1.
Tehran
–
Tehran is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. It is ranked 29th in the world by the population of its metropolitan area, in the Classical era, part of the present-day city of Tehran was occupied by a Median city that in the Avesta occurs as Rhaga. It was destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century, the capital has been moved several times throughout the history, and Tehran is the 32nd national capital of Iran. The city was the seat of the Qajars and Pahlavis, the two last imperial dynasties of Iran. It is home to historical collections, such as the royal complexes of Golestan, Sadabad. Large scale demolition and rebuilding began in the 1920s, and Tehran has been a destination for the migrations from all over Iran since the 20th century. Tabiat Bridge, which was completed in 2014, is considered the third symbol of the city. There have been plans to relocate Irans capital from Tehran to another area, due mainly to air pollution, to date, no definitive plans have been approved. A2016 survey of 230 cities by consultant Mercer ranked Tehran 203rd for quality of living, according to the Global Destinations Cities Index in 2016, Tehran is among the top ten fastest growing destinations. The origin of the name Tehran is uncertain, the settlement of Tehran dates back over 7,000 years. The present-day city of Tehran was a suburb of an important Median city that was known as Rhaga in Old Persian, in the Avestas Videvdat, Rhaga is mentioned as the twelfth sacred place created by the Ohrmazd. In Old Persian inscriptions, Rhaga appears as a province and it was a major area for the Iranian tribes of Medes and Achaemenids. From Rhaga, Darius the Great sent reinforcements to his father Hystaspes, in some Middle Persian texts, Rhaga is given as the birthplace of Zoroaster, although modern historians generally place the birth of Zoroaster in Khorasan. Derived into Modern Persian as Rey, it now as a city located towards the southern end of the modern-day city of Tehran. Mount Damavand, the highest peak of Iran, which is located near Tehran, is an important location in Ferdowsis Shahname, the long Iranian epic poem that is based on the ancient epics of Iran. It appears in the epics as the birthplace of Manuchehr, the residence of Keyumars, the place where Freydun binds the dragon fiend Aži Dahāka, during the Sassanid era, in 641, Yazdgerd III issued his last appeal to the nation from Rey, before fleeing to Khorasan. Rey was dominated by the Parthian Mihran family, and Siyavakhsh—the son of Mihran the son of Bahram Chobin—who resisted the Muslim Invasion, because of this resistance, when the Arabs captured Rey, they ordered the town to be destroyed and ordered Farrukhzad to rebuild the town anew. In the 9th century, Tehran was a well known village, but less known than the city of Rey, the medieval writer Najm od Din Razi declared the population of Rey about 500,000 before the Mongol Invasion
2.
Persian Cossack Brigade
–
The Persian Cossack Brigade or Iranian Cossack Brigade was a Cossack-style elite cavalry unit formed in 1879 in Persia. During much of their history they were the functional, effective military unit of the Qajar Dynasty. Acting on occasion as kingmakers, this played a pivotal role in modern Iranian history during the Revolution of 1905–1911, the rise of Reza Shah. Together with a Swedish trained and officered gendarmerie, the Cossack Brigade came to comprise the most effective force available to the Iranian crown in the years prior to World War I. In spite of its name the Brigade was not a typical Cossack force as they were employed in the neighbouring Russian Empire, neither did it have the status of a guard unit. However, effectively it was an elite Cossack-style cavalry unit, as was asked to be created, late nineteenth century photographs show that Russian style uniforms were worn, in contrast to the indigenous dress of other Persian forces at the time. Such secondments were encouraged by the Imperial Russian Government who saw the Cossack Brigade as a means of extending Russian influence in a key area of international rivalry, after the October Revolution in 1917, many of these Russian officers left the country to join the White forces. The command of the Persian Cossack Division was subsequently transferred to Iranian officers, most notable among these officers was General Reza Khan, who started his military career as a private soldier in the Cossack Brigade and rose through its ranks to become a brigadier general. At the time of the Persian Cossack Brigades formation the Shah’s royal cavalry was described as having no training or discipline, the Qajar state at this point was very weak, lacking any professional military forces. In wars against the British the royal cavalry had been defeated, the Tsar Alexander II approved Russian military advisors travelling to Persia to fulfill the Shah’s request. The brigade was formed in 1879 by Lieutenant-Colonel Domantovich, a Russian officer. Russian interests and lack of funding slowed the development of the brigade into a professional fighting force. They possessed special privileges as a military caste. Domantovich made rapid progress with their training and the Shah ordered the strength of the new brigade to be increased to 600 men drawn from the regular army. The rapid progress of the Cossack Brigade caused concern in Russia due to fear that it may become a fighting force rather than a tool of the Russian government. Domantovich was dismissed as commander in 1881 and replaced by the less effective Colonel Charkovsij, Charkovsij added four artillery pieces to the arsenal of the Brigade in 1883 but made no other improvements. In 1886 Colonel Karavaev became commander, during his time, the Brigade faced with budget cuts and thus had its numbers diminished. In 1890 Colonel Shneur took over and was unable to pay the men, after many desertions, combined with a cholera epidemic, the strength was reduced to 450 men, and eventually cut down to 200
3.
Zia'eddin Tabatabaee
–
Seyyed Ziaeddin Tabatabaee was an Iranian politician, Mayor of Tehran and the Prime Minister of Iran from February to May 1921 under Ahmad Shah, the last Shah of the Qajar dynasty. Born in Shiraz, Tabatabaee came to power in a coup détat with the help of Reza Khan Mirpanj, when Tabatabaee became prime minister, he was 33 years old. His career did have a start, however. In Shiraz, he first opened a newspaper called Banāy-i Islam, after Rad was shut down by the authorities, he then published another newspaper called Bargh, and became active in the Persian Constitutional Revolution. His political tendencies were perceived to be pro-British by many Iranians, however, when he went into exile in the Palestine in the 1930s, he received money from fascist Italy and promised an oil concession in northern Iran. The historian Ervand Abrahamian characterized Tabatabaee as a right-wing opportunist, in Palestine, he was also hired as a senior consultant by the government of Afghanistan with Britains backing. Tehrans government vehemently objected to this move, leading Kabul to back down on the initiative, Tabatabaee died at the age of 80 of a heart attack in Tehran. Pahlavi Dynasty List of Prime Ministers of Iran Abdolhossein Teymourtash Alí Rizā Awsatí, Iran in the Past Three Centuries, Volumes 1 and 2
4.
Mohammad Taqi Pessian
–
Colonel Mohammad Taqi-Khan Pessian was a popular military leader of Iran. He is also known as being the first Iranian to successfully pilot an aircraft. Pessian was born into an aristocratic Azerbaijani family in Tabriz originating in the Caucasus, in Tabriz Mohammad Taqi was educated in sciences, Persian, Arabic and foreign languages. In 1907 he left for Tehran to continue his education and entered college in Germany where he became one of the first Iranians to learn to fly. After 5 years he took up the rank of Second Lieutenant in the Gendarmerie and he was promoted to Major when World War I broke out. In November 1915 as commander of the Gendarmerie in Hamedan he launched an attack on the pro-Russian Persian Cossack Brigade at the Battle of Musalla. His gendarmes managed to disarm the Persian Cossacks and Mohammad Taqi managed to some of the cossacks to join his forces in a patriotic speech he made to them after their defeat. Mohammad Taqi and Major Azizollah Khan Zarghami as Gendarmerie commanders could not defend Hamedan against an advancing Russian Caucasus Army which was superior in numbers, the gendarmes retreated to Kermanshah where they were defeated by the Russians, with many fleeing to the Ottoman Empire. August 1916 saw the return of gendarmes to Kermanshah but again were defeated, during his time in Berlin, he was trained as a pilot in the German Airforce and was rewarded with the Eisernes Kreuz Medal for shooting down more than 25 enemy aircraft during World War I. He also translated works from Persian to/from French, German and English, some of these included Alphone de Lamartine. He also wrote two books in Persian, Sargozasht-e yek javan-e vatandoust and Jang-e Moqaddas az Baghdad ta Iran, in 1920 Mohammad Taqi returned to Iran and joined the Gendarmerie. In June 1920 he was promoted to the rank of Colonel, on 3 April 1921 in a military coup with his small force of only 200 Gendarms, he had Ahmad Qavam, the Governor-general of Khorasan, arrested and sent him to Tehran where he was imprisoned. He then became head of the provincial Autonomous Government of Khorasan, for five continuous years after his death, on 3 October people of Khorasan mourned his death. He is buried in Mashhad, Khorasan in the garden that contains Nader Shahs tomb.33, No.4 October 1997. Institute of Iranian Contemporary Historical Studies, qatl-e Mohammad Taqi Khan Pessian, institute of Iranian Contemporary Historical Studies, Colonel Pessian Photos, Mehdi Jangravi
5.
