1.
19th century
–
The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
2.
20th century
–
The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
3.
21st century
–
The 21st century is the current century of the Anno Domini era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1,2001 and will end on December 31,2100 and it is the first century of the 3rd millennium. It is distinct from the time known as the 2000s. The long term effects of increased globalization are not known, the Arab Spring of the early 2010s led to mixed outcomes in the Arab world. The Digital Revolution which began around the 1980s also continues into the present, millennials and Generation Z come of age and rise to prominence in this century. The completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003 marks the rise of life sciences, making mankinds long-held dreams, such as curing cancer. By the 2010s, gene therapy, first performed somatically in late 1990 and heritably in 1996, showed promise but remains an experimental, by 2013, about 80% of the worlds population used mobile phones. An estimated 33% owned personal computers in 2010, and 46% used the Internet by 2016, the International Energy Agency estimates that 83% of the global population has access to electricity as of 2013 with the percentage projected to increase to 88% by 2030. The world population was about 6.1 billion at the start of the 21st century and it had reached 7.3 billion in 2015, and is estimated to reach about 9.37 billion by the year 2050. There is a debate among experts and the public on how to pronounce specific years of the 21st century in English. A less common variation would have been twenty nought-five, the Vancouver Olympics, which took place in 2010, was being officially referred to by Vancouver 2010 as the twenty-ten Olympics. The latest timeframes for change are usually placed at 2020, kubrick said he did this in the hope that if the film became popular, it would influence the pronunciation of that year. See the timeline of the 21st century, genocide still remains a problem in this century with the concern of the war in Darfur and the growing concern in Sri Lanka. Also controversies from past genocides remain commonplace in the minds of victims, 1998–2002 – The Second Congo War continued into the early 21st century. A1999 ceasefire quickly broke down and a UN peacekeeping mission, Laurent Kabila, president of the DRC, was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph Kabila, took power. Throughout 2002 steps were made towards peace and Rwanda and Uganda both removed their troops from the country, on December 17,2002, a massive treaty officially ended the war. However, the DRC only holds power in less than half of the country, with most of the eastern and northern portions still controlled by rebel groups, in addition, Rwanda still supports anti-DRC rebels and anti-Rwandan rebels continue to operate from the DRC. The war killed an estimated 3.9 million people, displaced nearly 5.5 million, Severe human rights violations continue to be reported
4.
1880s
–
The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
5.
1890s
–
The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
6.
1900s (decade)
–
The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
7.
1910s
–
The 1910s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1910, and ended on December 31,1919. The 1910s represented the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the half of the 19th century. The murder triggered a chain of events in which, within 33 days, the conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11,1918, leading to the controversial, one-sided Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28,1919. However, each of these states had large German and Hungarian minorities, the decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. Russia also had a similar fate, since World War I led to a collapse in morale as well as to economic chaos and this atmosphere encouraged the establishment of Bolshevism, which was later renamed as communism. Like the Mexican Revolution, the Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October Revolution, much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed. Many of the restaurants were equipped with dance floors. Prohibition in the United States began January 16,1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, armenian Genocide during and just after World War I. Wadai War Italo-Turkish War First Balkan Wars – two wars took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Saudi-Ottoman War Latvian War of Independence - a military conflict in Latvia between the Republic of Latvia and the Russian SFSR. The Russian Revolution is the term for the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917. April 13,1919 - The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Amritsar in the Punjab Province of British India, sows the seeds of discontent, xinhai Revolution causes the overthrow of Chinas ruling Qing Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China. Madero proclaims the elections of 1910 null and void, and calls for a revolution at 6 p. m. against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution lead to the ouster of Porfirio Díaz six months later, the Revolution progressively becomes a civil war with multiple factions and phases, culminating with the Mexican Constitution of 1917, but combat would persist for three more years. Germany abolishes its monarchy and becomes under the rule of a new elected government called the Weimar Republic, federal Reserve Act is passed by United States Congress, establishing a Central Bank in the US. George V becomes king in Britain, fourteen Points as designed by United States President Woodrow Wilson advocates the right of all nations to self-determination. Rise to power of the Bolsheviks in Russia under Vladimir Lenin, creating the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, easter Rising against the British in Ireland, eventually leads to Irish independence. Several nations in Eastern Europe get their own state, thereby replacing major multiethnic empires
8.
1920s
–
The 1920s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1920, and ended on December 31,1929. French speakers refer to the period as the Années folles, emphasizing the social, artistic. The economic prosperity experienced by many countries during the 1920s was similar in nature to that experienced in the 1950s and 1990s, each period of prosperity was the result of a paradigm shift in global affairs. These shifts in the 1920s, 1950s, and 1990s, occurred in part as the result of the conclusion of World War I and Spanish flu, World War II, the 1920s saw foreign oil companies begin operations throughout South America. Venezuela became the second largest oil producing nation. In some countries the 1920s saw the rise of political movements. Communism spread as a consequence of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ victory in the Russian Civil War, fear of the spread of Communism led to the emergence of far right political movements and fascism in Europe. The devastating Wall Street Crash in October 1929 is generally viewed as a harbinger of the end of 1920s prosperity in North America, the Roaring Twenties brought about several novel and highly visible social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, “Normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism during World War I, jazz blossomed, and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, large baseball stadiums were built in major U. S. cities, in addition to palatial cinemas. Most independent countries passed womens suffrage after 1918, especially as a reward for support of the war effort and endurance of its deaths. Egypt officially becomes an independent country through the Declaration of 1922, though it remains under the military. Prohibition was finally repealed in 1933, organized crime turns to smuggling and bootlegging of liquor, led by figures such as Al Capone, boss of the Chicago Outfit. The Immigration Act of 1924 places restrictions on immigration, the major sport was baseball and the most famous player was Babe Ruth. The Lost Generation, was the name Gertrude Stein gave to American writers, poets, and artists living in Europe during the 1920s. A peak in the early 1920s in the membership of the Ku Klux Klan of four to five million members, followed by a rapid decline down to an estimated 30,000 members by 1930. The Scopes Trial, which declared that John T. Scopes had violated the law by teaching evolution in schools, major armed conflict in Ireland including Irish War of Independence resulting in Ireland becoming an independent country in 1922 followed by the Irish Civil War
9.
1930s
–
The 1930s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1930, and ended on December 31,1939. In response, authoritarian regimes emerged in countries in Europe and South America. The 1930s also saw a proliferation of new technologies, especially in the fields of aviation, radio. Colombia–Peru War – fought between the Republic of Colombia and the Republic of Peru, Chaco War – the war was fought between Bolivia and Paraguay over the disputed territory of Gran Chaco resulting in an overall Paraguayan victory in 1935. An agreement dividing the territory was made in 1938, officially ending outstanding differences, saudi–Yemeni War – was a war between Saudi Arabia and Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. Second Sino-Japanese War – fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It also made up more than 50% of the casualties in the Pacific War, World War II breaks out on September 1,1939 Chinese Civil War - The ruling Kuomintang and the rebel Communist Party of China fight a civil war for control of China. The Communists consolidated territory in the early 1930s and proclaimed a short-lived Chinese Soviet Republic that collapsed upon Kuomintang attacks, the Kuomintang and Communists attempted to put away their differences after 1937 to fight the Japanese occupation of China, but intermittent clashes continued through the remainder of the 1930s. Spanish Civil War – Germany and Italy back anti-communist Falange forces of Francisco Franco, the Soviet Union and international communist parties back the left-wing republican faction in the war. The war ends in April 1939 with Francos nationalist forces defeating the republican forces, Franco becomes Head of State of Spain, President of Government and de facto dictator. The Republic gives way to the Spanish State, an authoritarian dictatorship, Hitler pulls Germany out of the League of Nations, but hosts the 1936 Summer Olympics to show his new reich to the world as well as the supposed superior athleticism of his Aryan troops/athletes. Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, attempts the appeasement of Hitler in hope of avoiding war by allowing the dictator to annex the Sudetenland, later signing the Munich Agreement and promising constituents Peace for our time. He was ousted in favor of Winston Churchill in May 1940, some 267 synagogues were destroyed, and thousands of homes and businesses were ransacked. Kristallnacht also served as the pretext for the confiscation of firearms from German Jews. Germany and Italy pursue territorial expansionist agendas, Germany demands the annexation of the Federal State of Austria and of other German-speaking territories in Europe. Between 1935 and 1936, Germany recovers the Saar and remilitarizes the Rhineland, Germany and Italy improve relations by forming an alliance against communism in 1936 with the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact. Germany annexes Austria in the event known as the Anschluss, the annexation of the Sudetenland followed negotiations which resulted in the Munich Agreement of 1938. The Italian invasion of Albania in 1939 succeeds in turning the Kingdom of Albania into an Italian protectorate, the vacant Albanian throne was claimed by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
10.
1940s
–
The 1940s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1940, and ended on December 31,1949. Most of World War II took place in the first half of the decade, which had an effect on most countries and people in Europe, Asia. The decade also witnessed the beginnings of new technologies, often first developed in tandem with the war effort. World War II Nazi Germany invades Poland, Denmark, Norway, Benelux, Soviet Union invades Poland, Finland, occupies Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Romanian region of Bessarabia from 1939 to 1941. Germany faces the United Kingdom in the Battle of Britain and it was the first major campaign to be fought entirely by air forces, and was the largest and most sustained aerial bombing campaign up until that date. The United States enter World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7,1941 and it would face the Empire of Japan in the Pacific War. Germany and Japan suffer defeats at Stalingrad, El Alamein, the forces of the Western Allies land on the beaches of Normandy in Northern France. Yalta Conference, wartime meeting from 4 February 1945 to 11 February 1945 among the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, by this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is between 11 million and 17 million people. The German Instrument of Surrender signed, atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Surrender of Japan on August 15. World War II officially ends on September 2,1945, Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 Arab–Israeli conflict 1948 Arab–Israeli War – The war was fought between the newly declared State of Israel and its Arab neighbours. The war commenced upon the termination of the British Mandate of Palestine in mid-May 1948, in its conclusion, Israel managed to defeat the Arab armies. Establishment of the United Nations Charter effective, establishment of the defence alliance NATO April 4,1949. 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, Victory of Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong in the Chinese Civil War. Beginning of Greek Civil War, which extends from 1946 to 1949,1944 – Iceland declares independence from Denmark. 1945 – Indonesia declares independence from the Netherlands,1946 – The French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon dissolves to the independent states of Syria and Lebanon. The French settlers are forced to evacuate the French colony in Syria,1947 – The Partition of the Presidencies and provinces of British India into a secular Union of India and a predominantly Muslim Dominion of Pakistan. 1948 – British rule in Burma ends, the State of Israel is established. 1949 – The Peoples Republic of China is officially proclaimed, the Atanasoff-Berry computer is now considered one of the first electronic digital computing device built by John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry at Iowa State University during 1937–1942
11.
1914
–
As of the start of 1914, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line in the United States starts services between St. Abram C, pheil, mayor of St. Petersburg, is the first airline passenger and over 3,000 people witness the first departure. January 5 – Ford Motor Company announces an eight-hour workday and a wage of $5. January 8 – A railway strike is declared in the Transvaal, January 9 – The Phi Beta Sigma fraternity is founded by African American students at Howard University in Washington, D. C. January 11 – The Sakurajima volcano in Japan begins to erupt, the lava flows cause the island which it forms to be linked to the Ōsumi Peninsula. February 2 – Charlie Chaplin makes his film début in the comedy short Making a Living, february 7 – Release of Charlie Chaplins second film, the Keystone comedy Kid Auto Races at Venice, in which his character of The Tramp is introduced to audiences. February 8 – The Luxembourg national football team has its first victory, beating France 5–4 in a match, for the first. February 10 – Release of the film Hearts Adrift, the name of Mary Pickford, february 12 – In Washington, D. C. the first stone of the Lincoln Memorial is put into place. February 13 – Copyright, In New York City the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers is established to protect the copyrighted musical compositions of its members, february 17 – Karl Staaff steps down as Prime Minister of Sweden in the aftermath of the Courtyard Crisis. He is replaced by the public official Hjalmar Hammarskjöld, father of Dag Hammarskjöld, february 26 – The ocean liner that will become HMHS Britannic, sister to the RMS Titanic, is launched at the Harland and Wolff shipyards in Belfast. February 28 – Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus proclaimed by ethnic Greeks in Northern Epirus, march 1 – The Republic of China joins the Universal Postal Union. March 6 – Founding of FK Vojvodina football club in Novi Sad, march 7 – Prince William of Wied arrives in Albania to begin his reign. March 8 – First transfer of aircraft to Don Muang Royal Thai Air Force Base, march 10 – Suffragette Mary Richardson damages Velázquez painting Rokeby Venus in Londons National Gallery with a meat chopper. March 17 – Green beer is invented by Dr. Thomas H. Curtin and displayed at the Schnorrer Club of Morrisania in the Bronx, march 27 – Belgian surgeon Albert Hustin makes the first successful non-direct blood transfusion, using anticoagulants. March 29 – Katherine Routledge and her husband arrive in Easter Island to make the first true study of it, april 4–September 27 – Komagata Maru incident, Voyage of the Komagata Maru from India to Canada. Due to Canadian regulations designed to exclude Asian immigrants the boat is not allowed to dock in Vancouver and is forced to return to Calcutta with all its passengers, april 9 – Tampico Affair, involving United States Navy sailors in Mexico. April 11 Canadian Margaret C. MacDonald is appointed Matron-in-Chief of the Canadian Nursing service band, alpha Rho Chi, a professional architecture fraternity, is founded in the Hotel Sherman in Chicago. April 14–18 – First International Criminal Police Congress held in Monaco,24 countries are represented including some from Asia, Europe, and the Americas, the Dean of the Paris Law School is president
12.
1915
–
As of the start of 1915, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Below, the events of World War I have the WWI prefix, january 1 WWI, The Royal Navy battleship HMS Formidable is sunk off Lyme Regis, Dorset, England, by an Imperial German Navy U-boat with the loss of 547 crew. The Battle of Broken Hill, an ambush near Broken Hill, New South Wales. Harry Houdini performs a straitjacket escape performance, january 5 – Joseph E. Carberry sets an altitude record of 11,690 feet, carrying Capt. Benjamin Delahauf Foulois as a passenger in a fixed-wing aircraft. January 12 The United States House of Representatives rejects a proposal to give women the right to vote, a Fool There Was premières in the United States starring Theda Bara as a femme fatale, she quickly becomes one of early cinemas most sensational stars. January 13 – The 6.7 Mw Avezzano earthquake shakes the Province of LAquila in Italy with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI, various agencies estimate the number of people killed to be 29, 978–32,610. January 18 – Twenty-One Demands from Japan to China are made, january 19 Georges Claude patents the neon discharge tube for use in advertising. WWI, German Zeppelins bomb the towns of Great Yarmouth and Kings Lynn in England for the first time. January 21 – Kiwanis is founded in Detroit, as The Supreme Lodge Benevolent Order Brothers, january 24 – WW I, Battle of Dogger Bank, British Grand Fleet defeats the German High Seas Fleet, sinking the armoured cruiser SMS Blücher. Emory College is rechartered as Emory University, and plans to move its campus from Oxford. January 26 – The Rocky Mountain National Park is established by an act of the United States Congress, january 26 – WWI, Ottoman Army begins the Raid on the Suez Canal. January 27 – WWI, Military casualties begin arriving at the Hôpital Temporaire dArc-en-Barrois, january 28 – An act of the United States Congress designates the United States Coast Guard, began in 1790, as a military branch. February – While working as a cook at New Yorks Sloane Hospital for Women under a name, Typhoid Mary infects 25 people. February 4 – The Maritz Rebellion of disaffected Boere against the government of the Union of South Africa ends with the surrender of remaining rebels, february 8 – The controversial film, The Birth of a Nation, directed by D. W. Griffith, premieres in Los Angeles. It will be the film for around 25 years. February 18 – WWI, Germany regards waters around the British Isles to be a war zone from this date, february 20 – In San Francisco the Panama–Pacific International Exposition is opened. March – The 1915 Palestine locust infestation breaks out in Palestine, March 3 – The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the predecessor of NASA, is founded in the United States. March 11 – WWI, British armed merchantman HMS Bayano is sunk in the North Channel off the coast of Scotland by Imperial German Navy U-boat SM U-27
13.
1916
–
As of the start of 1916, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Below, the events of World War I have the WWI prefix, january 1 – The British Royal Army Medical Corps carries out the first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. January 9 – WWI, Gallipoli Campaign, Last British troops evacuated from Gallipoli, as the Ottoman Empire prevails over a joint British, january 13 – WWI, Battle of Wadi, Ottoman Empire forces defeat the Allied British during the Mesopotamian campaign in modern-day Iraq. January 24 In Browning, Montana, the drops from +6.7 °C to -48.8 °C in one day. Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co, the Supreme Court of the United States upholds the national income tax. January 29 – WWI, Paris is bombed by German zeppelins for the first time, january 30 – The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and the British oficial Henry McMahon concerning the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire ends. January 31 – WWI, An attack is planned on Verdun, february 3 – Parliament buildings in Ottawa, Canada are burned down. February 9 –6.00 p. m. – Tristan Tzara founds the art movement Dadaism, february 11 Emma Goldman is arrested for lecturing on birth control in the United States. The Baltimore Symphony Orchestra presents its first concert in the United States, the Romanian football club Sportul Studențesc is founded in Bucharest. February 12 – WWI, Battle of Salaita Hill – South African, february 21 – WWI, The Battle of Verdun begins in France. March 7 – In Munich German automobile company BMW is founded, march 8–9 – Mexican Revolution, Pancho Villa leads about 500 Mexican raiders in an attack against Columbus, New Mexico, killing 12 U. S. soldiers. A garrison of the U. S. 13th Cavalry Regiment fights back, march 15 – United States President Woodrow Wilson sends 12,000 United States troops over the U. S. –Mexico border to pursue Pancho Villa, the 13th Cavalry regiment enters Mexican territory. March 16 – Mexican Revolution, The U. S. 7th and 10th Cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the border to join the hunt for Villa. March 22 The temporary Emperor of China, Yuan Shikai, abdicates the throne, J. R. R. Tolkien marries Edith Bratt in England. April – The toggle light switch is invented by William J. Newton, april 11 – WWI, Egyptian Expeditionary Force begins occupation of the Sinai Peninsula. April 20 – The Chicago Cubs play their first game at Weeghman Park, april 22 – The Chinese troop transport SS Hsin-Yu capsizes off the Chinese coast, at least 1,000 are killed. April 24–30 – The Easter Rising occurs in Ireland, april 27 – WWI, Gas attack at Hulluch in France, The 47th Brigade, 16th Division is decimated in one of the most heavily concentrated German gas attacks of the war. April 29 – WWI, Siege of Kut ends with the surrender of British forces to the Ottoman Empire at Kut-al-Amara on the Tigris in Basra Vilayet during the Mesopotamian campaign, may 16 United States Marines invade the Dominican Republic
14.
1917
–
As of the start of 1917, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Below, events of World War I have the WWI prefix, January 1 – The University of Oregon defeats the University of Pennsylvania 14–0 in U. S. college footballs 3rd Annual Rose Bowl Game. January 2 – The Royal Bank of Canada takes over Quebec Bank, the cause was found to be inadequate signalling procedures. January 9 – WWI, The last substantial Ottoman Army garrison on the Sinai Peninsula is captured by the Egyptian Expeditionary Forces Desert Column at the Battle of Rafa. January 11 – Unknown saboteurs set off the Kingsland Explosion at Kingsland, January 16 – The Danish West Indies is sold to the United States for $25 million. January 19 – Silvertown explosion, A blast at a factory in London kills 73. The resulting fire causes over £2,000,000 worth of damage, January 22 – WWI, President of the United States Woodrow Wilson calls for peace without victory in Germany. January 25 WWI, British armed merchantman SS Laurentic is sunk by mines off Lough Swilly with the loss of 354 of the 475 aboard, an anti-prostitution drive in San Francisco occurs and police close about 200 prostitution houses. January 26 – The sea defences at the English village of Hallsands are breached, leading to all, January 28 – The United States ends its search for Pancho Villa. January 30 – Pershings troops in Mexico begin withdrawing back to the United States and they reach Columbus, New Mexico February 5. February 1 – WWI, Atlantic U-boat Campaign, Germany announces its U-boats will resume unrestricted submarine warfare, February 3 – WWI, The United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany. February 5 – The new constitution of Mexico is adopted, February 13 Mata Hari is arrested in Paris for spying. WWI, Beginning of the Raid on Nekhl by units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, February 21 – British troopship SS Mendi is accidentally rammed and sunk off the Isle of Wight, killing 646, mainly members of the South African Native Labour Corps. March 1 The U. S. government releases the text of the Zimmermann Telegram to the public, Japanese city of Ōmuta is founded by Hiroushi Miruku. March 2 – The enactment of the Jones Act grants Puerto Ricans United States citizenship, march 4 Woodrow Wilson is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States. Jeannette Rankin of Montana becomes the first woman member of the United States House of Representatives. March 7 – Livery Stable Blues, recorded with Dixie Jazz Band One Step on February 26 by the Original Dixieland Jass Band in the United States, becomes the first jazz recording commercially released, on August 17 the band records Tiger Rag. March 8 – The February Revolution begins in Russia, Women calling for bread in Petrograd start riots, the United States Senate adopts the cloture rule in order to limit filibusters
15.
1918
–
As of the start of 1918, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Below, events of World War I have the WWI prefix, january 4 – Finland officially recognized by the Russian SFSR. January 8 – Woodrow Wilson delivers his Fourteen Points speech, january 12 – Finland enacts a Mosaic Confessors law, granting Finnish Jews civil rights. January 15 – The keel of HMS Hermes is laid in Britain, january 18 Russian Constituent Assembly meets. The Historic Concert for the Benefit of Widows and Orphans of Austrian and Hungarian Soldiers at the Konzerthaus, january 19 – Russian Constituent Assembly proclaims Russian Democratic Federative Republic, but is dissolved by Bolshevik government on same day. January 22 – The Ukrainian Peoples Republic declares independence from Bolshevik Russia, january 27 – The Finnish Civil War begins. January –1918 flu pandemic, Spanish flu first observed in Haskell County, February 1 – The Cattaro Mutiny sees Austrian sailors in the Gulf of Cattaro, led by two Czech Socialists, mutiny. February 5 – The SS Tuscania is torpedoed off the Irish coast, it is the first ship carrying American troops to Europe to be torpedoed, February 6 – Womens suffrage in the United Kingdom, Representation of the People Act gives most women over 30 the vote. February 14 – Russia switches from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar, February 16 – The Council of Lithuania adopts the Act of Independence of Lithuania, declaring Lithuanias independence from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. February 19 – WWI, Capture of Jericho by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force begins the British occupation of the Jordan Valley, February 19-25 – WWI, The Imperial Russian Navy evacuates Tallinn through thick ice over the Gulf of Finland. February 21 – The last captive Carolina parakeet dies at the Cincinnati Zoo, February 24 Estonia declares its independence from Russia after seven centuries of foreign rule. German forces capture Tallinn on the next day, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia declare their independence from Russia as the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. March 1 – WWI, German submarine U-19 sinks HMS Calgarian off Rathlin Island, March 3 – WWI, the Central Powers and Bolshevist Russia sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ending Russias involvement in the war. March 6 The Finnish Army Corps of Aviation is founded as a forerunner of the Finnish Air Force to be established on 4 May 1928. The blue swastika is adopted as its symbol as a tribute to the Swedish explorer and aviator Eric von Rosen, von Rosen had painted the Viking symbol on the plane as his personal lucky insignia. March 7 – WWI, Finland forms an alliance with Germany, March 12 – Moscow becomes the capital of Soviet Russia. March 19 – The United States Congress establishes time zones and approves daylight saving time, March 21 – WWI, First Transjordan attack on Amman by units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force begins with the passage of the Jordan River. March 23 WWI, The giant German cannon, the Paris Gun, in London at the Wood Green Empire, Chung Ling Soo dies during his trick where he is supposed to catch two separate bullets – but one of them perforates his lung
16.
