest of Egypt, also occupied and controlled by foreign empires, in more recent history the Ottoman Empire. Israel invaded and occupied Sinai during the Suez Crisis of 1956, on 6 October 1973, Egypt launched the Yom Kippur War to retake the peninsula, which was the site of fierce fighting between Egyptian and Israeli forces. Today, Sinai has become a tourist destination due to its setting, rich coral reefs. Mount Sinai is one of the most religiously significant places in Abrahamic faiths, in addition to its formal name, Egyptians also refer to it as Arḍ ul-Fairūz. The ancient Egyptians called it Ta Mefkat, or land of turquoise, Sinai is triangular in shape, with northern shore lying on the southern Mediterranean Sea, and southwest and southeast shores on Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba of the Red Sea. It is linked to the African continent by the Isthmus of Suez,125 kilometres wide strip of land, the eastern isthmus, linking it to the Asian mainland, is around 200 kilometres wide. The peninsulas eastern shore separates the Arabian plate from the African plate, the southernmost tip is the Ras Muhammad National Park. Most of the Sinai Peninsula is divided among the two governorates of Egypt, South Sinai and North Sinai, together, they comprise around 60,000 square kilometres and have a population of 597,000. Three more governates span the Suez Canal, crossing into African Egypt, Suez is on the end of the Suez Canal, Ismailia in the centre. The largest city of Sinai is Arish, capital of the North Sinai, other larger settlements include Sharm el-Sheikh and El-Tor, on the southern coast. Inland Sinai is arid, mountainous and sparsely populated, the largest settlements being Saint Catherine, Sinai is one of the coldest provinces in Egypt because of its high altitudes and mountainous topographies. Winter temperatures in some of Sinais cities and towns reach −16 °C, the mines were worked intermittently and on a seasonal basis for thousands of years. Modern attempts to exploit the deposits have been unprofitable and these may be the first historically attested mines. According to the Hebrew Bible, the peninsula was crossed by the Israelites during the Exodus from Egypt and this included numerous halts over a 40-year period of travel sometime towards the end of the Bronze Age
29.
New Zealand Labour Party
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The New Zealand Labour Party, or simply Labour, is a centre-left political party in New Zealand. With its historic rival, the New Zealand National Party, Labour has dominated New Zealand governments since the 1930s, Labour currently promotes a social-democratic platform. It is a participant of the international Progressive Alliance, the New Zealand Labour Party was formed in 1916 by various socialist parties and trade unions. It is thus the countrys oldest political party still in existence, there have been five Labour governments. The party was first in power from 1935 and 1949, when it established New Zealands welfare state and it governed most recently from 1999 to 2008 with Helen Clark as party leader and Prime Minister. Since the partys defeat in the 2008 general election, Labour has comprised the second-largest caucus represented in the New Zealand Parliament, on 18 November 2014 Andrew Little was confirmed outside of Parliament and in a press conference as the new Labour leader. Labours 1916 policy objectives called for the socialisation of the means of production, distribution and exchange, up to the 1980s Labour remained a party that believed in a strong role for governments in economic and social matters. However, it had transformed from a trade union-dominated, socialist-oriented movement to a moderate social-democratic party. The Labour Government of the 1980s deviated sharply from a social-democratic path, in a series of economic reforms dubbed Rogernomics, the Government removed a swathe of regulations and subsidies, privatised state assets and introduced corporate practices to state services. Equal access to all social, economic, cultural, political and legal spheres, co-operation as the main governing factor in economic relations, to ensure a just distribution of wealth. Universal rights to dignity, self-respect and the opportunity to work, the right to wealth and property, subject to the provisos of regarding people as always more important than property and the obligations of the state to ensure a just distribution of wealth. The Treaty of Waitangi as the document of New Zealand, and its honouring in the Party, government, society. The promotion of peace and social justice throughout the world by international co-operation, Equality in human rights regardless of race, sex, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity, age, religious faith, political belief or disability. Its origins lie in the British working class movement, heavily influenced by Australian radicalism and it is the oldest surviving New Zealand political party. The New Zealand Labour Party was an amalgamation of a number of early groups, the process of unifying these diverse groups into a single party was difficult, with tensions between different factions running strong. At the turn of the century, the side of New Zealand working class politics was represented by the Socialist Party. The more moderate leftists were generally supporters of the Liberal Party and this established the basic dividing line in New Zealands left-wing politics – the Socialists tended to be revolutionary and militant, while the moderates focused instead on progressive reform. In 1910, the Independent Political Labour League was relaunched as a called the Labour Party
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Vivian Walsh (aviator)
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Vivian Claude Walsh was an English-born New Zealand engineer. Vivian and his elder brother Leo Austin Walsh were pioneers of New Zealand aviation, Vivian and Leo built a British Howard Wright biplane, which Vivian first flew on 5 February 1911. This was the first recognised powered flight made in New Zealand and they established the New Zealand Flying School in 1915 to train pilots for the Royal Flying Corps, building their own series of flying boat trainers. Vivian died in 1950, and Leo in 1951, the Auckland Branch of the Royal Aeronautical Society, concerned to preserve the memory of the brothers contribution, formed the Walsh Memorial Air Pageant Organisation. Several events raised significant monies for educational purposes - now administered via the New Zealand Aeronautical Trusts Ltd, other memorials include, A statue at Mission Bay to commemorate both Walsh brothers. The annual Walsh Memorial Scout Flying School run by the Scout Association of New Zealand, Walsh Memorial Library at the Museum of Transport and Technology in Auckland. Richard Pearse George Bolt Bert Pither