Autonomous Government of Khorasan
–
The Autonomous Government of Khorasan was a short-lived military state set up in what is now Iran. It was formally established on the April 2,1921 and collapsed a few months later, the area administered by the state was approximately 388,332 square kilometres and its capital was Mashhad. Selfimposed Governor-General Major Ismail Khan Bahador was second-in-command to Pesyan and after Pesyans death he tried to maintain Khorasans independence, from 24 August to 3 October. On April 2,1921, Colonel Pesyan, Chief of Gendarmerie of Khorasan has Ahmad Qavam the Governor-general of Khorasan toppled in a coup and has him arrested. Qavam and several other dominant figures in Khorasan were charged with Tax evasion charges which evidence were provided to Pesyan by a Belgian named Dubois who was Director of Revenue in Khorasan, in May 1921, Qavam is freed from prison and Tabatabaee is no longer Prime Minister. Qavam becomes Prime Minister and plans to revenge on Pesyan. As of May 30,1921 Pesyan declares that Khorasan is fully Autonomous, the committee starts a program of plans and reforms, however they face some fierce opposition by some tribal and religious leaders. Commenced between 2 April to 25 May Reform the military organisation of Khorasan and proclamation of martial law, the nizam and Gendarmerie were combined to form this new force. New soldiers were recruited for the new force. In April there were only 200 Gendarms while in October there were approximately 5,000, setup of a finance commission to investigate and assess revenue claims. This had outraged wealthy tribal chiefs and merchants, Reform of the shrine administration, this included steps to be taken against those shrine administrators who had consumed vast amount of shrines revenues. Subsidisine two local newspapers Sharq-e-Iran and Mihr-e-Monir to support the government of Seyed Zia Tabatabaei, commenced between 26 May to 6 Oct Impose of censorship in the telegraph office. Series of arrest of persons believed to have been collaborating with Persias Central Government of Ahmad Qavam, kumiteye Melli-e Khorasan issued a manifesto on 15 September 1921, and prepared a proclamation declaring Khorasan a republic which was postponed by Colonel Pesyan and never implemented. Sold a large amount of grain to a Bolshevik Food Purchasing Commission, extracted forced loans from the wealthy and auctioned off the belongings of the defeated tribal chiefs. Encouraged anti-British stance, pro-Soviet ideas and Persian Nationalist beliefs, imposed a poll tax on all travellers leaving Mashhad and 10% Tax on all exports. Encouraged export of goods to Afghanistan and Soviet Union, established a local Bank in September 1921. Striking of its own coinage was also considered, steps for the inception of a Department of Education were taken, Colonel Pesyan himself sunscribing money in the interests of female schooling. Several tribal leaders who had lost most of their wealth and belongings due to Pesyans reform programs were supported by Qavams government
6.
Persian Socialist Soviet Republic
–
The Persian Socialist Soviet Republic was a short-lived Soviet republic in the Iranian province of Gilan that lasted from June 1920 until September 1921. It was established by Mirza Koochak Khan, a leader of the Constitutionalist movement of Gilan, the Jangal movement that had started in 1914 was further boosted and gained gravity after the victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia. In May 1920 the Soviet Caspian Fleet led by Fedor Raskolnikov, the British garrison in Anzali was soon evacuated without any resistance and the British forces retrieved to Manjil. Faced with the conflict between his movement and the united British and central government forces, Kuchik Khan considered several choices, Kuchik Khans second-in-command, Ehsanollah Khan Dustdar, had become a communist and an ardent advocate of an alliance with the Bolsheviks. Kuchik Khan, though hesitant and cautious towards such an idea due to both his religious and nationalist background, accepted and the Jangalis entered into an agreement with the Bolsheviks, the Soviets agreed to support him with ammunition and soldiers. Mirza offered to pay for the ammunition but the Soviets refused any payments, in May 1920, the Soviet Republic of Gilan, officially known as the Persian Socialist Soviet Republic, came into being. The Republic did not redistribute land to poor peasants which was considered as a position by the more radical forces of the Jangal movement. Therefore, soon arose between Mirza and his group of advisors on one side and the Soviets and the Iranian Communist Party on the other. On June 9,1920 Mirza Kuchik Khan left Rasht in protest and also to military confrontation. The Republic also lost support from the population due to the exceedingly high number of war refugees who began flooding the urban centers. By 1921, and particularly after the agreement achieved between the Soviet Union and Britain, the Soviets decided not to support the Soviet Republic of Gilan. The Russo-Persian Treaty of Friendship was then signed, ensuring peaceful relations between the two countries and resulting in the withdrawal of Soviet forces. Reza Khan Mirpanj, who had initiated a successful coup détat with Seyyed Ziaeddin Tabatabaee several days beforehand, the Soviet Republic of Gilan officially came to an end in September 1921. Mirza and his German friend Gauook left alone in the Khalkhal Mountains and it is said that his body was decapitated by a local landlord and his head was displayed in Rasht to establish the government’s new hegemony over revolution and revolutionary ideas. Historians have tried to analyze the factors contributed to the demise of the Jangal movement. The second option got more support and therefore Soviets signed the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement with the British in London which required them to retreat from Northern Iran, correspondence between Theodore Rothstein, the Soviet ambassador in Tehran, and Mirza Koochak Khan clearly supports this view. Constitutionalist movement of Gilan Jungle Party Tudeh Party Avetis Sultan-Zade George Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran. Ebrahim Fakhrayi, Sardar-e Jangal, Tehran, Javidan,1983, gregor Yaghikiyan, Shooravi and jonbesh-e jangal, Editor, Borzouyeh Dehgan, Tehran, Novin,1984
7.
Simko Shikak
–
Simko Shikak was a Kurdish chieftain of the Shakak tribe. He was born into a prominent Kurdish feudal family based in Chihriq castle located near the Baranduz river in the Urmia region of northwestern Iran, by 1920 parts of Iranian Azerbaijan located west of Lake Urmia were under his control. He led Kurdish farmers into battle and defeated the Iranian army on several occasions, the Iranian government had him assassinated in 1930. Simko took part in the massacre of the Assyrians of Khoy and his family was one of the most prominent and politically active Kurdish families throughout Qajar reign from the late 18th to early 20th century. Sadiq Khan Shikak was one of the generals and governors in the Agha Muhammad Khans early Qajar state and was commanding a force of 10,000 soldiers, however, he was soon fell out of favor and Qajar monarch attempted to murder him. Sadiq Khan has been accused of taking part in the assassination of Qajar king in the town of Shusha in 1797. Among other prominent members of the family are Ismail Khan The Great and his son Ali Khan, Muhammad Pasha son of Ali Khan, many members of the family were murdered by the Qajar state such as Cewer Agha who was killed at Tabriz by the order of governor general. In 1905, the Qajar monarch Mozafar-al-Din Shah appointed Husein Qulikhan Nizamul-saltana as the governor of Azerbaijan. According to Iranian historian Ahmad Kasravi, Nizamul-saltana officially invited Cewer Agha to Tabriz in order to him on the border issues between Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Once Cewer Agha arrived in Tabriz, Nizamul-saltana ordered Muhammad Hussein Khan Zargham to invite Cewer Agha to his own residence, Cewer Agha was accompanied by seven of his guards including one of his uncles. Muhammad Ali Mirza, the Iranian Crown Prince, ordered his murder via telegraph sent to Nizamul-saltana, five of Cewer Aghas guards managed to escape from the murder plot in Tabriz in a ferocious battle and return to Chari castle. Cewers father, Muhammad Agha, sought help from Sultan Abdulhamid II in Istanbul to avenge the murder of his son, however Iranian envoy in Ottoman court managed to counter his efforts and according to some sources, Muhammad Agha was assassinated in a Qajar conspiracy in Istanbul. Murder of Cewer Agha caused outrage among the Kurds, moreover, many Iranian intellectuals and constitutionalists in Tabriz and Tehran condemned his assassination. There are different and conflicting views about Simko among Kurdish historians, after the murder of Cewer Agha, Simko became the head of Shikak forces. At this time, Iranian government was trying to assassinate him like the members of his family. In 1919, Mukarramul-Molk, the governor of Azerbaijan, with the help of Armenians, although the plot failed, but it revealed the intentions of the Iranian government, and propelled Simko into a turbulent period of political and military confrontation with Iran. Simko was in contact with other Kurdish nationalists such as Abdurrazaq Badrkhan, Seyyed Taha was a Kurdish nationalist who was conducting propaganda among the Iranian Kurds for the union of Iranian Kurdistan and Turkish Kurdistan in an independent state. He was also aware of the geopolitics and modern nationalism
8.
Khaz'al Khan al-Kaabi
–
Khazal bin Jabir bin Merdaw al-Kabi GCIE KCSI, Muaz us-Sultana, and Sardar-e-Aqdas, was the independent Emir of the Sheikhdom of Mohammerah, located today in the Khuzestan province of Iran. The British were providing Khazal with meager shares of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and they even considered Khazal as a possible king for Iraq. The Bani Kaab were the largest and most powerful tribe in the province, in the early 19th century the Bani Kaab had dissolved into a number of rival clans that often clashed and feuded with each other. Unlike previous leaders of the Bani Kaab, Jabir maintained law and order, Jabir also became the Imperial-appointed governor-general of the province. After Jabirs death in 1881, his son, Mazal, took over as tribal leader and Sheikh of Mohammerah, as well as the provincial governor-general. However, in June 1897 Mazal was killed, some accounts state that he was assassinated by his younger brother, Khazal, while others state that this was done by a palace guard under orders from Khazal. Thereafter Khazal assumed his position as Sheikh of Mohammerah, proclaiming himself not only the leader of the Bani Kaab and he then appointed his sons to the governorships of the various cities, towns and villages within his control, including Naseriyeh. Unlike his brother, Khazal had ambition and he had great vision for the future of Mohammerah and the Arabs. His rule in Mohammerah was Supreme and unhindered, a most astute politician and a far-seeing statesman with personal magnetism. He had ambition and was full of dreams, the rest of the province remained under the domination of Bakhtiari Khans, Lur tribal leaders, and Persian groups. Several of the Bakhtiari Khans, in particular, had entered into alliances with Khazal, the Qajar Shah made him an Officer of the Nishan-e-Aqdas in 1920. Once oil was discovered in Masjed Soleyman in 1908, by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company which later became the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, eventually BP, the refinery was built and began operating in 1912. Khazal was knighted in 1910 and supported Britain in World War I, as part of the treaty they were given a monopoly of drilling in the province in return for an annual payment to Khazal, though the profits of the company vastly exceeded the annual payments. APOC had made Khaz’al extremely wealthy, not only was Khaz’al receiving revenue from oil production but he also owned a certain amount of shares in the oil company. In all Arabia and its Sheikhdoms, in Mesopotamia and Iran, from the Red Sea to the Caspian, in 1920, the Sheikh of Kuwait, Salim Al Mubarak Al Sabah, ambushed Ibn Sauds men over a border dispute between Kuwait and Najd. When Percy Cox was informed of this event, he sent a letter to Khazal offering the Kuwaiti throne to him or one of his heirs. Khazal, who considered the Al Sabah as his own family, do you think I can accept this. He then asked. even so, do you think that you have come to me something new
9.
Qajar dynasty
–
The Qajar dynasty was an Iranian royal dynasty of Turkic origin, specifically from the Qajar tribe, which ruled Persia from 1785 to 1925. The state ruled by the dynasty was known as the Sublime State of Iran. The Qajar family took control of Iran in 1794, deposing Lotf Ali Khan, the last of the Zand dynasty. In the Caucasus, the Qajar dynasty permanently lost many of Irans integral areas to the Russians over the course of the 19th century, comprising modern-day Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia. The Qajar rulers were members of the Karagöz or Black-Eye sect of the Qajars, Qajars first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qizilbash tribes that supported the Safavids. The Safavids left Arran to local Turkic khans, and, in 1554 Ganja was governed by Shahverdi Soltan Ziyadoglu Qajar, Qajars filled a number of diplomatic missions and governorships in the 16–17th centuries for the Safavids. The Qajars were resettled by Shah Abbas I throughout Iran, the great number of them also settled in Astarabad near the south-eastern corner of the Caspian Sea, and it would be this branch of Qajars that would rise to power. The immediate ancestor of the Qajar dynasty, Shah Qoli Khan of the Quvanlu of Ganja and his son, Fath Ali Khan was a renowned military commander during the rule of the Safavid shahs Sultan Husayn and Tahmasp II. He was killed on the orders of Shah Nader Shah in 1726, Fath Ali Khans son Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar was the father of Mohammad Khan Qajar and Hossein Qoli Khan, father of Baba Khan, the future Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. Mohammad Hasan Khan was killed on the orders of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty, like virtually every dynasty that ruled Persia since the 11th century, the Qajars came to power with the backing of Turkic tribal forces, while using educated Persians in their bureaucracy. In 1779 following the death of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty, Mohammad Khan Qajar, Mohammad Khan was known as one of the cruelest kings, even by the standards of 18th century Iran. In his quest for power, he razed cities, massacred entire populations, the Qajar armies at that time were mostly composed of Turkomans and Georgian slaves. By 1794, Mohammad Khan had eliminated all his rivals, including Lotf Ali Khan and he reestablished Persian control over the territories in the entire Caucasus. Agha Mohammad established his capital at Tehran, a village near the ruins of the ancient city of Rayy, in 1796, he was formally crowned as shah. In 1797, Mohammad Khan Qajar was assassinated in Shusha, the capital of Karabakh Khanate, between 1747 and 1795, Erekle was, therefore, by the turn of events in Iran following the ongoing turmoil there, able to maintain Georgias autonomy through the Zand period. In 1783, Heraclius placed his kingdom under the protection of the Russian Empire in the Treaty of Georgievsk. In the last few decades of the 18th century, Georgia had become an important element in Russo-Iranian relations than some provinces in northern mainland Persia. On top of that, having another port on the Georgian coast of the Black Sea would be ideal, the consequences of these events came a few years later, when a new Iranian dynasty under the Qajars, emerged victorious in the protracted power struggle in Persia
10.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
11.
Reza Shah
–
Reza Shah Pahlavi, was the Shah of Iran from 15 December 1925 until he was forced to abdicate by the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran on 16 September 1941. Four years after conducting a coup against the government, the 1921 Persian coup détat. In 1925 Rezā Pahlavi was appointed as the monarch of Iran by decision of Irans constituent assembly. The assembly deposed Ahmad Shah Qajar, the last Shah of the Qajar dynasty, Reza Shah was the first democratically elected monarch of Iran. He established a monarchy that lasted until overthrown in 1979 during the Iranian Revolution. Reza Shah introduced many social, economic, and political reforms during his reign and his legacy remains controversial to this day. Moreover, his insistence on ethnic nationalism and cultural unitarism along with forced detribalization and sedentarization resulted in suppression of several ethnic, Rezā Shah Pahlavi was born in the village of Alasht in Savadkuh County, Māzandarān Province, in 1878, to Major Abbas Ali Khan and Noushafarin Ayromlou. His father was commissioned in the 7th Savadkuh Regiment, and served in the Anglo-Persian War in 1856, Abbas Ali Khan died suddenly on 26 November 1878. Reza was barely 8 months old, upon his fathers death, Rezās mother moved with Reza to her brothers house in Tehran. She remarried in 1879 and left Rezā to the care of his uncle, in 1882, his uncle in turn sent Reza to a family friend, Vartan Gorguekoohi, an officer in the Persian army. When Rezā was sixteen years old, he joined the Persian Cossack Brigade, in 1903, he is reported to have been guard and servant to the Dutch consul general Frits Knobel. Reza was 25 years old then and he also served in the Iranian Army, where he gained the rank of gunnery sergeant under Qajar Prince Abdol Hossein Mirza Farmanfarmas command. In 1911, he gave an account of himself in later campaigns and was promoted to First Lieutenant. His proficiency in handling machine guns elevated him to the equivalent to Captain in 1912. By 1915 he was promoted to the rank of Colonel and his record of military service eventually led him to a commission as a Brigadier General in the Persian Cossack Brigade. He was also one of the last individuals to become an officer of the Neshan-e Aqdas prior to the collapse of the Qajar dynasty in 1925, throughout his lifetime, and even after his death, he was addressed with variety of titles. In his youth, based on his place of origin, he was addressed as Reza Savadkuhi, upon joining the military, he earned the name, Reza Maxim, due to his proficiency with using the Maxim gun. Yet, the most common name his comrades used to addressed him with was Reza Khan, in 1911, after rising to higher ranks within the hierarchy of Irans military, he earned the title of Reza Mirpanj, which was the equivalent of Arteshbod
12.
Ahmad Amir-Ahmadi
–
Sepahbod Ahmad Amir-Ahmadi was a military leader and cabinet Minister of Iran. Born in 1884 in Isfahan, of an aristocratic Persian family, he is one of the planners of the coup détat of Reza Pahlavi and he is the first person to receive the rank of sepahbod under Reza Shah Pahlavi. He and his brother-in-law Heydargholli Pessian had planned to create a more democratic Iran and he served as Minister of War in the cabinet of Ali Soheili in 1942, and Abdolhosein Hazhir in 1948. He also served as Senator in the Majlis and it was said he was the only man Reza Pahlavi truly respected and feared. His sister was married into the Pessian family, and after the assassination of Colonel Pessian and he was nicknamed Butcher of Luristan, due to his leading role in the brutal suppression of Luri revolts in 1920s and 1930s. Love and Death Among the Ayatollahs
13.
Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside
–
Ironside joined the Royal Regiment of Artillery in 1899, and served throughout the Second Boer War, followed by a brief period spying on the German colonial forces in South-West Africa. He was offered the post of the commander of British forces in Iraq and he returned to the Army as Commandant of the Staff College, Camberley, where he advocated the ideas of J. F. C. However, after some political manoeuvring, General The Viscount Gort was given this command, Ironside himself believed that he was temperamentally unsuited to the job, but felt obliged to accept it. In early 1940 he argued heavily for Allied intervention in Scandinavia, during the invasion of Norway and the Battle of France he played little part, his involvement in the latter was limited by a breakdown in relations between him and Gort. However, he served less than two months in this role before being replaced, after this, Ironside was promoted to Field Marshal and raised to the peerage as Baron Ironside. Lord Ironside retired to Morley Old Hall in Norfolk to write, Ironside was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on 6 May 1880. His father, Surgeon-Major William Ironside of the Royal Horse Artillery, died shortly afterwards, leaving his widowed wife to bring up their son on a limited military pension. This grasp of language would become one of the features of his character, by middle age, he was fluent enough to officially interpret in seven. At Woolwich he flourished, working hard at his studies and his sports, he took up boxing and he was built for both of these sports, six feet four inches tall and weighing seventeen stone, for which he was nicknamed Tiny by his fellow students. The name stuck, and he was known by it for the rest of his life, after attending the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich he was commissioned into the army with the Royal Artillery on 25 June 1899. Later that year his unit, 44th Battery Royal Field Artillery, was despatched to South Africa and he fought throughout the Second Boer War being wounded three times, was decorated and mentioned in despatches in 1901, he was also promoted lieutenant later that year. At the end of the war, he was a member of the force which escorted Jan Smuts to the peace negotiations. He then disguised himself as an Afrikaans-speaking Boer, taking a job as a wagon driver working for the German colonial forces in South West Africa and this intelligence work ended unsuccessfully when he was identified, but managed to escape. Ironside was subsequently posted to India, where he served with I Battery RHA and he was promoted to captain in February 1908, appointed to the Staff in September of the same year, and then as a Brigade-Major in June 1909. He returned home in September 1912, in order to attend the Staff College, nazaire, both large Army bases supporting the British Expeditionary Force. By some accounts, he was one of the first British officers to arrive in France and he was promoted to Major and attached to the newly arrived 6th Division at the end of October 1914, ranked as a General Staff Officer, Grade 3. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel and appointed GSO1 in March 1916. He had expected to be made GSO1 – Divisional Chief of Staff – to the 6th Division, but to his surprise he was assigned to the newly formed 4th Canadian Division
14.
Iran
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
15.
Persian language
–
Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
16.
Name of Iran
–
In the Western world, Persia was historically the common name for Iran. In 1935, Reza Shah asked foreign delegates to use the term Iran, since then, in the Western World, the use of the word Iran has become more common. This also changed the usage of the terms for Iranian nationality, in 1959, the government of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Reza Shah Pahlavis son, announced that both Persia and Iran could officially be used interchangeably. The gentilic ēr- and ary- in ērān and aryān derives from Old Iranian *arya-, meaning Aryan, notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the Iranian peoples, the use of ērān to refer to the empire is also attested by the early Sassanid period. Both ērān and anērān appear in 3rd century calendrical text written by Mani, in an inscription of Ardashirs son and immediate successor, Shapur I apparently includes in Ērān regions such as Armenia and the Caucasus which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians. In Kartirs inscriptions, the high priest includes the regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān. Ērān also features in the names of the towns founded by Sassanid dynasts and it also appears in the titles of government officers, such as in Ērān-āmārgar Accountant-General Ērān or Ērān-dibirbed Chief Scribe Ērān. The Greeks began in the fifth century BC to use such as Pérsēs. Such words were taken from the Old Persian Pārsa – the name of the people whom Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty first ruled, thus, the term Persian is an exonym and Iranians never historically referred to Iran by that exonym. The Pars tribe gave its name to the region where they lived, in Latin, the name for the whole empire was Persia, while the Iranians knew it as Iran or Iranshahr. In the later parts of the Bible, where this kingdom is mentioned, it is called Paras, or sometimes Paras u Madai. The term Arya has been used by the Iranian people, as well as, by the rulers and emperors of Iran, evidently from the time of the Sassanids Iranians have called it Iran, meaning the land of Aryans and Iranshahr. In Middle Persian sources, the name Arya and Iran is used for the pre-Sassanid Iranian empires as well as the Sassanid empire. As an example, the use of the name Iran for Achaemenids in the Middle Persian book of Arda Viraf refers to the invasion of Iran by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, the Proto-Iranian term for Iran is reconstructed as *Aryānām and the Avestan equivalent is Airyanem. The internal preference for Iran was noted in some Western reference books but for international purposes, in the mid 1930s, the ruler of the country, Reza Shah Pahlavi, moved towards formalising the name Iran instead of Persia for all purposes. His Majestys Minister in Tehran has been instructed to accede to this request, the decree of Reza Shah Pahlavi affecting nomenclature duly took effect on 21 March 1935. His request was approved immediately by the Iranian Foreign Ministry, the American side, however, continued using Iran as it had at the time little involvement in Iraq to cause any such confusion. They recommended a reversal of the 1935 decision, and Mohammad Reza Shah approved this, however, the implementation of the proposal was weak, simply allowing Persia and Iran to be used interchangeably
17.
Pahlavi dynasty
–
The Pahlavi dynasty was the ruling house of Iran from 1925 until 1979, when the monarchy was overthrown and abolished as a result of the Iranian Revolution. He was succeeded by his son, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, at the death of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi on 27 July 1980, his son Reza Pahlavi became the head of the Pahlavi royal family. His successor, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, announced in 1959 that both Persia and Iran were acceptable and could be used interchangeably, Rezā Shāh tried to avoid involvement with Britain and the Soviet Union. Though many of his development projects required foreign expertise, he avoided awarding contracts to British. This created problems for Iran after 1939, when Germany and Britain became enemies in World War II, Rezā Shāh proclaimed Iran as a neutral country, but Britain insisted that German engineers and technicians in Iran were spies with missions to sabotage British oil facilities in southwestern Iran. Britain demanded that Iran expel all German citizens, but Rezā Shāh refused, on 13 September 1943 the Allies reassured the Iranians that all foreign troops would leave by 2 March 1946. At the time, the Tudeh Party of Iran, a communist party that was influential and had parliamentary representation, was becoming increasingly militant. This promoted actions from the side of the government, including attempts of the Iranian armed forces to order in the Northern provinces. While the Tudeh headquarters in Tehran were occupied and the Isfahan branch crushed, thus, by November 1945 Azerbaijan had become an autonomous state helped by the Tudeh party. This puppet government of the Soviet Union only lasted until November 1946, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi replaced his father on the throne on 16 September 1941. In 1951, the Majlis named Mohammad Mossadegh as new minister by a vote of 79–12. Mossadegh was opposed by the Shah who feared a resulting oil embargo imposed by the West would leave Iran in economic ruin, the Shah fled Iran but returned when the United Kingdom and United States staged a coup against Mossadegh in August 1953. Mossadegh was then arrested by pro-Shah army forces, the Shahs government suppressed its opponents with the help of Irans security and intelligence secret police, SAVAK. Such opponents included members of the Communist Tudeh party, by the mid-1970s, relying on increased oil revenues, Mohammad Reza began a series of even more ambitious and bolder plans for the progress of his country and the march toward the White Revolution. But his socioeconomic advances increasingly irritated the clergy, the Pahlavi regime collapsed following widespread uprisings in 1978 and 1979. The Islamic Revolution dissolved the SAVAK and replaced it with the SAVAMA, Mohammad Reza fled the country, seeking medical treatment in Egypt, Mexico, the United States, and Panama, and finally resettled with his family in Egypt as a guest of Anwar Sadat. On his death, his son Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi succeeded him in absentia as heir apparent to the Pahlavi dynasty, Reza Pahlavi and his wife live in the United States in Potomac, Maryland with three daughters. Under the Qajar dynasty the Persian character of Iran was not very explicit, the Pahlavi rule was instrumental in Irans nationalisation in line with Persian culture and language which, amongst other ways, was achieved through the official ban on the use of the Azeri language
18.
Tabriz
–
Tabriz is the most populated city in the Iranian Azerbaijan, one of the historical capitals of Iran, and the present capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Located in the Quru River valley between the ridge of the volcanic cones of the Sahand and Eynali mountains, Tabrizs elevation ranges between 1,350 and 1,600 metres above sea level. The valley opens up into a plain that slopes down to the eastern shores of Lake Urmia,60 kilometres to the west. With cold winters and temperate summers, the city is considered a summer resort, Tabriz is named Worlds Carpet and Crafts City, it is also appointed as the exemplary tourism city in 2018 by Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. With a population of 1.6 million, Tabriz is the biggest economic hub, the population consists mostly of Iranian Azerbaijanis and the most spoken language in the city is Azeri Turkish. Tabriz is a heavy industry hub for automobile, machine tools, refineries and petrochemical, textile. The city is famous for its handicrafts including hand-woven rugs and jewelry, local confectioneries, chocolates, dried nuts, and traditional food of Tabriz are recognized all around Iran as some of the best Iranian food. Tabriz is also a hub and a site for some of the most prestigious cultural institutes in the northwest of Iran. The city contains many historical monuments representing the transition of Iranian architecture in its long historical timelines. Most of the historical sites in the city belong to Ilkhanid, Safavid. From the early era, the city was pivotal in the development, movement. From the 19th century, it became the most important city in the country in numerous respects, as the closest Iranian hub to Europe, many aspects of the early modern modernisation in Iran started in Tabriz. During almost the entire Qajar period, it functioned as the seat for the prince as well. According to some sources, including Encyclopædia Britannica, the name Tabriz derives from tap-riz, in AD297, it became the capital of Tiridates III, king of Armenia. However, this story has an origin and no ancient source has recorded such event. This is based on accounts of Vardan, the Armenian historian in 13th century, the early history of Tabriz is not well-documented. The earliest inscription about Tabriz, referring to the city as Tarui or Tauris, is on the Assyrian King Sargon IIs epigraph in 714 BC, Tabriz has been chosen as the capital for some rulers commencing from Atropates era and his dynasty. A recent excavation at the site of the Iron Age museum, in the north of the Blue Mosque site, more likely the city has been destroyed multiple times either by natural disasters or by the invading armies
19.
Mashhad
–
Mashhad is the second most populous city in Iran and capital of Razavi Khorasan Province. It is located in the northeast of the country, close to the borders of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan and its population was 2,749,374 at the 2011 census and its built-up area was home to 2,782,976 inhabitants including Mashhad Taman and Torqabeh cities. It was a major oasis along the ancient Silk Road connecting with Merv in the East, the city is most famous and revered for housing the tomb of Imam Reza, the eighth Shia Imam. Every year, millions of pilgrims visit the Imam Reza shrine, the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid is also buried within the shrine. Mashhad has experienced the rise and fall of many governments over the course of history, many Arab, Turkish, and especially Mongolian and Afghan tribes have brought great changes in the language, ethnicity and culture of the people each in their own time. Surprisingly, Mashhad enjoyed relative prosperity in its economy in the Mongol period, Mashhad is mistakenly known as the city of Ferdowsi, the Iranian poet of Shahnameh, which is considered to be the national epic of Iran. Ferdowsi and Akhavan Sales are both buried in Tus, an ancient city that is considered to be the origin of the current city of Mashhad. On 30 October 2009, Irans then-President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad declared Mashhad as Irans spiritual capital, the name Mashhad comes from Arabic, meaning the place of martyrdom the place where Ali ar-Ridha, the eighth Imam of Shia Muslims, suddenly died and so his shrine was placed there. At the beginning of the 9th century, Mashhad was a village called Sanabad. There was a palace of Humayd ibn Qahtaba, the governor of Khurasan. In 808, when Harun al-Rashid, Abbasid caliph, was passing through there to quell the insurrection of Rafi ibn al-Layth in Transoxania, he became ill and he was buried under the palace of Humayd ibn Qahtaba. Due to this event, the Dar al-Imarah was known as the Mausoleum of Haruniyyeh. Several years later in 818 Ali al-Ridha was martyred by al-Mamun and was buried beside the grave of Harun. Although some believe that after this event, the city was called Mashhad al-Ridha, it seems that Mashhad, as a place-name, first appears in al-Maqdisi, about the middle of the 14th century, the traveller Ibn Battuta uses the expression town of Mashhad al-Rida. Shias started visiting there for pilgrimage of his grave, by the end of the 9th century, a dome was built on the grave and many buildings and bazaars sprang up around it. During more than a millennium it has been devastated and reconstructed several times, in 1161 however, the Ghuzz Turks succeeded in taking the place, but they spared the sacred area in their pillaging. Thus the survivors of the migrated to Mashhad. The only well-known food in Mashhad, sholeh Mashhadi or Sholeh, dates back to the era of the Mongolian invasion when it is thought to be cooked with any food available and be a Mongolian word
20.