1919
–
As of the start of 1919, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The Czechoslovak Legions occupy much of the free city of Pressburg. HMY Iolaire sinks off the coast of Scotland,206 die, edsel Ford succeeds his father as head of the Ford Motor Company. January 5 Spartacist uprising, Socialist demonstrations in Berlin, Germany turn into an attempted communist revolution, in Germany, the German Workers Party, predecessor of the Nazi Party, is formed by merger of Anton Drexlers Committee of Independent Workmen with journalist Karl Harrers Political Workers Circle. January 7 The beginning of the Tragic Week in Argentina, an anarchist uprising in Buenos Aires, Estonian War of Independence, With Soviet Russian forces just 40 km of the capital Tallinn, Estonian forces start a general and successful counter-offensive against the Red Army. January 9 – Friedrich Ebert orders the Freikorps into action in Berlin, January 10–12 – The Freikorps attacks Spartacist supporters around Berlin. January 13 – Workers councils in Berlin end the general strike, January 14 – Estonian War of Independence, Estonian forces liberate Tartu from the Red Army. January 15 Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht are murdered following the Spartacist uprising, great Molasses Flood, A wave of molasses released from an exploding storage tank sweeps through Boston, Massachusetts, killing 21 and injuring 150. January 16 The Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, authorizing Prohibition, is ratified, pianist Ignacy Jan Paderewski becomes the second Prime Minister of Poland. January 18 World War I, The Paris Peace Conference opens at the Palace of Versailles, Estonian War of Independence, Estonian forces liberate Narva, expelling the Red Army from Northern Estonia. Bentley Motors Limited is founded in England, January 19 The Monarchy of the North is established in Northern Portugal. January 21 Dáil Éireann meets for the first time in the Mansion House, in the first shots of the Anglo-Irish War, two Royal Irish Constabulary men are killed in an ambush at Soloheadbeg in Tipperary. Gojong, the first emperor of the Korean Empire, dies, January 23 – The Khotin Uprising breaks out in Khotyn, Ukraine. January 25 – The League of Nations is founded in Paris, January 31 – Battle of George Square, The British Army is called in to deal with riots during negotiations over working hours in Glasgow, Scotland. February 1 – Estonian War of Independence, Estonian forces liberate Valga and Võru, february 3 – Soviet troops occupy Ukraine. February 4-5 – Pressburg becomes capital of Slovakia, february 6 – The Seattle General Strike begins in the United States, affecting over 65,000 workers. February 11 Friedrich Ebert is elected first President of Germany by the Weimar National Assembly, the Seattle General Strike ends when Federal troops are summoned by the State of Washingtons Attorney General. February 12 – Ethnic Germans and Hungarian inhabitants of Pressburg start a protest against its incorporation into Czechoslovakia, february 14 – The Polish–Soviet War begins with the Battle of Bereza Kartuska
17.
1920
–
As of the start of 1920, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January –4,025 suspected communists and anarchists arrested and held without trial in the United States following raids in several cities, January 1 Babe Ruth is traded by the Red Sox for $125,000, the largest sum ever paid for a player at that time. Bolsheviks increase troops from four divisions to twenty along the Polish border January 7 The forces of Russian White Admiral Alexander Kolchak surrender in Krasnoyarsk, the Great Siberian Ice March ensues. The New York State Assembly refuses to seat five duly elected Socialist assemblymen, January 9 – Thousands of onlookers watch as The Human Fly George Polley climbs the Woolworth Building in New York City. He reaches the 30th floor before being arrested, January 10 – League of Nations Covenant enters into force. On January 16 the organization holds its first council meeting, in Paris, January 11 – The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic is recognised de facto by European powers in Versailles. January 13 – The New York Times ridicules the American rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard, the newspaper has to recant publicly on July 17,1969 when the Apollo crew is on its mission to the Moon. January 16 Prohibition in the United States begins with the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution coming into effect, the Allies of World War I demand that the Netherlands extradite the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who fled there in 1918. Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Incorporated, is founded on the campus of Howard University in Washington, January 19 – The United States Senate votes against joining the League of Nations. January 22 – The Australian Country Party is officially formed, led by Nelson Pollard, January 23 – The Netherlands refuses to extradite the German Kaiser. January 28 – El Tercio de Extranjeros, the Regiment of Foreigners, January 30 – The oldest surviving pro wrestling match on film takes place, with Joe Stecher defeating Earl Caddock. February 1 – The South African Air Force is established, the second autonomous Air Force in the world after the Royal Air Force, february 2 Estonian War of Independence, The Tartu Peace Treaty is signed, ending the war and recognizing Estonian independence. Sayyid Muhammad, Khan of Khiva abdicates, february 7 – Admiral Kolchak and Viktor Pepelyayev are executed by firing squad near Irkutsk. February 10 – General Józef Haller first performs Polands Wedding to the Sea, february 12–24 – Conference of London, Leaders of the United Kingdom, France and Italy meet to discuss the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. February 13 – Switzerland rejoins the League of Nations, february 14 – The League of Women Voters is founded in Chicago. February 17 – A woman named Anna Anderson tries to suicide in Berlin and is taken to a mental hospital. February 19 – The United States Senate refuses to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, february 20 –1920 Gori earthquake, An earthquake hits Gori in the Democratic Republic of Georgia, killing 114. February 21 – The island province of Marinduque in the Philippines archipelago is founded, february 22 – In Emeryville, California, the first dog racing track to employ an imitation rabbit opens
18.
Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
–
Victor Emmanuel III was the King of Italy from 29 July 1900 until his abdication on 9 May 1946. In addition, he claimed the thrones of Ethiopia and Albania as Emperor of Ethiopia and King of the Albanians, during his long reign, which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I, the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two World Wars. His reign also encompassed the birth, rise, and fall of Italian Fascism, Victor Emmanuel abdicated his throne in 1946 in favour of his son Umberto II, hoping to strengthen support for the monarchy against an ultimately successful referendum to abolish it. He then went in exile to Alexandria, Egypt, where he died and was buried the following year. He was called by the Italians Il Re soldato for having led his country during both the wars, and, after Italys victory in the First World War Il Re vittorioso. He was also nicknamed Sciaboletta due to his height of 1.53 m, Victor Emmanuel was born in Naples, Italy. He was the child of Umberto I, King of Italy. Margherita was the daughter of the Duke of Genoa, from birth until his accession, Victor Emmanuel was known by the title of the Prince of Naples. On 24 October 1896, Prince Victor Emmanuel married Princess Elena of Montenegro, on 29 July 1900, at the age of 30, Victor Emmanuel acceded to the throne upon his fathers assassination. The only advice that his father Umberto ever gave his heir was Remember, to be a king, all you need to know is how to sign your name, read a newspaper, and mount a horse. His early years showed evidence that, by the standards of the Savoy monarchy, indeed, even though his father was killed by an anarchist, the new King showed a commitment to constitutional freedoms. Though parliamentary rule had been established in Italy, the Statuto Albertino, or constitution. For instance, he had the right to appoint the Prime Minister even if the individual in question did not command majority support in the Chamber of Deputies, when World War I began, Italy at first remained neutral, despite being part of the Triple Alliance. However, in 1915, Italy signed several secret treaties committing her to enter the war on the side of the Triple Entente, most of the politicians opposed war, however, and the Italian Chamber of Deputies forced Prime Minister Antonio Salandra to resign. At this juncture, Victor Emmanuel declined Salandras resignation and personally made the decision for Italy to enter the war and he was well within his rights to do so under the Statuto. Popular demonstrations in favor of the war were staged in Rome, with 200,000 gathering on 16 May 1915 and it was at this time, the period of World War I, that the King enjoyed the genuine affection of the majority of his people. Still, during the war he received about 400 threatening letters from people of social background. The economic depression which followed World War I gave rise to much extremism among Italys sorely tried working classes and this caused the country as a whole to become politically unstable
19.
Prime Minister of Italy
–
The office of Prime Minister is established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the Constitution of Italy. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election, prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic, the position was called President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943, Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946. The Prime Minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds executive power, the position is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems. The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office, as the President of the Council of Ministers the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet. In addition the Prime Minister leads a political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament. Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that the Prime Minister directs, the Prime Ministers activity has often consisted of mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition, rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers. The office was first established in 1848 in Italys predecessor state, the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in its constitution, from 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the Kingdom, most of them being right-wing politicians. After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom, in fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king, and presided over a very unstable political system. The first Prime Minister was Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was appointed on 23 March 1861, from 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country. One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi, a patriot and statesman. He led the country for six years, from 1887 until 1891, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister, ally, and admirer of Bismarck. His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a banking scandal. He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1892 Giovanni Giolitti, a young leftist politician, was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I, but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power. In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed head of the government. Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Mussolini, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party. They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no links to political constituencies
20.
Paolo Boselli
–
Paolo Boselli was an Italian politician who served as the 34th Prime Minister of Italy during World War I. Boselli was born in Savona, Liguria on June 8,1838, Boselli was the first professor of science at the University of Rome prior to entering politics. He served for 51 years as a liberal rightist parliamentary deputy, appointed Minister of Education in 1888, Boselli reorganised the Bank of Italy with his next portfolio, as Minister of the Treasury in 1899. He also served in Sidney Sonninos 1906 government and his government fell in October 1917 as a result of the Italian military defeat in the Caporetto. During Bosellis time as minister, a decree of August 1917 extended the principle of compulsory insurance against accidents to agricultural workers generally. He died in Rome on March 10,1932, and was buried in Turin
21.
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando
–
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was an Italian statesman, known for representing Italy in the 1919 Paris Peace Conference with his foreign minister Sidney Sonnino. He was also known as Premier of Victory for defeating the Central Powers along with the Entente in World War I and he was also member and president of the Constitutional Assembly that changed the Italian form of government into a Republic. Aside from his prominent political role Orlando is also known for his writings, over a hundred works, on legal and judicial issues and he was born in Palermo, Sicily. He taught law at the University of Palermo and was recognized as an eminent jurist, in 1897 he was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies for the district of Partinico for which he was constantly reelected until 1925. He aligned himself with Giovanni Giolitti, who was Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921, a liberal, Orlando served in various roles as a minister. In 1903 he served as Minister of Education under Prime Minister Giolitti, in 1907 he was appointed Minister of Justice, a role he retained until 1909. He was re-appointed to the ministry in November 1914 in the government of Antonio Salandra until his appointment as Minister of the Interior in June 1916 under Paolo Boselli. He had been a supporter of Italys entry in the war. He successfully led a national front government, the Unione Sacra. Orlando was encouraged in his support of the Allies because of secret incentives offered to Italy in the London Pact of 1915, Italy was promised significant territorial gains in Dalmatia. The fact that Italy recovered and ended up on the side in 1918 earned for Orlando the title Premier of Victory. Their differences proved to be disastrous during the negotiations, Orlando was prepared to renounce territorial claims for Dalmatia to annex Rijeka - the principal seaport on the Adriatic Sea - while Sonnino was not prepared to give up Dalmatia. Italy ended up claiming both and received neither, running up against Wilsons policy of national self-determination, Orlando supported the Racial Equality Proposal introduced by Japan at the conference. Orlando dramatically left the early in April 1919. He returned briefly the following month, but was forced to resign just days before the signing of the resultant Treaty of Versailles, the fact he was not a signatory to the treaty became a point of pride for him later in his life. French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau dubbed him The Weeper, and Orlando himself recalled proudly, I knew they would not give us what we were entitled to. I knocked my head against the wall and his political position was seriously undermined by his failure to secure Italian interests at the Paris Peace Conference. Orlando resigned on 23 June 1919, following his inability to acquire Fiume for Italy in the peace settlement, the so-called Mutilated victory was one of the causes of the rising of Benito Mussolini
22.
Demographics of Italy
–
However the distribution of the population is widely uneven. In addition, after centuries of net emigration, from the 1980s Italy has experienced large-scale immigration for the first time in modern history, according to the Italian government, there were an estimated 5,000,073 foreign nationals resident in Italy. High fertility and birth rates persisted until the 1970s, after which they started to dramatically decline, at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, one in five Italians was over 65 years old. However, as a result of the immigration of the last two decades, in recent years Italy experienced a significant growth in birth rates. The total fertility rate has climbed from an all-time low of 1.18 children per woman in 1995 to 1.41 in 2008. Since the 1984 Lateran Treaty agreement, Italy has no official religion, however, it recognizes the role the Catholic Church plays in Italian society. 87. 8% of the population identify as Catholic,5. 8% as non-believers or atheists,2. 6% as Muslims, about 68% of Italian population is classified as urban, a relatively low figure among developed countries. However, none of these new local authorities has yet fully operative. Between 1898 and 1914, the years of Italian diaspora. Italian communities once thrived in the former African colonies of Eritrea, Somalia, all of Libyas Italians were expelled from the North African country in 1970. In addition, after the annexation of Istria in 1945, up to 350,000 ethnic Italians left Titoist Yugoslavia. Today, large numbers of people with full or significant Italian ancestry are found in Brazil, Argentina, US, France, Venezuela, Uruguay, Canada, the official figures also exclude illegal immigrants, the so-called clandestini, whose numbers are very difficult to determine. In May 2008 The Boston Globe quoted an estimate of 670,000 for this group, the second most important area of immigration to Italy has always been the neighbouring North Africa, with soaring arrivals as a consequence of the Arab Spring. Furthermore, in recent years, growing migration fluxes from the Far East, the number of unregistered Romanians is difficult to estimate, but the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network suggested that in 2007 that there might have been half a million or more. Overall, at the end of the 2000s the foreign population of Italy was from, Europe, Africa, Asia. The distribution of immigrants is largely uneven in Italy,84. 9% of immigrants live in the northern and central parts of the country, while only 15. 1% live in the southern half of the peninsula. Ethnologue has estimated there are about 55 million speakers of the language in Italy. However, between 120 and 150 million people use Italian as a second or cultural language, worldwide and its development was also influenced by the Germanic languages of the post-Roman invaders
23.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
24.
Luigi Cadorna
–
Marshal of Italy Luigi Cadorna, OSML, OMS, OCI was an Italian General and Marshal of Italy, most famous for being the Chief of Staff of the Italian Army during the first part of World War I. Luigi Cadorna was born to General Raffaele Cadorna in Verbania Pallanza, in 1860 Cardona became a student at the Teuliè Military School in Milan. At fifteen he entered the Turin Military Academy, upon graduation he was commissioned as a second lieutenant of artillery in 1868. In 1870, as an officer in the 2nd Regiment of Artillery, as major he was appointed to the staff of General Pianell, afterwards taking the post of Chief of Staff of the Verona Divisional Command. As Colonel commanding the 10th Regiment of Bersaglieri from 1892 Cadorna acquired a reputation for strict discipline and he wrote a manual of infantry tactics which laid stress on the doctrine of the offensive. Promoted to lieutenant general in 1898 Cadorna subsequently held a number of senior staff, on the eve of Italys entry into World War he was close to peace-time retirement age and had a history of differences with his political and military superiors. Cadorna had been offered the post of Chief of Staff for the first time in 1908 and he was again offered the position in July 1914, as the Triple Entente and Central Powers girded for war. When Italy entered the war in May 1915 on the side of the Entente, Cadorna fielded thirty-six infantry divisions composed of 875,000 men, Cadorna inherited a difficult political and military situation. The government of Premier Antonio Salandra favored initial neutrality over Italys treaty commitments under the Triple Alliance, Cadorna was accordingly obliged to reverse long established strategic plans while discovering that the army was ill-prepared for war against Austria-Hungary and Germany. In particular large numbers of men and quantities of equipment had been deployed to Tripolitania leaving the home army disorganized, Cadorna launched four offensives in 1915, all along the Isonzo River. The goal of these offensives was the fortress of Gorizia, the capture of which would permit the Italian armies to pivot south and march on Trieste, all four offensives failed, resulting in some 250,000 Italian casualties for little material gain. Cadorna would ultimately fight eleven battles on the Isonzo between 1915 and 1917, additional forces were arrayed along the Trentino salient, attacking treaty commitments as towards Rovereto, Trento, and Bolzano. The terrain along the Isonzo and Trentino was completely unsuited for offensive warfare–mountainous and broken, on 24 October 1917 a combined Austro-Hungarian/German army struck across the Soča at Kobarid and by 12 November had advanced all the way to the Piave River. Cadorna himself had been on leave for most of October and his subordinate was seriously ill. The Italian Army fled in disarray and seemed on the verge of collapse,275,000 soldiers surrendered. Italys allies Britain and France sent eleven divisions to reinforce the Italian front, the General was relieved of command on 9 November 1917. The new Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando appointed the respected General Armando Diaz as Chief of General Staff, Cadorna was reassigned as the Italian representative to the Allied Supreme War Council set up in Versailles. The Italian forces thereafter rallied behind the Piave and Monte Grappa and, with the help of the Allied divisions, after the war, there was an enquiry held by the Italian government to investigate the defeat at Caporetto
25.
Austria-Hungary
–
The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
26.
Italian Front (World War I)
–
The Italian Front was a series of battles at the border between Austria-Hungary and Italy, fought between 1915 and 1918 in World War I. Fighting along the front displaced much of the population, of which several thousand died from malnutrition. The Allied victory at Vittorio Veneto and the disintegration of Austria-Hungary ended the military operations, moreover, Austria-Hungary omitted to consult Italy before sending the ultimatum to Serbia and refused to discuss compensation due according to the art. By the 1910s, the expansionist ideas of this movement were taken up by a significant part of the Italian political elite. The annexation of those Austrian territories that were inhabited by Italians, became the main Italian war goal, however, of around 1.5 million people living in those areas, 45% were Italian speakers, while the rest were Slovenes, Germans and Croats. In northern Dalmatia, which was also among the Italian war aims, on 23 May, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Italys entry was engineered in secret by the 1915 Treaty of London, set up between the British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey, the Italian Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino and the French Foreign Minister Jules Cambon. On February 16,1915, despite concurrent negotiations with Austria, the final choice was aided by the arrival of news in March of Russian victories in the Carpathians. The Treaty of London was concluded on April 26 binding Italy to fight within one month, not until May 4 did Salandra denounce the Triple Alliance in a private note to its signatories. During the Italo-Turkish War in Libya, the Italian military suffered equipment, at the opening of the campaign, Austro-Hungarian troops occupied and fortified high ground of the Julian Alps and Karst Plateau, but the Italians initially outnumbered their opponents three-to-one. An Italian offensive aimed to cross the Soča river, take the fortress town of Gorizia. This offensive opened the first Battles of the Isonzo, because the Austrian forces occupied higher ground, Italians conducted difficult offensives while climbing. The Italian forces therefore failed to drive much beyond the river, despite a professional officer corps, severely under-trained Italian units lacked morale. Also many troops deeply disliked the newly appointed Italian commander, general Luigi Cadorna, moreover, preexisting equipment and munition shortages slowed progress and frustrated all expectations for a Napoleonic style breakout. Like most contemporaneous militaries, the Italian army primarily used horses for transport but struggled, the Italians recuperated, rearmed with 1200 heavy guns, and then on 18 October 1915 launched Third Battle of the Isonzo, another attack. Forces of Austria-Hungary again repulsed this Italian offensive, which concluded on 4 November without resulting gains, the Italians again launched another offensive on 10 November, the Fourth Battle of the Isonzo. Italian Armies in the North East of the country, the offensive began on 11 March 1916 with 15 divisions, and resulted in no gain. Later in 1916, four more battles along the Isonzo river erupted, the Sixth Battle of the Isonzo, launched by the Italians in August, resulted in a success greater than the previous attacks
27.
Battles of the Isonzo
–
In April 1915, in the secret Treaty of London Italy was promised by Allies the territory of Austro-Hungarian Empire which were mainly inhabited by ethnic Slovenes. The Italian army wanted to penetrate in central Carniola, present-day Slovenia, Italian Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had plans of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna. The area between the northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea and the sources of the river Soča thus became the scene of twelve successive battles. As a result, the Austro-Hungarians were forced to some of their forces from the Eastern Front. The corridor is known as the Ljubljana Gate. By the autumn of 1915 one mile had been won by Italian troops, Italian troops did not reach the port of Trieste, the Italian General Luigi Cadornas initial target, until after the Armistice. The Austrians had fortified the mountains ahead of the Italians entry into the war on 23 May 1915, Italian Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna judged that Italian gains were most feasible at the coastal plain east of the lower end of the Soča. However he also believed that the Italian army could strike further north, not that he expected operations in the Isonzo sector to be easy. He was well aware that the river was prone to flooding –, in the south geographic peculiarities, including an array of ridges and valleys, also gave an advantage to the Austro-Hungarian defenders. Cumulative casualties of the battles of the Isonzo were enormous. Half of the entire Italian war casualty total – some 300,000 of 600,000 – were suffered along the Soča, Austro-Hungarian losses, while by no means as numerous were nevertheless high at around 200,000. With almost continuous combat in the area, the number of battles forming the Isonzo campaign is debatable. Some historians have assigned names to a couple of the Isonzo struggles, most notably at Kobarid in October 1917. Italian poet Giuseppe Ungarettis autobiographical poem, I Fiumi, was written about the Isonzo whilst he was stationed on the Front. Mark Helprins A Soldier of the Great War refers to parts of the Isonzo campaign The twelfth battle is the subject of the novel Caporetto by the Swedish author F. J. Nordstedt, Stockholm 1972. FirstWorldWar. Com The Battles of the Isonzo, 1915–17 FirstWorldWar. Com Battlefield Maps, the Foundation preserves, restores and presents the historical and cultural heritage of the First World War in the area of the Isonzo Front for the study, tourist and educational purposes. The Kobarid Museum Društvo Soška Fronta Pro Hereditate – extensive site Interactive map with the documentation with 360° Surround photography virtual tours Rapporto Ufficiale. 10 books - free access to the full texts )
28.
Italian Socialist Party
–
The Italian Socialist Party was a socialist and, later, social-democratic political party in Italy. Founded in Genoa in 1892, the PSI dominated the Italian left until after World War II, the PSI was disbanded in 1994 as a result of the Tangentopoli scandals. It was part of a wave of new socialist parties at the end of the 19th century and had to endure persecution by the Italian government during its early years. At the start of the 20th century, however, the PSI chose not to oppose the governments led by five-time Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti. This conciliation with the governments and its improving electoral fortunes helped to establish the PSI as a mainstream Italian political party by the 1910s. Despite the partys improving electoral results, however, the PSI remained divided into two branches, the Reformists and the Maximalists. The Reformists, led by Filippo Turati, were mostly in the unions. The Maximalists, led by Costantino Lazzari, were affiliated with the London Bureau of socialist groups, in 1912 the Maximalists led by Benito Mussolini prevailed at the party convention and this led to the split of the Italian Reformist Socialist Party. In the 1919 general election the PSI reached its highest result ever,32. 0% and 156 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, during this time period, Mussolini belonged to the Bolshevik wing of the Italian Socialist Party who purged moderate or reformist socialists. The national syndicalists intended to support Italian republicans in overthrowing the monarchy if such reforms were not made, the dominant internationalist and pacifist wing of the party remained committed to avoiding what it called a bourgeois war. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the PSI quickly aligned itself in support of the communist Bolshevik movement in Russia, from 1919 to the 1920s the Socialists and the Fascists emerged as prominent rival movements in Italys urban centres, often resorting to political violence in their clashes. In 1919, the Socialist Party of Turin formed the Red Army of Turin, the left-wing of the party broke away in 1921 to form the Communist Party of Italy, a division from which the PSI never been recovered and which had enormous consequences on Italian politics. In 1922, another split occurred when the reformist wing of the party, in 1924 Giacomo Matteotti, a member of the PSU, was assassinated by Fascists and shortly afterwards a Fascist dictatorship was established in Italy. In 1925 the PSI and all political parties except the Fascist Party were banned. The partys leadership remained in exile during the Fascist years and in 1930 the PSU was re-integrated into the PSI, the party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1930 and 1940. In the 1946 general election, the first after World War II, for the 1948 general election the Socialists led by Pietro Nenni chose to take part in the Popular Democratic Front along with the PCI. This caused the split of the faction within the party led by Giuseppe Saragat. The PSI was weakened by the split and was far less organized than the PCI, as a result, the Socialist parliamentary delegation was cut by a half
29.
Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne
–
The Agreement of St. -Jean-de-Maurienne was an agreement between France, Italy and Great Britain, signed at Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne on April 26,1917, and endorsed August 18 – September 26,1917. It was drafted by the Italian foreign ministry as an agreement to settle its Middle Eastern interest. It was mainly negotiated and signed by the Italian foreign minister Baron Sidney Sonnino, along with the Italian, British, Russia was not represented in this agreement as the Tsarist regime was in a state of collapse. The agreement was needed by the allies to secure the position of Italian forces in the Middle East, the representatives of Great Britain, France, Russia and Italy met in London in 1915 to sign an agreement providing for Italy’s entrance to the First World War. Italy’s part in the Middle East was left unsettled, the agreement stated that if the Ottoman Empire was partitioned, the borders of this occupation were to be decided at a later time. Under its terms France would be allotted the Adana region, while Italy would receive the remainder of southwestern Anatolia, Italy and the Anglo-French Repudiation of the 1917 St. Jean de Maurienne Agreement. Journal of Modern History 48. S2, 99-139
30.
Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne
–
Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is a commune in the Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department and it lies in the Maurienne, the valley of the River Arc. It was also an Episcopal See of Savoy during the Ancien Régime and its original name was simply Maurienne, or Moriana in Italian and Latin. Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is located at the confluence of the Arc, a river which has shaped the Maurienne Valley, the neighbouring communes of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne are Saint-Julien-Mont-Denis, Jarrier, Hermillon, Villargondran, Albiez-le-Jeune, Albiez-Montrond, Saint-Pancrace and Pontamafrey-Montpascal. The climate is the type because of the presence of the Alpine Massif. Route nationale 6 A43 autoroute Col de la Croix de Fer Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is located on the route of the future new Lyon-Turin rail link, homes, businesses, the SNCF railway station and the rescue centre are fully affected by this project. Responsible for the studies, the Lyon Turin Railway company foresees the installation of a new station in the Sous-le-Bourg quarter, serving the historic line. Geological and topographical investigations are underway and this project promises to be even more complex than that of the Channel Tunnel. The town of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is equipped with a network of public transport run by the Communauté de communes Cœur de Maurienne, a heliport is available for the helicopter of the gendarmerie whose base is located in Modane. La Bastille, les Chaudannes and les Clapeys are the three main quarters, the total number of dwellings in the commune is 4,240. Among such housing,87. 9% are principal residences,5. 4% are secondary homes and 6. 7% are vacant dwellings. These accommodations have a share of 17. 5% as individual houses,79. 3% as apartments, the number of residents who own their homes is 37. 9%. This is lower than the average which adds up to nearly 55. 3%. The number of tenants is 56. 7% throughout the housing which is higher than the average of 39. 8%. It may be noted also that 5. 4% of the inhabitants of the commune are people who are housed for free while at the level of the whole of the France the percentage is 4. 9%. Still on all of the municipality housing,3. 5% are studios,11. 5% are two-room housing,28. 4% have three,34. 5% of dwellings have four rooms, and 22. 1% of dwellings have five rooms or more. Locality named after John the Baptist, the precursor, who was born in Ain-Karim, son of Zechariah and Saint Elizabeth, cousin of Jesus, Latin name, Mauriana Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne has been the capital of the Maurienne Valley since the 6th century. The oldest possessions of the Counts of Savoy were the counties of Maurienne, Savoy proper, the Duchy of Savoy, which had been a French-speaking province under the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, was invaded by Revolutionary France, but restored to Piedmont in 1815
31.
Sidney Sonnino
–
Baron Sidney Costantino Sonnino was an Italian politician. He was the 19th Prime Minister of Italy and twice served briefly as one, in 1906 and he also was the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs during the First World War, representing Italy at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Sonnino was born in Pisa to an Italian father of Jewish heritage and he was raised an Anglican by his family. His grandfather had emigrated from the ghetto in Livorno to Egypt where he had built up a fortune as a banker. After graduating in law in Pisa in 1865, Sonnino became a diplomat and his family lived at the Castello Sonnino in Quercianella, near Livorno. He retired from the service in 1873. In 1876, Sonnino traveled to Sicily with Leopoldo Franchetti to conduct an investigation into the state of Sicilian society. In 1877, the two men published their research on Sicily in a substantial two-part report for the Italian Parliament, in the first part Sonnino analysed the lives of the islands landless peasants. Leopoldo Franchettis half of the report, Political and Administrative Conditions in Sicily, was an analysis of the Mafia in the century that is still considered authoritative today. Franchetti would ultimately influence public opinion about the Mafia more than anyone else until Giovanni Falcone over a years later. Political and Administrative Conditions in Sicily is the first convincing explanation of how the Mafia came to be, in 1878, Sonnino and Franchetti started a newspaper, which changed from weekly economic reviews to daily political issues. Sonnino was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies for the first time in the elections in May 1880. He belonged to the chamber to September 1919 from the XIV to XXIV legislature, Sonnino soon became one of the leading opponents of the Liberal Left. As a strict constitutionalist he favoured strong government to resist pressure of special interests, in December 1893, he became Minister of Finance and Minister of the Treasury in the government of Francesco Crispi, and tried to resolve the Banca Romana scandal. The newly established Banca dItalia was the result of a merger of three existing banks of issue, regional interests were still strong, hence the compromise of plurality of note issuance with the Banco di Napoli and the Banco di Sicilia, while providing for stricter state control. As Minister of the Treasury Sonnino restructured public finances, imposing new taxes, the budget deficit was sharply reduced, from 174 million lire in 1893-94 to 36 million in 1896-97. After the fall of the Crispi government as a result of the lost Battle of Adwa in March 1896, he served as the leader of the opposition conservatives against the liberal Giovanni Giolitti. In January 1897, Sonnino published an article titled Torniamo allo Statuto, in which he sounded the alarm about the threats that the clergy, republicans, in 1901 he founded a new major newspaper, Il Giornale dItalia
32.
Middle East
–
The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
33.
Middle-Eastern theatre of World War I
–
The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I saw action between 29 October 1914 and 30 October 1918. There were five main campaigns, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign, there were also several minor campaigns, the Senussi Campaign, Arab Campaign, and South Arabia Campaign. Both sides used local asymmetrical forces in the region, in addition, the Assyrians joined the Allies following the Assyrian genocide, instigating the Assyrian war of independence. The Turkish Ottomans had the support of Kurds, Turcomans, Circassians, Chechens, the theatre covered the largest territory of all theatres in the war. The Armenians attended the Trabzon Peace Conference which resulted in the Treaty of Batum on 4 June 1918. The Ottomans accepted the Armistice of Mudros with the Allies on 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers through the secret Ottoman-German Alliance, which was signed on 2 August 1914. Success in this region would force the Russians to divert troops from the Polish, German advisors with the Ottoman armies supported the campaign for this reason. From an economic perspective, the Ottoman, or rather German, Germany established an Intelligence Bureau for the East on the eve of World War I. The bureau was involved in intelligence-gathering and subversive missions to Persia and Egypt, if these nations were to be removed from Western influence, Enver envisioned a cooperation between these newly established Turkic states. Envers project conflicted with European interests which played out as struggles between several key imperial powers, the Ottomans also threatened Britains communications with India and the East via the Suez Canal. The Germans hoped to seize the Canal for the Central Powers, the British feared that the Ottomans might attack and capture the Middle East oil fields. The British Royal Navy depended upon oil from the deposits in southern Persia. Marriott summarizes the British debates on strategy for the Near East and Balkan theatre, The War in that presents many problems. The Russians viewed the Caucasus Front as secondary to the Eastern Front and they feared a campaign into the Caucasus aimed at retaking Kars which had been taken from the Ottoman Empire during the Russo-Turkish War, and the port of Batum. The Russian Imperial government planned to replace the Muslim population of Northern Anatolia, the Armenian national liberation movement sought to establish an Armenian state within the Armenian Highlands. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation achieved this goal later in the war, none of these entities were long lasting. The Caucasus Campaign extended from the Caucasus to eastern Asia Minor, reaching as far as Trabzon, Bitlis, Mush, the warfare on land was accompanied by actions undertaken by the Russian Navy in the Black Sea region of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire and German Empire fought each other at Batumi after the arrival of the German Caucasus Expedition whose prime aim was to secure oil supplies
34.
Caucasus Campaign
–
The Caucasus Campaign extended from the South Caucasus to the Armenian Highlands region, reaching as far as Trabzon, Bitlis, Mush and Van. The land warfare was accompanied by the Russian navy in the Black Sea Region of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the German Empire had a hot conflict at Batumi with the arrival of the German Caucasus Expedition whose prime aim was to secure oil supplies. The Armenian Genocide is intertwined with the events of this campaign, the main objective of the Ottoman Empire was the recovery of territory in the Caucasus, including regions captured by the Russian empire as a result of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. The strategic goals of the Caucasus Campaign for Ottoman Forces was to retake Artvin, Ardahan, Kars, a success in this region would mean a diversion of Russian forces to this front from the Polish and Galician fronts. A Caucasus Campaign would have an effect on Russian forces. The plan found sympathy with German advisory, Germany supplied the missing resources and the Ottoman 3rd Armys manpower was used to achieve the desired distraction. War Minister Enver Pasha hoped a success would facilitate opening the route to Tiflis, the Ottoman strategic goal was to cut Russian access to the hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea. Russia viewed the Caucasus front as secondary to the Eastern front, the Eastern Front had the most Russian manpower and resources. Russia had taken the city of Kars from the Turks in 1877 and feared an Ottoman advance into the Caucasus aimed at retaking Kars, the Russian Tsarist regime planned to replace the Muslim population of Northern Anatolia and Istanbul with more reliable Cossack settlers. The British worked with Russian revolutionary troops to prevent Enver Pashas goal of establishing an independent Transcaucasia, in 1914, before the war, the British government had contracted with the company for the supply of oil-fuel for the navy. The Ottomans had one based in the region, the 3rd Army. In 1916 they sent reinforcements and formed the 2nd Army, at the beginning of the conflict, the combined forces of the Ottomans ranged from 100,000 to 190,000 men. Before the war, Russia had the Russian Caucasus Army stationed here, the real commander was his chief of staff General Nikolai Yudenich. However, This Army had lots of Armenian support and it had Armenian generals Nazarbekov, Silikian, and Pirumov who stayed in Caucasia. The Russian Caucasus Army dissipated in 1917 as the regular Russian regiments deserted the front line after the revolution, by 1917, when the Russian Caucasus Army disintegrated, there were 110, 000–120,000 soldiers of Armenian ethnicity. This number approached to 150,000 for the total Armenians for Near East where opposing to Ottoman forces, in the summer of 1914, Armenian volunteer units were established under the Russian Armed forces. It was initially established as detachment units under the Viceroyalty of the Caucasus and these forces were commanded by Andranik Ozanian. Other leaders included Drastamat Kanayan, Hamazasp Srvandztyan, Arshak Gafavian, an Ottoman representative Karekin Bastermadjian was also united to this force
35.
Anatolia
–
Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
36.
Milan
–
Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
37.
Italian General Confederation of Labour
–
The Italian General Confederation of Labour is a national trade union centre in Italy. It was formed by agreement between socialists, communists, and Christian democrats in the Pact of Rome of June 1944, but in 1950, socialists and Christian democrats split forming UIL and CISL, and since then the CGIL has been influenced by the Communist Party. It has been the most important Italian trade union since its creation and it has a membership of over 5.5 million. The CGIL is currently the biggest trade union in Europe, the CGIL is affiliated with the International Trade Union Confederation and the European Trade Union Confederation, and is a member of the Trade Union Advisory Committee to the OECD. CISL UIL Rete degli Studenti Medi ICTUR et al. ed. Trade Unions of the World, official website 100 Years of History of CGIL
38.
Tenth Battle of the Isonzo
–
The Tenth Battle of the Isonzo was an Italian offensive against Austria-Hungary during World War I. For while it was clear that the Austro-Hungarian Army was suffering in what had become a war of attrition, casualties suffered to date were tremendous and with each renewed battle tended to be higher on the Italian attackers side. The UKs new Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, had believed that the war could not be won on the Western Front alone. Consequently, Nivelle dispatched Ferdinand Foch to meet with Cadorna and discuss their possible options, the agreed plan was duly invoked - too late - in late October 1917 in the wake of the Italians disastrous performance at Caporetto in the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo. With the contingency plan arranged the French pressed Cadorna to launch an offensive of his own along the Soča to generally co-ordinate with their own large-scale Aisne Offensive. Cadorna agreed and the tenth Isonzo offensive was launched with an artillery bombardment on 10 May 1917. The Italians, deploying 38 divisions - against only 14 of the Austro-Hungarians - switched tactics once again, the previous three Isonzo battles had seen Cadorna concentrate short, sharp initiatives against closely defined targets, generally aimed at extending their sole bridgehead east of Gorizia. This time the Italians returned to the Kras plateau south-east of Gorizia, the second aim of the offensive was to conquer Mount Škabrijel, thus opening the way to the Vipava Valley. By the close of May the Italian army had advanced to within 15 km of Trieste almost reaching the town of Duino. Some fighting also took place in the sections of the front in the Julian Alps. Casualties continued to be high,157,000 Italian losses were sustained, with morale in the Italian army plunging Cadorna planned one further breakthrough attempt as he massed the greatest number of divisions and artillery yet along the Soča river. Accordingly, the Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo was initiated some two months later on 19 August 1917, Isonzo, The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War. FirstWorldWar. Com, The Battles of the Isonzo, 1915-17 Battlefield Maps, the Foundation preserves, restores and presents the historical and cultural heritage of the First World War in the area of the Isonzo Front for the study, tourist and educational purposes. The Kobarid Museum Društvo Soška Fronta Pro Hereditate - extensive site
39.
Trieste
–
Trieste is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is situated towards the end of a strip of Italian territory lying between the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia, which lies almost immediately south and east of the city. It is also located near Croatia some further 30 kilometres south, Trieste is located at the head of the Gulf of Trieste and throughout history it has been influenced by its location at the crossroads of Latin, Slavic, and Germanic cultures. In 2009, it had a population of about 205,000 and it is the capital of the autonomous region Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trieste was one of the oldest parts of the Habsburg Monarchy. In the 19th century, it was the most important port of one of the Great Powers of Europe, as a prosperous seaport in the Mediterranean region, Trieste became the fourth largest city of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In the fin de siècle period at the end of the 19th century it emerged as an important hub for literature, Trieste underwent an economic revival during the 1930s, and Trieste was an important spot in the struggle between the Eastern and Western blocs after the Second World War. Today, the city is in one of the richest regions of Italy, Roman authors also transliterated the name as Tergestum. Modern names of the city include, Italian, Trieste, Slovene, Trst, German, Triest, Hungarian, Trieszt, Croatian, Trst, Serbian, Трст/Trst, Trieste lies in the northernmost part of the high Adriatic in northeastern Italy, near the border with Slovenia. The city lies on the Gulf of Trieste, built mostly on a hillside that becomes a mountain, Triestes urban territory lies at the foot of an imposing escarpment that comes down abruptly from the Karst Plateau towards the sea. The karst landforms close to the city reach an elevation of 458 metres above sea level and it lies on the borders of the Italian geographical region, the Balkan Peninsula, and the Mitteleuropa. The territory of Trieste is composed of different climate zones depending on the distance from the sea. The average temperatures are 5.4 °C in January and 23.3 °C in July, the climatic setting of the city is humid subtropical climate. On average, humidity levels are low, while only two months receive slightly less than 60 mm of precipitation. Trieste along with the Istrian peninsula has evenly distributed rainfall above 1,000 mm in total, snow occurs on average 0 –2 days per year. Temperatures are very mild - lows below zero are somewhat rare, winter maxima are lower than in typical Mediterranean zone with quite high minima. Summer is very warm with maxima about 28 °C and lows above 20 °C, the absolute maximum of the last fifty years is 37.2 °C in 2003, whereas the absolute minimum is −14.6 °C in 1956. Since the second millennium BC, the location was an inhabited site, originally an Illyrian settlement, the Veneti entered the region in the 10th-9th c. BC and seem to have given the town its name, Tergeste, still later, the town was later captured by the Carni, a tribe of the Eastern Alps, before becoming part of the Roman republic in 177 BC during the Istrian War
40.
Duino
–
Duino is a town and castle at the Adriatic coast in the municipality of Duino-Aurisina, part of the region of Friuli–Venezia Giulia in the province of Trieste, northeastern Italy. Until the 1950s, Duino was a predominantly Slovene-speaking village with a sizeable Italian-speaking minority, according to the last Austrian census of 1910,63. 5% of the inhabitants of the town were Slovenes and 25. 1% were Italians. The Italian census of 1921 confirmed the Slovene ethnic character of the town, during the years of the Free Territory of Trieste, however, its ethnic composition changed considerably, as many Istrian Italians fleeing from Yugoslavia settled in Duino. Nowadays, Duino is a predominantly Italian-speaking town, with a numerous Slovene-speaking minority, most signs are written in both languages, and the municipality of Duino-Aurisina is an officially bilingual one. Duino is noted for being the place where the physicist Ludwig Boltzmann committed suicide and it is also the place where the well-known Slovene folk legend Lepa Vida takes place. Since 1982 the town has been home to UWC Adriatic, a school attended by students from 80 different countries. The two Duino castles are the main attraction, below the ruins of the ancient castle there lies a white rock projecting into the sea, the Dama Bianca, which resembles a veiled woman and gave origin to many gothic legends
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}