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Pilot licensing and certification
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This includes taking a flying test. The certified pilot can then exercise a specific set of privileges in that nations airspace, in addition, U. S. pilots are certified, not licensed, although the word license is still commonly used informally. Legally, pilot certificates can be revoked by administrative action, whereas licensing requires intervention by the judiciary system, in the United States, pilot certification is regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration, a branch of the Department of Transportation. A pilot is certified under the authority of Parts 61 and 141 of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, in Canada, licensing is issued by Transport Canada. Pilot licensing began soon after the invention of powered aircraft in 1903, the Aéro-Club de France was founded in 1898 to encourage aerial locomotion. The Royal Aero Club followed in 1901 and the Aero Club of America was established in 1905, however, certificates or ratings from them were not initially mandatory. The Aéro-Club de France began issuing certificates in 1910, although these were awarded retroactively to 7 January 1909, the first certificates were to established pioneers, among them Frenchman Louis Bleriot, Henry and Maurice Farman and the Wright Brothers. The Royal Aero Club in the UK also began the issue of its first certificates in 1910, among the earliest recipients of the first aviation certificates were, J. T. C. British and French certificates were recognized internationally by the FAI, the Aero Club of America began issuing licenses in 1911, although these were not mandatory, and were more for prestige and show. The first recipients were Glenn Curtiss, Frank Purdy Lahm, Louis Paulhan, the requirement for an Aero Club ticket was to ascend in the machine and fly a course of a figure-eight at a given height. Individual states sometimes posed a mandate for a license but it wasnt a Federal cause until 1917, pilots are certificated to fly aircraft at one or more named privilege levels and, at each privilege level, are rated to fly aircraft of specific categories. In the US, privilege levels of pilot certificates are, Student, Sport, Cannot carry more than one passenger, authorized to fly only light-sport aircraft and are limited to daytime flying only. If an individual elects to receive instruction, some of the limitations may be removed. Recreational, May fly aircraft of up to 180 horsepower and 4 seats in the daytime for pleasure only, private, May fly for pleasure or personal business. Private pilots cannot be paid, compensated to fly, or hired by any operator, commercial, Can be paid, compensated to fly, or hired by operators and are required to have higher training standards than private or sport pilots. Flight instructor, Flight instructors are commercial pilots who have trained and can demonstrate various teaching techniques, skills. Airline Transport Pilot, ATPs, as they are called, typically qualify to fly the major airliners of the US transit system, ATPs must qualify with a range of experience and training to be considered for this certificate. Pilot privileges are further broken down into category, class, further endorsements are required for high-performance, complex, or tailwheel-equipped aircraft, as well as for high-altitude operations
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Flers, Somme
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Flers is a commune near the northern edge of the Somme department in Hauts-de-France in northern France. It lies to the south of the D929 road, between Albert and Bapaume, in 1916, the Battle of Flers–Courcelette saw the first use of the tank in the field of battle. Communes of the Somme department INSEE Flers on the Quid site, communes around Flers Location of Flers and neighboring communes
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Christchurch
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Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the seat of the Canterbury Region. The Christchurch urban area lies on the South Islands east coast, just north of Banks Peninsula and it is home to 389,700 residents, making it New Zealands third most-populous urban area behind Auckland and Wellington. The city was named by the Canterbury Association, which settled the province of Canterbury. The name of Christchurch was agreed on at the first meeting of the association on 27 March 1848 and it was suggested by John Robert Godley, who had attended Christ Church, Oxford. Some early writers called the town Christ Church, but it was recorded as Christchurch in the minutes of the management committee of the association, Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter on 31 July 1856, making it officially the oldest established city in New Zealand. The Avon River flows through the centre of the city, with a park located along its banks. At the request of the Deans brothers, the river was named after the River Avon in Scotland, the usual Māori name for Christchurch is Ōtautahi. This was originally the name of a site by the Avon River near present-day Kilmore Street. The site was a dwelling of Ngāi Tahu chief Te Potiki Tautahi. The Ōtautahi name was adopted in the 1930s, prior to that the Ngāi Tahu generally referred to the Christchurch area as Karaitiana, a transliteration of the English word Christian. The citys name is abbreviated by New Zealanders to Chch. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is the fingerspelled letter C signed twice, with the second to the right of the first. Archaeological evidence found in a cave at Redcliffs in 1876 has indicated that the Christchurch area was first settled by moa-hunting tribes about 1250 CE. These first inhabitants were thought to have followed by the Waitaha tribe. Following tribal warfare, the Waitaha were dispossessed by the Ngati Mamoe tribe and they were in turn subjugated by the Ngāi Tahu tribe, who remained in control until the arrival of European settlers. Their abandoned holdings were taken over by the Deans brothers in 1843 who stayed, the First Four Ships were chartered by the Canterbury Association and brought the first 792 of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton Harbour. These sailing vessels were the Randolph, Charlotte Jane, Sir George Seymour, the Charlotte Jane was the first to arrive on 16 December 1850. The Canterbury Pilgrims had aspirations of building a city around a cathedral and college, the name Christ Church was decided prior to the ships arrival, at the Associations first meeting, on 27 March 1848