Gilan Province
–
Gilan Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It lies along the Caspian Sea, in Irans Region 3, west of the province of Mazandaran, east of the province of Ardabil and it also borders the Republic of Azerbaijan in the north, as well as Russia across the Caspian Sea. The northern part of the province is part of territory of South Talysh, at the center of the province is the main city of Rasht. Other towns in the province include Astara, Astaneh-e Ashrafiyyeh, Fuman, Lahijan, Langrud, Masouleh, Manjil, Rudbar, Roudsar, Shaft, Talesh, the main harbor port is Bandar-e Anzali. In antiquity, this area was a province of Persia known as Daylam, the Daylam region corresponds to the modern region of Gīlān. It seems that the Gelae entered the south of the Caspian coast and west of the Amardos River in the second or first century B. C. E. Pliny identifies them with the Cadusii who were living there previously and it is more likely that they were a separate people, had come from the region of Dagestan, and taken the place of the Kadusii. Their languages shares certain features with Caucasian languages. It was the place of origin of the Buyid dynasty, the people of the province had a prominent position during the Sassanid dynasty, so that their political power extended to Mesopotamia. The first recorded encounter between Gilanis and Deylamite warlords and invading Muslim Arab armies was at the Battle of Jalula in 637 AD, Deylamite commander Muta led an army of Gils, Deylamites, Persians and people of the Rey region. Muta was killed in the battle, and his army managed to retreat in an orderly manner. However, this appears to have been a Pyrrhic victory for the Arabs, unlike the Russians, Muslim Arabs never managed to conquer Gilan as they did with other provinces in Iran. Gilanis and Deylamites successfully repulsed all Arab attempts to occupy their land or to them to Islam. In fact, it was the Deylamites under the Buyid king Muizz al-Dawla who finally shifted the balance of power by conquering Baghdad in 945, Muizz al-Dawla, however, allowed the Abbasid caliphs to remain in comfortable, secluded captivity in their palaces. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, Deylamites and later Gilanis gradually converted to Zaidite Shiism, Muslim chronicles of Varangian invasions of the littoral Caspian region in the 9th century record Deylamites as non-Muslim. These chronicles also show that the Deylamites were the warriors in the Caspian region who could fight the fearsome Varangian vikings as equals. Deylamite infantrymen had a very similar to the Swiss Reisläufer of the Late Middle Ages in Europe. Deylamite mercenaries served as far away as Egypt, Islamic Spain, buyids established the most successful of the Deylamite dynasties of Iran
21.
Rasht
–
Rasht is the capital city of Gilan Province, Iran. As of the 24 October 2011 census, its population was 639,951, Rasht is the largest city on Irans Caspian Sea coast. It is a trade center between Caucasia, Russia and Iran using the port of Bandar-e Anzali. Rasht is also a major tourist center with the resort of Masouleh in the adjacent mountains, historically, Rasht was a major transport and business center which connected Iran to Russia and Europe, and because of this was known as the Gate of Europe. The city has a history that goes back to the 13th century, for a more comprehensive treatment of the region, see the history section of Gilan. 682, Rasht was first mentioned in historical documents,1669, Stenka Razin, a Cossack warlord, plundered the city. 1722–1732, Occupation by the Russians due to the Russo-Persian War,1901, A major epidemic plague devastates the city. 1917–1920, The Russian and British armed forces fight in the city of Bandar-e Anzali. The British retreat and the Russians occupy the area, 1920–1921, The short-lived Persian Soviet Socialist Republic was established with its capital in Rasht. 1937, A revolt, sparked by the desire to collect a tax from the Russians, was suppressed. 1974, First university established in Rasht, Rasht was first mentioned in historical documents in 682 CE, but it is certainly older than this and appears on the Peutinger Map of late antiquity. It has seen the Sassanid era, the armies of Peter the Great and later Russian rulers, the people of Rasht also played a major role in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran. The name Rasht comes most plausibly from the verb reshtan, weaving, during the 20th century, until the mid-70s, Gilan and the Rasht region was the third-ranking industrial city in Iran by number of workers and per capital productivity. It lost its cultural and industrial status to an extent after the 1970s. The people of Rasht played a prominent role in instigation and radicalization of the Persian Constitutional Revolution, Rasht is the birthplace of Mīrzā Kūchak Khān, one of the leading figures of the Constitutional Revolution. His own movement in Gilan, which went by the name of Jangalis, represented a pro-modern and social program for reformation of Muslim rituals. Mirza established the short-lived Persian Socialist Soviet Republic in 1920 after the defeat of the constitutional forces, the republic had the support of the newly established Russian Red Army. The republic was defeated by the Iranian army under the command of Reza Shah
22.
Jungle Movement of Gilan
–
The Jangal Movement, in Gilan, was a rebellion against the monarchist rule of the Qajar central government of Iran. It lasted from 1914 to 1921, obstacles to this program included foreign imperialists, the landed elites, and tribal leaders. From the constitutionalist perspective, the Tehran government had by this time lost its independence and had fallen completely under the influence of the British, during the next few years, the Jangalis fought against the Russian and British forces that had threatened to advance towards Tehran from Gilan. They also waged campaigns against the tribes and robber bandits that threatened the security of the region, at this point, the Jangali movement was still fiercely committed to Iran, rather than pursuing Gilani nationalism which had not yet become an issue. The Anglo-Persian Treaty of 1919, however, put an end to such an opportunity, the treaty was widely viewed by Iranians as having made the nation into nothing more than a British protectorate. Its chief negotiator, Prime Minister Vosough od-Dowleh, was seen as a servant of the British and this, however, did not happen, and antagonism towards Britain and the ruling elites of the Qajar Court who were subservient to their interests grew to unprecedented heights. In June 1919, the Bolsheviks officially ended the Czarist era practice of extracting special privileges, in May 1920 the Soviet Navy led by Raskolnikov and accompanied by Sergo Ordzhonikidze entered the Caspian port of Anzali. Upon their arrival based on some communication between Mirza and the Bolsheviks, Mirza agreed to enter into an alliance with the Soviets against the British. Among the conditions was the establishment of the Soviet Republic of Gilan, however, soon arose disagreements between Kuchik Khan and his group of advisors on one side and the Soviets and the Iranian Communist Party on the other. Kuchik Khans efforts to resolve the disputes by sending a petition through a delegate of two of his men to Lenin did not result in a resolution. By 1921 and particularly after the agreement reached between the Soviet Union and Britain the Soviets decided to no further support to the Gilan Republic. As a result, the government forces led by Reza Khan crushed the forces of the Republic. Historians have tried to analyze the factors contributed to the demise of the Jangal movement. Of note is that Haydar Khan e Amo-oghli was arrested by Mirzas men and was killed by the locals. This act, according to sources, was not approved by Mirza however, was considered a reactionary. The Gilan republic lasted from June 1920 until September 1921, Mirza and his German friend Gauook, while escaping the government forces died of frostbite in Khalkhal mountains. His body was decapitated by a landlord and his head was displayed in Rasht to establish the government’s new hegemony over revolution. The flag of the Jangal movement was a red banner with the name Kaveh written upon it and this was a reference to the Derafsh-e-Kaviani and symbolized the movements struggle against the monarchist central government in working to establish a democratic Iranian republic
23.
Kurds
–
The Kurds are culturally and linguistically closely related to the Iranian peoples and, as a result, are often themselves classified as an Iranian people. A recent Kurdish diaspora has also developed in Western countries, primarily in Germany, the Kurdish language refers collectively to the related dialects spoken by the Kurds. It is mainly spoken in parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria. Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, the Kurdish languages belong to the northwestern sub‑group of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. According to Mackenzie, there are few features that all Kurdish dialects have in common. And the fact that this reflects the sense of ethnic identity and unity of the Kurds. The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at close to 30 million, Kurds comprise anywhere from 18% to 20% of the population in Turkey, possibly as high as 25%,15 to 20% in Iraq, 10% in Iran, and 9% in Syria. Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, viz. in Turkish Kurdistan, the Kurds are the fourth largest ethnic group in West Asia after the Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 18% in Iraq, 24% in Iran, and 4% in Syria. Recent emigration accounts for a population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries and this groups population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990. The land of Karda is mentioned on a Sumerian clay-tablet dated to the 3rd millennium B. C. This land was inhabited by the people of Su who dwelt in the regions of Lake Van. Other Sumerian clay-tables referred the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as the Qarduchi and the Qurti. Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes, an ancient Iranian people, the claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem, We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow. The Kurdish languages form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages like Median, some researchers consider the independent Kardouchoi as the ancestors of the Kurds. The term Kurd, however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century, the Kurds have ethnically diverse origins. During the Sassanid era, in Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, after initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds. In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe, Ardavan V, the usage of the term Kurd during this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group
24.
Armenians
–
Armenians are an ethnic group native to the Armenian Highlands. Armenians constitute the population of Armenia and the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. There is a diaspora of around 5 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry living outside of modern Armenia. The largest Armenian populations today exist in Russia, the United States, France, Georgia, Iran, Germany, Ukraine, Lebanon, Brazil and Syria. With the exceptions of Iran and the former Soviet states, the present-day Armenian diaspora was formed mainly as a result of the Armenian Genocide, most Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, a non-Chalcedonian church, which is also the worlds oldest national church. Christianity began to spread in Armenia soon after Jesus death, due to the efforts of two of his apostles, St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew, in the early 4th century, the Kingdom of Armenia became the first state to adopt Christianity as a state religion. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, historically, the name Armenian has come to internationally designate this group of people. It was first used by neighbouring countries of ancient Armenia, the earliest attestations of the exonym Armenia date around the 6th century BC. In his trilingual Behistun Inscription dated to 517 BC, Darius I the Great of Persia refers to Urashtu as Armina (in Old Persian, Armina and Harminuya. In Greek, Αρμένιοι Armenians is attested from about the same time, xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC. He relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians and it is also further postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. Movses Khorenatsi, the important early medieval Armenian historian, wrote that the word Armenian originated from the name Armenak or Aram, the Armenian Highland lies in the highlands surrounding Mount Ararat, the highest peak of the region. In the Bronze Age, several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire, Mitanni, soon after Hayasa-Azzi were Arme-Shupria, the Nairi and the Kingdom of Urartu, who successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highland. Each of the nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people. Under Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire reached the Caucasus Mountains, yerevan, the modern capital of Armenia, was founded in 782 BC by king Argishti I. T. Gamkrelidze and V. Ivanov proposed the Indo-European homeland around the Armenian Highland, eric P. Hamp in his 2012 Indo-European family tree, groups the Armenian language along with Greek and Ancient Macedonian in the Pontic Indo-European subgroup. In Hamps view the homeland of this subgroup is the northeast coast of the Black Sea and he assumes that they migrated from there southeast through the Caucasus with the Armenians remaining after Batumi while the pre-Greeks proceeded westwards along the southern coast of the Black Sea. However, fresh genetics studies explain Armenian diversity by several mixtures of Eurasian populations that occurred between ~3,000 and ~2,000 b. c
25.
Azerbaijanis
–
Azerbaijanis or Azeris, also known as Azerbaijani Turks, are a Turkic ethnic group in the Caucasus living mainly in Iranian Azerbaijan and the independent Republic of Azerbaijan. They are the second-most numerous ethnic group among the Turkic peoples after Anatolian Turks and they are predominantly Shii Muslims, and have a mixed cultural heritage, including Turkic, Iranian, and Caucasian elements. They comprise the largest ethnic group in Republic of Azerbaijan and by far the second-largest ethnic group in neighboring Iran, the worlds largest number of ethnic Azerbaijanis live in Iran, followed by Azerbaijan. The formation of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 established the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan, despite living on two sides of an international border, the Azeris form a single ethnic group. However, northerners and southerners due to nearly two centuries of separate social evolution of Iranian Azerbaijanis and Azerbaijanis in Russian/Soviet-influenced Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan is believed to be named after Atropates, a Persian satrap who ruled in Atropatene circa 321 B. C. The name Atropates is the Hellenistic form of Aturpat which means guardian of fire, itself a compound of ātūr fire + -pat suffix for -guardian, -lord, present-day name Azerbaijan is the Arabicized form of Azarbaigān. The latter is derived from Ādurbādagān, itself ultimately from Āturpātakān meaning the land associated with Aturpat, the Russian Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, written in the 1890s, also referred to Tatars in Azerbaijan as Aderbeijans, but noted that the term had not been adopted widely. In Azerbaijani language publications, the expression Azerbaijani nation referring to those who were known as Tatars of the Caucasus first appeared in the newspaper Kashkul in 1880, Ancient residents of the area spoke the Old Azeri, which belonged to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. In the 11th century AD with Seljukid conquests, Oghuz Turkic tribes started moving across the Iranian plateau into the Caucasus, the influx of the Oghuz and other Turkmen tribes was further accentuated by the Mongol invasion. Today, this Turkic-speaking population is known as Azerbaijani, caucasian-speaking Albanian tribes are believed to be the earliest inhabitants of the region where the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan is located. Early Iranian settlements included the Scythians in the ninth century BC, following the Scythians, the Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the Aras River. Ancient Iranian people of the Medes forged a vast empire between 900 and 700 BC, which the Achaemenids integrated into their own empire around 550 BC, during this period, Zoroastrianism spread in the Caucasus and in Atropatene. Alexander the Great defeated the Achaemenids in 330 BC, but allowed the Median satrap Atropates to remain in power, following the decline of the Seleucids in Persia in 247 BC, an Armenian Kingdom exercised control over parts of Caucasian Albania. Caucasian Albanians established a kingdom in the first century BC and largely remained independent until the Persian Sassanids made their kingdom a vassal state in 252 AD, sassanid control ended with their defeat by Muslim Arabs in 642 AD, through the Muslim conquest of Persia. Muslim Arabs defeated the Sassanids and Byzantines as they marched into the Caucasus region, the Arabs made Caucasian Albania a vassal state after the Christian resistance, led by Prince Javanshir, surrendered in 667. Between the ninth and tenth centuries, Arab authors began to refer to the region between the Kura and Aras rivers as Arran, during this time, Arabs from Basra and Kufa came to Azerbaijan and seized lands that indigenous peoples had abandoned, the Arabs became a land-owning elite. Conversion to Islam was slow as local resistance persisted for centuries and resentment grew as small groups of Arabs began migrating to cities such as Tabriz and this influx sparked a major rebellion in Iranian Azerbaijan from 816–837, led by a local Zoroastrian commoner named Bābak
26.
Bolsheviks
–
The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party. In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues and they ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, with the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism, in the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules. Lenin wanted members who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means, Julius Martov suggested by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the partys organisations. Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a core of active members. A main source of the factions could be attributed to Lenin’s steadfast opinion. It was obvious at early stages in Lenin’s revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas and it was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split. He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed there were only two types of people, Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest. Leon Trotsky, one of Lenins fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre, Lenins view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation. The root of the split was a book titled What is to be Done. that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile, in Germany, the book was published in 1902, in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the points of Lenin’s writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person over the masses. After the proposed revolution had overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power. Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their lives to the cause in order for it to be successful. Lenins view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a supporter of Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin’s variations caused the party internal dissonance. Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, as discussed in What is to be Done. Lenin firmly believed that a political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution
27.
Red Army
–
The Workers and Peasants Red Army was the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and after 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The army was established immediately after the 1917 October Revolution, the Bolsheviks raised an army to oppose the military confederations of their adversaries during the Russian Civil War. The Red Army is credited as being the land force in the Allied victory in the European theatre of World War II. During operations on the Eastern Front, it fought 75%–80% of the German land forces deployed in the war, inflicting the vast majority of all German losses and ultimately capturing the German capital. In September 1917, Vladimir Lenin wrote, There is only one way to prevent the restoration of the police, at the time, the Imperial Russian Army had started to collapse. The Tsarist general Nikolay Dukhonin estimated that there had been 2 million deserters,1.8 million dead,5 million wounded and 2 million prisoners and he estimated the remaining troops as numbering 10 million. Therefore, the Council of Peoples Commissars decided to form the Red Army on 28 January 1918 and they envisioned a body formed from the class-conscious and best elements of the working classes. All citizens of the Russian republic aged 18 or older were eligible, in the event of an entire unit wanting to join the Red Army, a collective guarantee and the affirmative vote of all its members would be necessary. Because the Red Army was composed mainly of peasants, the families of those who served were guaranteed rations, some peasants who remained at home yearned to join the Army, men, along with some women, flooded the recruitment centres. If they were turned away they would collect scrap metal and prepare care-packages, in some cases the money they earned would go towards tanks for the Army. Nikolai Krylenko was the supreme commander-in-chief, with Aleksandr Myasnikyan as deputy, Nikolai Podvoisky became the commissar for war, Pavel Dybenko, commissar for the fleet. Proshyan, Samoisky, Steinberg were also specified as peoples commissars as well as Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich from the Bureau of Commissars, at a joint meeting of Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, held on 22 February 1918, Krylenko remarked, We have no army. The Red Guard units are brushed aside like flies and we have no power to stay the enemy, only an immediate signing of the peace treaty will save us from destruction. This provoked the insurrection of General Alexey Maximovich Kaledins Volunteer Army in the River Don region, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk aggravated Russian internal politics. The situation encouraged direct Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, a series of engagements resulted, involving, amongst others, the Czechoslovak Legion, the Polish 5th Rifle Division, and the pro-Bolshevik Red Latvian Riflemen. The Whites defeated the Red Army on each front, Leon Trotsky reformed and counterattacked, the Red Army repelled Admiral Kolchaks army in June, and the armies of General Denikin and General Yudenich in October. By mid-November the White armies were all almost completely exhausted, in January 1920, Budennys First Cavalry Army entered Rostov-on-Don. 1919 to 1923 At the wars start, the Red Army consisted of 299 infantry regiments, Civil war intensified after Lenin dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly and the Soviet government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, removing Russia from the Great War
28.
Russian Empire
–
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
29.
Ahmad Shah Qajar
–
Ahmad Shāh Qājār was Shah of Persia from 16 July 1909, to 15 December 1925, and the last ruling member of the Qajar dynasty. It is alleged that Ahmad Shah was one of the most selfish kings of Iran while others regard him as a strong ruler, after removing Muhammad Ali Shah from power, the Grand Majles placed Ahmad Shah on the throne. The Grand Majles consisted of 500 delegate members who came from different backgrounds and they held a special tribunal in order to punish all those who participated in the civil war, among those hanged was Sheikh Fazlollah Nuri. They also brought in new reforms that were not seen in Persia before, not much is known about Ahmads early life prior to his ascendancy to the throne. He was very attached to his father, after his father left, Ahmad felt isolated and bitter. Due to his age, a regent, his uncle Ali Reza Khan Azod al-Molk. However, his lavish lifestyle did not gain him any favors with the Persian people, Ahmad Shah inherited a kingdom in turmoil, and a constituency frustrated with British and Russian imperialism and the absolute rule of his father. Ahmad Shah attempted to fix the damage done by his father by appointing the best ministers he could find and he was, however, an ineffective ruler who was faced with internal unrest and foreign intrusions, particularly by the British and Russian Empires. Russian and British troops fought against the Ottoman forces in Persia during World War I, the War led to outcries across the country because the people of Persia were not happy that they were being used as a battleground. Thus, leading to movement across the country that tried to challenge the power of Ahmad Shah Qajar. The Second Majles convened on November 1910 and just like the First Majlis, the Majles was rendered ineffective because the central government was weak and did not have enough influence to reign in the changes that it had proposed. It is alleged that the Second Majles did not get along with Ahmad Shah, in 1917, Britain used Persia as the springboard for an attack into Russia in an unsuccessful attempt to reverse the Russian Revolution of 1917. The newly born Soviet Union responded by annexing portions of northern Persia as buffer states much like its Tsarist predecessor, marching on Tehran, the Soviets extracted ever more humiliating concessions from the Qajar government – whose ministers Ahmad Shah was often unable to control. By 1920, the government had virtually lost all power outside its capital, the Anglo-Persian Agreement, along with new political parties, furtherimmobilized the country. The Moderates and Democrats often clashed, particularly when it came to minority rights, the debates between the two political parties led to violence and even assassinations. The weak economic state of Persia put Ahmad Shah and his government at the mercy of foreign influence, furthermore, under the agreement, only a small fraction of the income generated by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company was received by Persia. On the other hand, the Red Army along with rebels, during the coup, Reza Khan used three thousand men and only eighteen machine guns, a very bloodless coup that moved forward quickly. Reza Khan was a man who climbed his way up through the military ranks
30.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
31.
Bakhtiari people
–
The Bakhtiari are a southwestern Iranian tribe, and a subgroup of the Lurs. They speak the Bakhtiari dialect, a southwestern Iranian dialect, belonging to the Lurish language, Bakhtiaris primarily inhabit Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari and eastern Khuzestan, Lorestan, Bushehr, and Isfahan. In Khuzestan, Bakhtiari tribes are concentrated primarily in the part of the province. A small percentage of Bakhtiari are still nomadic pastoralists, migrating between summer quarters and winter quarters, numerical estimates of their total population vary widely. In Iranian mythology, the Bakhtiaris are considered to be descendants of Fereydun and they are also considered to be directly descended from Cyrus the Great. The Southwest Eurasian haplogroups F, G, and T1a also reach substantial frequency among Bakhtiaris. The term bakhtiari can be best translated as companion of chance or bearer of good luck The term has deep Persian roots and is the result of two smaller words bakht and yar complied together. Bakht is the Persian word for chance and yar, iar, the latter designation largely relates to the nature of the tribes annual migration. This has to do with the nature of Bakhtiari life. In this sense, Bakhtiaris view themselves as a tribe, facing numerous obstacles everyday. Nevertheless, the origins of Bakhtiaris are ancient and it may have well been the case that the tribe underwent a series of name changes throughout its history. However It is mostly claimed that the designation Bakhtiari came largely into use some time in antiquity, Constitutional Revolution, In Irans contemporary history, the Bakhtiari have played a significant role, particularly during the advent of the countrys Constitutional Revolution. This event was largely secured through the Bakhtari campaign, which eventually deposed Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar. The Bakhtiari tribesmen, under the leadership of the Haft Lang khans Sardar Assad and his brother Najaf Qoli Khan Bakhtiari- Saad ad-Daula, captured Tehran and, as a result and these events eventually led to the abdication of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar in 1909 and his exile to Russia. This incident secured Saad ad-Daula the position of Prime Minister in the period followed the abdication of the Qajar Shah. Nonetheless, with Russian backing, the Shah would soon return in 1911 by landing with a coalition of forces at Astarabad, however, his efforts to reclaim his throne would bear no fruit. In this sense, the Bakhtiaris played a role in saving the revolution from the Qajar forces. Pahlavi Period, With the expansion of Bakhtiari influence, urban elites began to worry in regards to a potential Bakhtiari takeover of Persias affairs, prior to this point, the Bakhtiari had largely remained within their own territorial boundaries
32.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
33.
Ahmad Qavam
–
Ahmad Qavām, also known as Qavām os-Saltaneh, was a politician who served as Prime Minister of Iran five times. Qavam was born in 1876 to a prominent Iranian family and his uncle, Amin Aldoleh, was a prime minister of Iran. He served in the court of Nasereddin Shah early in his career. He slowly climbed his way up, and obtained the title Ghavam al-Saltaneh during the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, hasan Vothuq was his older brother. The letter signed by Mozaffaredin Shah to accept the Iranian Constitutional Revolution was written by Qavam, in fact Qavam was instrumental in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution. He became Prime Minister several times during both Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties, any time the country needed him, he accepted the challenge. He played a significant role in preventing the USSR from separating Irans northern states twice, nevertheless, historians have mixed feelings about his legacy. In 1921, during the coup détat of Tehran against the Qajar government, Tabatabaei ordered Colonel Pesian to arrest many of the opposition, Ghavam was arrested and sent to Tehran. Hence Ghavam who had just been released from the Ishratabad prison of Tehran was offered the position, another was the riots of 1942 for economic hardship. He appointed Sepahbod Ahmad Amir-Ahmadi to restore order and end the riots, Qavam was also instrumental in the 1919 treaty between Iran, Russia, and Britain. He was again voted Prime Minister on 26 January 1946 with a margin in the Majlis of 52-51. The Majlis thought he would have the best chance of resolving the Soviet inspired rebellion of the occupied Azerbaijan province since Qavam was the largest property-owner in the region and he ordered the Iranian delegation to the UN to negotiate issues pending before the Security Council directly with the Soviet delegation. He then flew to Moscow to discuss the issues personally with Stalin, Qavam arranged a deal with the Soviets, granting an oil concession in the North contingent on the approval of the Majlis after the elections. Under the terms of the agreement with Qavam, Soviet troops began withdrawing from Iran, when the new Majlis was seated, they immediately voted against the proposed Soviet oil concession. This earned Qavam the congenial title, The Old Fox, Qavam died at the age of 79 in 1955 in Tehran. He was survived by his wife and his only son. A book in Persian called Dar Tir Rase Hadese, The political life of Qavam osSaltaneh, first published in Tehran, winter of 2006. Published by akhtaranbook Translation from Persian Wikipedia
34.
Khorasan Province
–
Khorasan was a province in north eastern Iran, but historically referred to a much larger area east and north-east of the Persian Empire. The name Khorasan is Persian and means where the sun arrives from, the name was given to the eastern province of Persia during the Sassanid Empire. Some of the historical cities of Persia are located in the older Khorasan, Nishapur and Tus, Merv and Sanjan, Samarkand and Bukhara, Herat and Balkh, Khujand. In its long history, Khorasan knew many conquerors and empires, Greeks, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, Safavids, Pashtuns, the major ethnic groups in this region are minority Fars or Persians with few Kurdish tribesmen, Turks and Turkmen as the majorities. Most of the people in the region speak closely related modern day dialects of Persian, the largest cluster of settlements and cultivation stretches around the city of Meshed northwestward, containing the important towns of Quchan, Shirvan, and Bojnurd. In August 1968 and September 1978, the region was the scene of two major earthquakes that left 12,000 and 25,000 people dead, respectively, delhi Multan Road to Mashhad capital of Khorasan province of Iran, providing access to capital city Ashgabat of Turkmenistan
35.
Sheikh Khazal rebellion
–
Sheikh Khazal rebellion refers to the 1924 Arab nationalist uprising by the Sheikh of Mohammerah Khazal al-Kabi in Iranian Khuzestan. The rebellion was quickly and efficiently suppressed by Reza Khan with minimal casualties, subduing the Bakhtiari tribes allied with Sheikh Khazal, Khuzestan remained much out of the central Persian reach by 1923. He was supported by the British, who sent him some 3,000 arms, sheykh Khazal had been collecting taxes, but in fact paid a very small fraction to the central government. In 1921, realizing the threat posed by Reza Khan Mirpanj, in February 1922, the issue of taxation from tribal areas of Mohammerah was reopened by the Iranian government. The agreement was an important step which paved the way to the establishment of the Southern League, the League however had no formal existence, being largely a temporary tribal confederation with common interests. The Bakhtiaris, unaware that the column was designated to Khuzestan and thinking their aim was to occupy their land, attacked them, only a handful of Iranian soldiers escaped the massacre. Enraged Reza Khan swore to take revenge on the incident, the Bakhtiaris however requested to be informed of military operations in the future. Reza Khan was however preoccupied with other troubles in Iranian frontier, most notably the Kurdish rebellion of Simko Shikak, the troubles with Bakhtiaris however continued in mid-September, when two minor Shaykhs of Bakhtiaris destroyed the village of Chughurt. On 23 October 1923, Khazal was demanded to yield much of his possessions to the government and he attempted to form an alliance with all the Bakhtiari, Lur and Khamseh tribes, in order to prevent Reza Khan from gaining too much power. His ultimate aim was that through this alliance the Zagros Mountains would become a nearly impenetrable barrier against the forces of the central government. However, the tribal groups often clashed with each other and were unable to come to agreements. This eventually came to nothing as well, Khazal then sought to ally himself with the Majles opposition to Reza Khan, writing a number of letters to the opposition leader, Ayatollah Seyyed Hassan Modarres. The opposition accepted Khazals proposal cautiously and not without much deliberation, however, the parliamentary opposition to Reza Khan failed. This effort, however, ended in failure, prior to the rise of Reza Khan, Khazal had never attempted to separate his sheikhdom from Qajar Persia, to which he had maintained staunch loyalty. On November 1924, Reza Khan sent 3,000 soldiers to subdue the rebellious Sheikh, the force under General Zahedi and Javaheri-Farsi defeated the Bakhtiari tribe who were Khazals allies and submitted other Bakhtiaris into submission as well. Rezas arrival to Bushehr and concentration of Iranian soldiers around Ahwaz were enough to convince the Sheikh to seek a negotiated settlement and he remains one of the heroes of the liberation of Khuzestan province in Iran upto now. Khazal then turned to the British for help, and this time presented himself as a defender of Islam, with British withdrawal of support, Sheikh Khazal disbanded his Arab forces and retired to Mohammerah. In January 1925, Reza Khan sent his commanders to the province to assert the authority of the provisional government in Tehran
36.
Iranian Revolution
–
Demonstrations against the Shah commenced in October 1977, developing into a campaign of civil resistance that included both secular and religious elements and which intensified in January 1978. Between August and December 1978 strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, the Shah left Iran for exile on 16 January 1979, as the last Persian monarch, leaving his duties to a regency council and an opposition-based prime minister. Ayatollah Khomeini was invited back to Iran by the government, the royal reign collapsed shortly after on 11 February when guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting, bringing Khomeini to official power. It was a relatively non-violent revolution, and helped to redefine the meaning, the Shahs regime became increasingly oppressive, brutal, corrupt, and extravagant. It also suffered from basic functional failures that brought economic bottlenecks, shortages, the Shah was perceived by many as beholden to – if not a puppet of – a non-Muslim Western power whose culture was affecting that of Iran. The Shia clergy had a significant influence on Iranian society, the clergy first showed itself to be a powerful political force in opposition to the monarchy with the 1891 Tobacco Protest. On 20 March 1890, Nasir al-Din Shah granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a monopoly over the production, sale. The boycotts and protests against it were widespread and extensive because of Mirza Hasan Shirazis fatwa, finally Nasir al-Din Shah found himself powerless to stop the popular movement and cancelled the concession. The Tobacco Protest was the first significant Iranians resistance against the Shah and foreign interests, and revealed the power of the people, the growing discontent continued until the Constitutional Revolution. The revolution led to the establishment of a Parliament and approval of the first constitution, although the constitutional revolution was successful in weakening the autocracy of the Qajar regime, it failed to provide a powerful alternative government. Consequently, within the following the establishment of the new parliament. Many of these events can be viewed as a continuation of the struggle between the constitutionalists and the Shahs of Persia, many of whom were backed by foreign powers against the parliament. He established a monarchy, deposing the last of the Qajar shah in 1925 and introduced many social, economic. A number of reforms led to public discontent which provides circumstances for an Iranian revolution. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavis father, Reza Shah, replaced Islamic laws with Western ones, police forcibly removed and tore chadors off women who resisted his ban on the public hijab. In 1935, dozens were killed and hundreds injured in the Goharshad Mosque rebellion, on the other hand, in the early rise of Reza Shah, Abdul-Karim Haeri Yazdi founded the Qom Seminary and created important changes in seminaries. However, he would avoid entering into political issues, as did other leaders who followed him. Hence, no widespread anti-government attempts were organized by clergy during the Reza Shah Rule, however, the future Ayatollah Khomeini was a student of Sheikh Abdul Karim Ha’eri
37.
Ruhollah Khomeini
–
Sayyid Ruhollah Mūsavi Khomeini, known in the Western world as Ayatollah Khomeini, was an Iranian Shia Muslim religious leader, philosopher, revolutionary and politician. He was the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution that saw the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and he was succeeded by Ali Khamenei on 4 June,1989. Khomeini was a marja in Twelver Shia Islam, a Mujtahid or faqih and author of more than 40 books and he spent more than 15 years in exile for his opposition to the last Shah. In his writings and preachings he expanded the theory of velayat-e faqih and this principle, was appended to the new Iranian constitution after being put to a referendum. According to New York Times, Khomeini called democracy the equivalent of prostitution, whether Khomeinis ideas are compatible with democracy and whether he intended the Islamic Republic to be democratic is disputed. He was named Man of the Year in 1979 by American news magazine TIME for his international influence, in 1982, Khomeini survived one military coup attempt. Khomeini held the title of Grand Ayatollah and is known as Imam Khomeini inside Iran. He is generally referred to as Ayatollah Khomeini by others, in Iran, his gold-domed tomb in Tehrāns Behesht-e Zahrāʾ cemetery has become a shrine for his supporters, and he is legally considered inviolable, with Iranians regularly punished for insulting him. During their rule they extensively invited, and received, a stream of Persian scholars, poets, jurists, architects. The family eventually settled in the town of Kintoor, just outside Lucknow. Ayatollah Khomeinis paternal grandfather, Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi, was born in Kintoor and he left Lucknow in 1830, on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Imam Ali in Najaf, Ottoman Iraq and never returned. According to Moin, this migration was to escape from the spread of British power in India, in 1834 Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi visited Persia, and in 1839 he settled in Khomein. Although he stayed and settled in Iran, he continued to be known as Hindi, indicating his stay in India, there are also claims that Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi departed from Kashmir, instead of Lucknow. Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini, whose name means spirit of God, was born on 22 or 24 September 1902 in Khomeyn, Markazi Province. He was raised by his mother, Hajieh Agha Khanum, and his aunt, Sahebeth, following the murder of his father, Seyed Mostafa Hindi, Ruhollah began to study the Quran and elementary Persian at the age of six. The following year, he began to attend a school, where he learned religion, noheh khani. Throughout his childhood, he continued his religious education with the assistance of his relatives, including his mothers cousin, Jafar, after World War I arrangements were made for him to study at the Islamic seminary in Esfahan, but he was attracted instead to the seminary in Arak. He was placed under the leadership of Ayatollah Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi, in 1920, Khomeini moved to Arak and commenced his studies
38.
Persian Constitutional Revolution
–
The Persian Constitutional Revolution or Iranian Constitutional Revolution, also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia during the Qajar Dynasty, the Revolution opened the way for cataclysmic change in Persia, heralding the modern era. It saw a period of unprecedented debate in a burgeoning press, the revolution created new opportunities and opened up seemingly boundless possibilities for Persia’s future. Many different groups fought to shape the course of the Revolution, the monarch Mozaffar ad-Din Shah signed the constitution in 1906, but he died shortly after and was replaced by Mohammad Ali Shah. The latter abolished the constitution and bombarded the parliament with Russian and this led to another pro-constitutional movement. The constitutionalist forces marched to Tehran, forced Muhammad Ali Shahs abdication in favor of his young son Ahmad Shah Qajar and the re-established the constitution in 1909. In 1921 Persian Coup refers to major events in Iran in 1921. On December 12,1925, Irans parliament amended Irans constitution of 1906–1907 to replace the Qajar dynasty with the Pahlavi dynasty as the sovereigns of Iran. The movement did not end with the Revolution being put down in 1911 by the Russians, with the first provision signed by Muzzafir al-Din just days before his death, Iran saw legislative reform vital to their goal of independence from British and Russian imperialism. The three main groups of the coalition seeking a constitution were the merchants, ulama. These groups shared the goal of ending corruption and stopping the dominance of foreign powers. Revolutionaries argued that role of the shah was once again being used to keep the Shah, Qajar, and they argued that whilst Irans oil industry was sold to the British, tax advantages on import/export and manufactured textiles destroyed Irans economy formerly supported by bazaar merchants. Muzzafir al-Din accumulated a fortune in foreign debt while selling off assets to repay the interest and this rift founded Irans constitutional revolt. The fundamental law gave the legislature a final approval over all loans, concession. While Iran did gain a constitution, the goal of Iranian independence was not achieved by the revolts, weakness and extravagance continued during the brief reign of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah. He often relied on his chancellor to manage his decentralized state and his dire financial situation caused him to sign many concessions to foreign powers, on an expanding list of trade items ranging from weapons to tobacco. He had also taken out several loans from Russia and Britain to pay for his extravagant lifestyle. In 1900 the Shah financed a royal tour of Europe by borrowing 22 million rubles from Russia, Iranian customs receipts served as collateral
39.
Iran crisis of 1946
–
In 1941, Iran had been jointly invaded and occupied by the Allied powers of the Soviet Red Army in the north and by the British in the centre and south. Iran was used by the Americans and the British as a route to provide vital supplies to the Soviet Unions war efforts. As of August 1941, the United States was a nation and had not yet entered as a belligerent in World War II. In the aftermath of the occupation of Iran, those Allied forces agreed to withdraw from Iran within six months after the cessation of hostilities. However, when this came in early 1946, the Soviets, under Joseph Stalin, remained in Iran. In late 1945, in addition to the Peoples Republic of Azerbaijan, negotiation by Iranian premier Ahmad Qavam and diplomatic pressure on the Soviets by the United States eventually led to Soviet withdrawal. The crisis is seen as one of the conflicts in the growing Cold War at the time. As a result, Rezā Shāh was forced to abdicate and exiled to Mauritius, his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, throughout the rest of the war, the United Kingdom and the United States used Iran as an important supply line to the Soviet war effort against Nazi Germany. Thirty thousand non-combatant US troops arrived to move supplies. Following VJ Day in September 1945, first the US and then the UK withdrew their forces within the treaty-stipulated period, the Soviets not only violated the March 2 withdrawal deadline, in that time they had expanded their military presence southward. The Azerbaijani Democratic Party was formed in September 1945 and headed by Jafar Pishevari, the ADP expanded throughout Iranian Azerbaijan, and initiated a local coup détat with help from the Soviet army, who prevented the Iranian army from intervening. The only Prime Minister of this republic was Ahmad Kordary. Though the Soviets initially supported the new entity and prevented the Iranian army from restoring governmental control over the area. After the Soviet withdrawal, Iranian troops entered the region in December 1946 and Pishevari, the Mahabad Republic was proclaimed in December 1945. Leading the nascent Kurdish republic and fully endorsed by the Soviets, was Qazi Muhammad, despite Soviet opposition, Mullah Mustafa Barzani came to play an important role in the newly created military force of the Mahabad Republic - the Peshmerga. With Barzanis support secured, along with some 60 tribal Kurdish leaders, the Kurdish forces were advised and organized by Soviet military officer Captain Salahuddin Kazimov. The Soviets extended their influence by sending at least 60 Kurds to Soviet Azerbaijan for additional military training, in total, the Mahabad army consisted of 70 active duty officers,40 non-commissioned officers, and 1,200 lower-enlisted privates. The Mahabad peshmerga also engaged Iranian reconnaissance teams in the region throughout early May 1946, Kurdish offensives were limited to minor skirmishes due to the removal of Soviet influence in the region that month, possibly due to a Soviet-Iranian oil agreement
40.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
41.
1908 bombardment of the Majlis
–
The British switched their support to Shah, abandoning the Constitutionalists. The Shah later tried to subdue and eliminate the Majles with the military and political support of Russia, as the constitutional revolution was going on in Persia, the Shah kept himself confined to his residence at Bagh-e Shah fort in west of Tehran. He took help of Cossack Brigade to control the revolution and left the city of Tehran at their mercy. The loyalty of the Cossack Brigade was fully guaranteerd, not only by the purge done by commander Vladimir Liakhov earlier, but also by the kings distribution of a special bonus earlier in 1908. Russian colonel Vladimir Liakhov who was the commander of the Cossack Brigade, lead the force in shelling the Majles and his forces then also plundered the parliament and damaged the building. This event lead to start of a known as Minor Tyranny. Liakhov was subsequently made Military Governor of Tehran by the Shah, however, in July 1909, pro-Constitution forces marched from Irans province of Azerbaijan to Tehran. They were able to capture Tehran, depose the Shah and re-establish the constitution, colonel Liakhoff and his forces served the Shah until July,1909, when the Shah abdicated and fled to Russia, resulting in the surrender of Liakhov and the Persian Cossack Brigade
Government of Persia
United Kingdom
Fathollah Khan Akbar