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Henry Wigram
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Sir Henry Francis Wigram was a British-born New Zealand businessman, politician and aviation promoter. He is best known for his role in developing a public system in Christchurch. The son of Henry Knox Wigram, a barrister, and a grandson of Octavius Wigram, Governor of the Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation and his mother was Mary Anne Pomeroy, a daughter of the 5th Viscount Harberton. After working for the Bank of England and a company, ill-health led him to emigrate to New Zealand. He returned to England briefly in 1885 in order to marry Agnes Vernon Sullivan and they had no children, and Agnes survived Henry by 23 years, dying in 1957. Together with his brother, William Arthur Wigram, Henry bought a malthouse and they soon took over two other brickworks and pipeworks and founded a nail factory and seed company. In 1902, Wigram was nominated for the mayoralty and was elected unopposed on 23 April and he worked on improving the tramway system, which until that time used horse-drawn trams with three independent operators. The Christchurch Tramway Board was formed in 1903, with Wigram as deputy-chairman, the Tramway Board commenced electric tram services in 1905. On 22 June 1903, Wigram was appointed to the Legislative Council by the Liberal Government and he retired from his business interests but retained a number of company directorships, including that of the Lyttelton Times newspaper. He resigned from the Legislative Council on 12 October 1920, Wigram became aware of the potential of aviation during a visit to England in 1908. Unsuccessful at persuading the New Zealand Government to become involved in aviation and this was the second in the country, the Walsh brothers having opened the New Zealand Flying School at Auckland a year earlier. Wigram purchased land at Sockburn for his Canterbury Aviation Company and at his own expense purchased three Caudron biplanes from Britain, the aim of the school was to train pilots for the war, to promote aviation in local defence and to pioneer commercial aviation. By 1919, the school had built 10 aircraft and trained 182 pilots, Wigram offered the school to the government for defence purposes, but it took another four years and £10,000 donation before the government accepted. The airfield at Sockburn was renamed Wigram in honour of its founder, Wigram was also one of the founders of the Canterbury Aero Club and was the first patron of the New Zealand Aero Club in 1930. He was knighted in the 1926 New Year Honours in recognition of his public services, in 1949, his widow Agnes presented the Lady Wigram Trophy, and an annual motor race was established at the Wigram airbase. The Story of Christchurch, New Zealand
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Dominion of New Zealand
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The Dominion of New Zealand was the historical successor to the Colony of New Zealand. It was a monarchy with a high level of self-government within the British Empire. New Zealand became a separate British Crown colony in 1841 and received responsible government with the Constitution Act in 1852. New Zealand chose not to part in Australian Federation and became the Dominion of New Zealand on 26 September 1907, Dominion Day. Dominion status was a mark of the political independence that had evolved over half a century through responsible government. Just under one million lived in New Zealand in 1907 and cities such as Auckland. The Dominion of New Zealand allowed the British government to shape its foreign policy, the 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. When the Second World War broke out in 1939 the New Zealand government made its own decision to enter the war, in the post-war period, the term ‘Dominion’ has fallen into disuse. Full independence was granted with the Statute of Westminster in 1931, after much debate over lexicon, the term ‘Dominion’ was decided upon. Dominion status was anticipated to be a house between colonial status and full independence. The adoption of the designation of ‘Dominion’ would, raise the status of New Zealand stated Prime Minister Sir Joseph Ward, Ward also had regional imperial ambitions. He hoped the new designation would remind the world that New Zealand was not part of Australia and it would dignify New Zealand, a country he thought was the natural centre for the government of the South Pacific. A royal proclamation granting New Zealand the designation of ‘Dominion’ was issued on 9 September 1907, on 26 September the Prime Minister, Sir Joseph Ward, read the proclamation from the steps of Parliament, Edward R. & I. And We hereby give Our Commands to all Public Departments accordingly, given at Our Court at Buckingham Palace, this ninth day of September, in the year of Our Lord one thousand nine hundred and seven, and in the seventh year of Our Reign. God save the King Letters patent were issued to confirm New Zealands change in status, declaring that, there shall be a Governor and Commander-in-Chief in and over Our Dominion of New Zealand. Control over defence, constitutional amendments, and foreign affairs remained with the British government until the Statute of Westminster was adopted in 1947, Ward had thought that New Zealanders would be much gratified with the new title. However, Dominion status was received with limited enthusiasm and indifference from the general public, the shift from colony to Dominion was viewed as a change of name only. The general public were unable to discern any practical difference, Dominion status was symbolic and recognised the countrys shift to self-governance, but this change had been accomplished with the first responsible government in the 1850s
Media related to 1916 in New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons