1.
Surface weather analysis
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Surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map that provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground-based weather stations. The first weather maps in the 19th century were drawn well after the fact to help devise a theory on storm systems, use of surface analyses began first in the United States, spreading worldwide during the 1870s. Use of the Norwegian cyclone model for frontal analysis began in the late 1910s across Europe, surface weather analyses have special symbols that show frontal systems, cloud cover, precipitation, or other important information. For example, an H may represent high pressure, implying clear skies, an L, on the other hand, may represent low pressure, which frequently accompanies precipitation. Various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps, areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location. The use of charts in a modern sense began in the middle portion of the 19th century in order to devise a theory on storm systems. The development of a network by 1845 made it possible to gather weather information from multiple distant locations quickly enough to preserve its value for real-time applications. The Smithsonian Institution developed its network of observers over much of the central, the U. S. Army Signal Corps inherited this network between 1870 and 1874 by an act of Congress, and expanded it to the west coast soon afterwards. The weather data was at first less useful as a result of the different times at which weather observations were made, the first attempts at time standardization took hold in Great Britain by 1855. The entire United States did not finally come under the influence of time zones until 1905, other countries followed the lead of the United States in taking simultaneous weather observations, starting in 1873. Other countries then began preparing surface analyses, the use of frontal zones on weather maps did not appear until the introduction of the Norwegian cyclone model in the late 1910s, despite Loomis earlier attempt at a similar notion in 1841. Since the leading edge of air mass changes bore resemblance to the fronts of World War I. The effort to automate map plotting began in the United States in 1969, hong Kong completed their process of automated surface plotting by 1987. In the United States, this development was achieved when Intergraph workstations were replaced by n-AWIPS workstations, recent advances in both the fields of meteorology and geographic information systems have made it possible to devise finely tailored weather maps. Weather information can quickly be matched to relevant geographical detail, for instance, icing conditions can be mapped onto the road network. This will likely continue to lead to changes in the way surface analyses are created and displayed over the several years. The pressureNET project is an attempt to gather surface pressure data using smartphones. When analyzing a weather map, a model is plotted at each point of observation
2.
Extratropical cyclone
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Extratropical cyclones are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales, thunderstorms, blizzards, and tornadoes. These types of cyclones are defined as large scale low pressure systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth. In contrast with tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones produce rapid changes in temperature and dew point along broad lines, called weather fronts, the term cyclone applies to numerous types of low pressure areas, one of which is the extratropical cyclone. The descriptor extratropical signifies that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside the tropics and they are termed mid-latitude cyclones if they form within those latitudes, or post-tropical cyclones if a tropical cyclone has intruded into the mid latitudes. Weather forecasters and the public often describe them simply as depressions or lows. Terms like frontal cyclone, frontal depression, frontal low, extratropical low, non-tropical low, Extratropical cyclones are classified mainly as baroclinic, because they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient known as frontal zones. They can become barotropic late in their cycle, when the distribution of heat around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with its radius. Extratropical cyclones form anywhere within the regions of the Earth. A study of extratropical cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between the 30th and 70th parallels, there are an average of 37 cyclones in existence during any 6-hour period, a separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 significant extratropical cyclones form each winter. Extratropical cyclones form along linear bands of temperature/dewpoint gradient with significant vertical wind shear, initially, cyclogenesis, or low pressure formation, occurs along frontal zones near a favorable quadrant of a maximum in the upper level jetstream known as a jet streak. The favorable quadrants are usually at the rear and left front quadrants. The divergence causes air to rush out from the top of the air column and this in turn forces convergence in the low-level wind field and increased upward motion within the column. The increased upward motion causes atmospheric pressure at ground level to lower and this is because the upward air motion counteracts gravity, lessening the weight of the atmosphere in that location. The lowered pressure strengthens the cyclone, as the cyclone strengthens, the cold front sweeps towards the equator and moves around the back of the cyclone. Meanwhile, its associated warm front progresses more slowly, as the air ahead of the system is denser. Later, the cyclones occlude as the portion of the cold front overtakes a section of the warm front, forcing a tongue, or trowal. Eventually, the cyclone will become cold and begin to weaken. Atmospheric pressure can fall very rapidly when there are upper level forces on the system
3.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
4.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
5.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
6.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
7.
Atlantic Canada
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The population of the four Atlantic provinces in 2016 was about 2,300,000 on half a million km2. The provinces combined had an approximate GDP of $110.308 billion in 2011, the first Premier of Newfoundland, Joey Smallwood, coined the term Atlantic Canada when Newfoundland joined the Dominion of Canada in 1949. Today Atlantic Canada is a distinct region of Canada, with the original founding cultures of Celtic, English and French remaining strong. Although Quebec has physical Atlantic coasts on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Ungava Bay,2016 census figures for Metropolitan Areas and Population Centres in Atlantic Canada. The list includes communities above 15,000, by Metropolitan Area population, or 10,000 by Population Centre population
8.
1927 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1927 Atlantic hurricane season featured no hurricane landfalls in the United States, in contrast to the four hurricanes that struck the United States in the previous season. Overall, the season was inactive, with eight tropical storms. One of these became a hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The first system, a depression, developed on August 13, while the final cyclone. The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane One, nicknamed the Nova Scotia hurricane, the sole major hurricane, this storm resulted in between 173 and 192 deaths in Atlantic Canada, mostly from capsized and missing ships offshore. On land, the left about $1.7 million in damage. Additionally, the fourth, fifth, and sixth tropical storms brought minor impact to Bermuda, South Carolina, the seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 56. It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, a low pressure area formerly associated with a weakening frontal boundary developed into a tropical depression on August 13. The depression moved rapidly east-northeastward and was absorbed by the frontal boundary. A tropical storm developed from a wave over the deep tropics of the Atlantic Ocean on August 18. Moving west-northwestward, it intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale by August 19. The storm deepened significantly over the few days, and by August 22, it peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 125 mph. The latter was observed by the S. S. Maraval, around that time, the system began curving northwestward and later northward. By August 23, it turned to the north-northeast and then began weakening on August 24, thereafter, the storm accelerated toward Atlantic Canada. Late on August 24, the hurricane struck near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, as a Category 2 hurricane, the remnants continued northeastward, striking Newfoundland and later Iceland, before dissipating near Jan Mayen on August 29. In New England, the storm brought rainfall, peaking at 2.09 inches in Portland. Minor street flooding was reported in Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, with flooding in the Providence area damaging pavement, along the coast of Massachusetts, rough seas disrupted shipping in Boston and beached a ship at Cape Cod. Of the 173-192 fatalities in Canada, most of them occurred due to damaged or missing ships, on land, heavy rainfall in Nova Scotia washed out 20–25 percent of the rail lines, which disrupted rail service
9.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
10.
1900 Galveston hurricane
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It remains to the present day the deadliest single day event in US history. The hurricane appears to have started as a trough from West Africa, causing unsettled weather in the Caribbean. Owing to contradictory forecasts, the people of Galveston felt no alarm until the hurricane warning of September 7. Next morning a storm surge of 15 ft washed over the long, flat island-city which was only 8 ft above sea level, knocking buildings off their foundations, the disaster ended the Golden Era of Galveston, as the hurricane alarmed potential investors, who turned to Houston instead. The whole island of Galveston was presently raised by 17 ft, the Hurricane of 1900, also known as the Great Galveston Hurricane, made landfall on September 8,1900, in Galveston, Texas, in the United States. It had estimated winds of 145 miles per hour at landfall and it was the deadliest hurricane in US history, and the second costliest hurricane in U. S. history based on the dollars 2005 value. The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States, the hurricane occurred before the practice of assigning official code names to tropical storms was instituted, and thus it is commonly referred to under a variety of descriptive names. Typical names for the storm include the Galveston Hurricane of 1900, the Great Galveston Hurricane, and, especially in older documents and it is often referred to by Galveston locals as the Great Storm or the 1900 Storm. The storms origins are unclear, because of the limited observation ability at the end of the 19th century. Ship reports were the only tool for observing hurricanes at sea, and because wireless telegraphy was in its infancy. The 1900 storm, like many powerful Atlantic hurricanes, is believed to have begun as a Cape Verde–type hurricane—a tropical wave moving off the western coast of Africa. The first formal sighting of the hurricanes precursor occurred on August 27, about 1,000 miles east of the Windward Islands, the storm passed through the Leeward Islands on August 30, probably as a tropical depression as indicated by barometric pressure reports from Antigua. Three days later, Antigua reported a severe thunderstorm passing over, followed by the hot, by September 1, U. S. Weather Bureau observers were reporting on a storm of moderate intensity southeast of Cuba. Continuing westward, the storm made landfall on southwest Cuba on September 3, on September 5, it emerged into the Florida Straits as a tropical storm or a weak hurricane. However, a region of high pressure had pushed the storm to the west into the Gulf of Mexico, details of the storm were not widespread, damage to telegraph lines limited communication. The Weather Bureaus central office in Washington, D. C. ordered storm warnings raised from Pensacola, Florida, by the afternoon of September 7, large swells from the southeast were observed on the Gulf, and clouds at all altitudes began moving in from the northeast. Both of these observations are consistent with a hurricane approaching from the east, the Galveston Weather Bureau office raised its double square flags, a hurricane warning was in effect. The ship Louisiana encountered the hurricane at 1 p. m. that day after departing New Orleans, captain Halsey estimated wind speeds of 100 mph
11.
Tropical wave
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All tropical waves form in the easterly flow along the equatorward side of the subtropical ridge or belt of high pressure which lies north and south of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Tropical waves are carried westward by the prevailing easterly winds along the tropics and subtropics near the equator. They can lead to the formation of cyclones in the north Atlantic. Tropical wave study is aided by Hovmöller diagrams, a graph of meteorological data, a tropical wave normally follows an area of sinking, intensely dry air, blowing from the northeast. After the passage of the line, the wind veers southeast, the humidity abruptly rises. This yields widespread showers and thunderstorms, sometimes severe, as the wave moves westward, the showers gradually diminish. An exception to this rain is in the Atlantic, sometimes, a surge of dry air called the Saharan Air Layer follows a tropical wave, leaving cloudless skies, as convection is capped by the dry layer inversion. Also, any dust in the SAL reflects sunlight, cooling the air below it, Tropical waves in the Atlantic basin develop from disturbances which develop as far east as Sudan in east Africa and drift over the continent into the Atlantic ocean. These are generated or enhanced by the African Easterly Jet, approximately 60% of Atlantic tropical cyclones originate from tropical waves, while approximately 85% of intense Atlantic hurricanes develop from tropical waves. Tropical cyclones can sometimes degenerate back into a tropical wave and this normally occurs if upper-level wind shear is too strong. The storm can redevelop if the upper level shear abates, if a tropical wave is moving quickly, it can have strong winds of over tropical storm force, but is not considered a tropical storm unless it has a closed circulation. An example of this was Hurricane Claudette in 2003, where the wave had winds of 45 mph before developing a circulation. It has been suggested that some eastern Pacific Ocean tropical cyclones are formed out of tropical waves that originate in North Africa as well. A screaming eagle is a wave whose convective pattern loosely resembles the head of an eagle. This phenomenon is caused by shearing from either westerly winds aloft or strong winds at the surface. These systems are located within 25 degrees latitude of the equator. Rain showers and surface winds gusting to 29 mph are associated with these waves and they move across the ocean at a rate of 15 mph. Strong thunderstorm activity can be associated with the features when located east of an upper tropospheric trough
12.
Yarmouth, Nova Scotia
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Yarmouth is a port town located on the Bay of Fundy in southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada. Yarmouth is the town of Yarmouth County and is largest population centre in the region. Originally inhabited by the Mikmaq, the region was known as Keespongwitk meaning Lands End due to its geographic isolation being located at the tip of the Nova Scotia peninsula. The region may have possibly visited by Leif Ericson. An object known as the Yarmouth Runic Stone was found at the village of Overton in 1812. It was interpreted by some to have been carved by Ericson, the stone is preserved at the Yarmouth County Museum & Archives. The region was visited in 1604 by Samuel de Champlain, who named it Cap-Fourchu, the first Europeans to make a settlement on these shores were the French Acadians. They set up a fishing settlement known as Tebouque in the mid 17th century. Yarmouth was founded on June 9,1761 when a ship carrying three families arrived from Sandwich, Massachusetts, the ship carried the families of Sealed Landers, Ebenezer Ellis, and Moses Perry. Following the war, Acadians originally from the Grand-Pré district who returned from exile in 1767 settled in the Yarmouth area, after the American Revolution, substantial numbers of United Empire Loyalists arrived in 1785. Through the 19th century the town was a shipbuilding centre. From 1874 to 1885, Yarmouth was the second largest port of registry in Canada following Saint John, in 1878, Yarmouths tonnage peaked at 453 vessels aggregating 166,623 tons, and in 1879, the town had the second largest registered tonnage in Canada. John Patch, the son of a Yarmouth sea captain, developed, however, by 1849 there were multiple competing versions of the screw propeller. Patch never received money or recognition and died a man at Yarmouth in 1861. The town of Yarmouth was incorporated on August 6,1890, as wooden shipbuilding declined in the late 19th century, Yarmouths shipowners re-invested their capital into factories, iron-hulled steamships, and railways. The towns first railway was the locally owned Western Counties Railway which was built from Yarmouth to Digby in the 1870s. It eventually was merged into the Dominion Atlantic Railway, with a network extending into the Annapolis Valley, Halifax and Truro, rail services were abandoned to Yarmouth in stages, beginning in 1982 and ending in 1990. Tourism has been an industry in Yarmouth since the 1880s when Loran Ellis Baker founded the Yarmouth Steamship Company
13.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
14.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
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Portland, Maine
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Portland is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maine, with a population of 66,881 as of 2015. The Greater Portland metropolitan area is home to half a million people. The Old Port district is frequented by tourists, while Portland Head Light is also a destination, the city seal depicts a phoenix rising from ashes, which is a reference to the recoveries from four devastating fires. Portland was named for the English Isle of Portland, and the city of Portland, Oregon was in turn named after Portland, Native Americans originally called the Portland peninsula Machigonne. Portland, Maine was named for the English Isle of Portland, the first European settler was Capt. Christopher Levett, an English naval captain granted 6,000 acres in 1623 to found a settlement in Casco Bay. The settlement failed, and the fate of Levetts colonists is unknown, the explorer sailed from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony to meet John Winthrop in 1630, but never returned to Maine. Fort Levett in the harbor is named for him, the peninsula was first permanently settled in 1632 as a fishing and trading village named Casco. When the Massachusetts Bay Colony took over Casco Bay in 1658, in 1676, the village was destroyed by the Abenaki during King Philips War. During King Williams War, a party of French and Native allies attacked. On October 18,1775, Falmouth was burned in the Revolution by the Royal Navy under command of Captain Henry Mowat, following the war, a section of Falmouth called The Neck developed as a commercial port and began to grow rapidly as a shipping center. In 1786, the citizens of Falmouth formed a town in Falmouth Neck and named it Portland, after the isle off the coast of Dorset. Portlands economy was greatly stressed by the Embargo Act of 1807, which ended in 1809, and the War of 1812, in 1820, Maine became a state with Portland as its capital. In 1832, the capital was moved north to Augusta, in 1851, Maine led the nation by passing the first state law prohibiting the sale of alcohol except for medicinal, mechanical or manufacturing purposes. The law subsequently became known as the Maine law, as 18 states quickly followed, on June 2,1855, the Portland Rum Riot occurred. In 1853, upon completion of the Grand Trunk Railway to Montreal, the Portland Company manufactured more than 600 19th-century steam locomotives. Portland became a 20th-century rail hub as five rail lines merged into Portland Terminal Company in 1911. Following nationalization of the Grand Trunk system in 1923, Canadian export traffic was diverted from Portland to Halifax, Nova Scotia, in the 20th century, icebreakers later enabled ships to reach Montreal in winter, drastically reducing Portlands role as a winter port for Canada. On June 26,1863, a Confederate raiding party led by Captain Charles Read, entered the harbor at Portland, more than 10,000 people were left homeless
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New Brunswick
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New Brunswick is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province. In the Canada 2016 Census, Statistics Canada estimated the population to have been 747,101, down very slightly from 751,171 in 2011. The majority of the population is English-speaking of Anglo and Celtic heritage and it was created as a result of the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 and was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John. The name was replaced with New Brunswick by King George II. The provincial flag features a ship superimposed on a background with a yellow lion passant guardant on red pennon above it. The province is named for the city of Braunschweig, known in English and Low German as Brunswick, located in modern-day Lower Saxony in northern Germany. The then-colony was named in 1784 to honour the reigning British monarch, George III, the original First Nations inhabitants of New Brunswick were members of three distinct tribes. The largest tribe was the Mikmaq, and they occupied the eastern and they were responsible for the Augustine Mound, a burial ground built about 800 BCE near Metepnákiaq. The western portion of the province was the home of the Wolastoqiyik people. The smaller Passamaquoddy tribe occupied lands in the southwest of the province. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St. Croix Island, the colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The whole maritime region was at that time claimed by France and was designated as the colony of Acadia, one of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of Acadia to Queen Anne. The bulk of the Acadian population thus found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia, the remainder of Acadia was only lightly populated and poorly defended. The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River, participated in guerilla raids and battles against New England during Father Rales War. About 1750, to protect his interests in New France, Louis XV caused three forts to be built along the Isthmus of Chignecto and this caused what is known to historians as Father Le Loutres War. During the French and Indian War, the British completed their displacement of the Acadians over all of present-day New Brunswick, Fort Beauséjour, Fort Menagoueche and Fort Gaspareaux were captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755. Inside Fort Beauséjour, the British forces found not only French regular troops, Governor Charles Lawrence of Nova Scotia used the discovery of Acadian civilians helping in the defence of the fort to order the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. The Acadians of the recently captured Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were included in the expulsion order, other actions in the war included British expeditions up the Saint John River in the St. John River Campaign
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Prince Edward Island
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Prince Edward Island is a province of Canada consisting of the island of the same name, as well as several much smaller islands. It is one of the three Maritime Provinces and is the smallest province in land area and population. It is the only jurisdiction of North America outside the Caribbean to have no mainland territory. The backbone of the economy is farming, it produces 25% of Canadas potatoes, historically, PEI is one of Canadas older settlements and demographically still reflects older immigration to the country, with Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and French surnames being dominant to this day. According to the 2011 census, the province of Prince Edward Island has 140,204 residents and it is located about 200 kilometres north of Halifax, Nova Scotia and 600 kilometres east of Quebec City. It consists of the island and 231 minor islands. Altogether, the province has a land area of 5,685.73 km2. The main island is 5,620 km2 in size, slightly larger than the U. S. state of Delaware and it is the 104th-largest island in the world and Canadas 23rd-largest island. The island is named for Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the son of King George III. Prince Edward has been called Father of the Canadian Crown, Prince Edward Island is located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, west of Cape Breton Island, north of the Nova Scotia peninsula, and east of New Brunswick. Its southern shore bounds the Northumberland Strait, the island has two urban areas. A much smaller urban area surrounds Summerside Harbour, situated on the southern shore 40 km west of Charlottetown Harbour, as with all natural harbours on the island, Charlottetown and Summerside harbours are created by rias. Rolling hills, woods, reddish white sand beaches, ocean coves, under the Planning Act of the province, municipalities have the option to assume responsibility for land-use planning through the development and adoption of official plans and land use bylaws. Thirty-one municipalities have taken responsibility for planning, in areas where municipalities have not assumed responsibility for planning, the Province remains responsible for development control. The islands lush landscape has a bearing on its economy. The author Lucy Maud Montgomery drew inspiration from the land during the late Victorian Era for the setting of her classic novel Anne of Green Gables, today, many of the same qualities that Montgomery and others found in the island are enjoyed by tourists who visit year-round. The smaller, rural communities as well as the towns and villages throughout the province, retain a slower-paced, Prince Edward Island has become popular as a tourist destination for relaxation. The economy of most rural communities on the island is based on small-scale agriculture, industrial farming has increased as businesses buy and consolidate older farm properties
18.
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province
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Cape Verde
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Located 570 kilometres off the coast of West Africa, the islands cover a combined area of slightly over 4,000 square kilometres. The Cape Verde archipelago was uninhabited until the 15th century, when Portuguese explorers discovered and colonized the islands, ideally located for the Atlantic slave trade, the islands grew prosperous throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, attracting merchants, privateers, and pirates. The end of slavery in the 19th century led to economic decline, Cape Verde gradually recovered as an important commercial center and stopover for shipping routes. Incorporated as a department of Portugal in 1951, the islands continued to agitate for independence. Since the early 1990s, Cape Verde has been a representative democracy. Lacking natural resources, its economy is mostly service-oriented, with a growing focus on tourism. Its population of around 512,000 is mostly of mixed European and sub-Saharan African heritage, a sizeable diaspora community exists across the world, slightly outnumbering inhabitants on the islands. Historically, the name Cape Verde has been used in English for the archipelago and, since independence in 1975, for the country. In 2013, the Cape Verdean government determined that the Portuguese designation Cabo Verde would henceforth be used for official purposes, such as at the United Nations, Cape Verde is a member of the African Union. The name of the stems from the nearby Cap-Vert, on the Senegalese coast. In 1444 Portuguese explorers had named that landmark as Cabo Verde, on 24 October 2013, the countrys delegation announced at the United Nations that the official name should no longer be translated into other languages. Instead of Cape Verde, the designation Republic of Cabo Verde is to be used, before the arrival of Europeans, the Cape Verde Islands were uninhabited. The islands of the Cape Verde archipelago were discovered by Genoese and Portuguese navigators around 1456, according to Portuguese official records, the first discoveries were made by Genoa-born António de Noli, who was afterwards appointed governor of Cape Verde by Portuguese King Afonso V. Other navigators mentioned as contributing to discoveries in the Cape Verde archipelago are Diogo Gomes, Diogo Dias, Diogo Afonso, in 1462, Portuguese settlers arrived at Santiago and founded a settlement they called Ribeira Grande. Ribeira Grande was the first permanent European settlement in the tropics, in the 16th century, the archipelago prospered from the Atlantic slave trade. Pirates occasionally attacked the Portuguese settlements, sir Francis Drake, an English corsair privateering under a letter of marque granted by the English crown, twice sacked the capital Ribeira Grande in 1585 when it was a part of the Iberian Union. After a French attack in 1712, the town declined in relative to nearby Praia. Decline in the trade in the 19th century resulted in an economic crisis
20.
Coordinated Universal Time
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Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead
21.
Maximum sustained wind
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The maximum sustained wind associated with a tropical cyclone is a common indicator of the intensity of the storm. Within a mature tropical cyclone, it is found within the eyewall at a distance defined as the radius of maximum wind, unlike gusts, the value of these winds are determined via their sampling and averaging the sampled results over a period of time. Surface winds are variable due to friction between the atmosphere and the Earths surface, as well as near hills and mountains over land. Over the ocean, satellite imagery determines the value of the sustained winds within a tropical cyclone. Land, ship, aircraft reconnaissance observations, and radar imagery can also estimate this quantity and this value helps determine damage expected from a tropical cyclone, through use of such scales as the Saffir-Simpson scale. However, the United States National Weather Service defines sustained winds within tropical cyclones by averaging winds over a period of one minute, measured at the same 10 metres height. This is an important distinction, as the value of the highest one-minute sustained wind is about 14% greater than a sustained wind over the same period. In most tropical cyclone basins, use of the satellite-based Dvorak technique is the method used to determine a tropical cyclones maximum sustained winds. The extent of banding and difference in temperature between the eye and eyewall is used within the technique to assign a maximum sustained wind. Central pressure values for their centers of low pressure are approximate, the intensity of example hurricanes is derived from both the time of landfall and the maximum intensity. The tracking of individual clouds on minutely satellite imagery could be used in the future in estimating surface winds speeds for tropical cyclones, ship and land observations are also used, when available. Doppler weather radar can be used in the manner to determine surface winds with tropical cyclones near land. Friction between the atmosphere and the Earths surface causes a 20% reduction in the wind at the surface of the Earth, surface roughness also leads to significant variation of wind speeds. Over land, winds maximize at hill or mountain crests, while sheltering leads to wind speeds in valleys. Compared to over water, maximum sustained winds over land average 8% lower, in most basins, maximum sustained winds are used to define their category. In the Atlantic and northeast Pacific oceans, the Saffir-Simpson scale is used and this scale can be used to determine possible storm surge and damage impact on land. In most basins, the category of the cyclone is determined from the cyclones maximum sustained wind. Only in Australia is this quantity not used to define the tropical category, in their basin
22.
Atmospheric pressure
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Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimetre in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilograms and that force is a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2. A column 1 square inch in cross-section would have a weight of about 14.7 lb or about 65.4 N and it is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition. The standard atmosphere is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa, the mean sea level pressure is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television. When barometers in the home are set to match the weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level. The altimeter setting in aviation, is an atmospheric pressure adjustment, average sea-level pressure is 1013.25 mbar. In aviation weather reports, QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals, except in the United States, Canada, however, in Canadas public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals. The highest sea-level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea-level pressure above 1050 mbar, the lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 mbar. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earths surface to the top of the mesosphere, although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, one can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C, at low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 meters. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather, Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars and these variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian cycle and semi-circadian cycle. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure recorded on Earth was 1085.7 hPa measured in Tosontsengel
23.
Nantucket, Massachusetts
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Nantucket /ˌnænˈtʌkᵻt/ is an island about 30 miles by ferry south from Cape Cod, in the American state of Massachusetts. Together with the islands of Tuckernuck and Muskeget, it constitutes the Town of Nantucket, and the conterminous Nantucket County. As of the 2010 census, the population was 10,172, part of the town is designated the Nantucket CDP, or census-designated place. The region of Surfside on Nantucket is the southernmost settlement in Massachusetts, the name Nantucket is adapted from similar Algonquian names for the island, perhaps meaning faraway land or island. Nantucket is a tourist destination and summer colony, due to tourists and seasonal residents, the population of the island increases to at least 50,000 during the summer months. In 2008, Forbes magazine cited Nantucket as having home values among the highest in the US, home prices per square foot are considered much higher than those in the Hamptons on Long Island. The meaning of the term is uncertain, although it may have meant in the midst of waters, wampanoag is an Eastern Algonquian language of southern New England. The Nehantucket were an Algonquin-speaking culture of the area, Nantuckets nickname, The Little Grey Lady of the Sea, refers to the island as it appears from the ocean when it is fog-bound. The earliest French settlement in the region began on the island of Marthas Vineyard. Nantucket was part of Dukes County, New York, until 1691, as Europeans began to settle Cape Cod, the island became a place of refuge for Native Americans in the region, as Nantucket was not yet settled by Europeans. The growing population welcomed seasonal groups of other Native Americans who traveled to the island to fish and later harvest whales that washed up on shore. In October 1641, William, Earl of Sterling, deeded the island to Thomas Mayhew of Watertown, anxious to add to their number and to induce tradesmen to come to the island, the total number of shares were increased to twenty-seven. By 1667, twenty-seven shares had been divided between 31 owners, and also two beaver hats, one for myself, and one for my wife. The nine original purchasers were Tristram Coffin, Peter Coffin, Thomas Macy, Christopher Hussey, Richard Swain, Thomas Barnard, Stephen Greenleaf, John Swain and these men are considered the founding fathers of Nantucket, and many islanders are related to these families. Seamen and tradesmen began to populate Nantucket, such as Richard Gardner, John Gardner, sons of Thomas Gardner. In his 1835 history of Nantucket Island, Obed Macy wrote that in the early pre-1672 colony and this event started the Nantucket whaling industry. Herman Melville commented on Nantuckets whaling dominance in Moby-Dick, Chapter 14, for the sea is his, he owns it, as Emperors own empires. The Moby-Dick characters Ahab and Starbuck are both from Nantucket, by 1850, whaling was in decline, as Nantuckets whaling industry had been surpassed by that of New Bedford
24.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
25.
Jan Mayen
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Jan Mayen is a Norwegian volcanic island situated in the North Arctic Ocean. It is 55 km long and 373 km2 in area, partly covered by glaciers and it has two parts, larger northeast Nord-Jan and smaller Sør-Jan, linked by a 2.5 km wide isthmus. It lies 600 km northeast of Iceland,500 km east of central Greenland and 1,000 km west of the North Cape, the island is mountainous, the highest summit being the Beerenberg volcano in the north. The isthmus is the location of the two largest lakes of the island, Sørlaguna, and Nordlaguna, a third lake is called Ullerenglaguna. Jan Mayen was formed by the Jan Mayen hotspot, although administered separately, Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ. Jan Mayen Island has one exploitable natural resource, gravel, from the site at Trongskaret, other than this, economic activity is limited to providing services for employees of Norways radio communications and meteorological stations located on the island. Jan Mayen has one unpaved airstrip, Jan Mayensfield, which is about 1,585 m long, the 124.1 km coast has no ports or harbours, only offshore anchorages. There are important fishing resources, and the existence of Jan Mayen establishes a large Exclusive Economic Zone around it, a dispute between Norway and Denmark regarding the fishing exclusion zone between Jan Mayen and Greenland was settled in 1988 granting Denmark the greater area of sovereignty. Significant deposits of petroleum and natural gas are suspected by geologists to lie below Jan Mayens surrounding seafloors, Jan Mayen Island is an integral part of the Kingdom of Norway. Since 1995, Jan Mayen has been administered by the County Governor of the northern Norwegian county of Nordland to which it is closest. However, some authority over Jan Mayen has been assigned to the commander of the Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation. The only inhabitants on the island are personnel working for the Norwegian Armed Forces, eighteen people spend the winter on the island, but the population may double during the summer, when heavy maintenance is performed. Personnel serve either six months or one year, and are exchanged twice a year in April, the main purpose of the military personnel is to operate a Loran-C base. The support crew, including mechanics, cooks, and a nurse, are among the military personnel, both the LORAN transmitter and the meteorological station are located a few kilometres away from the settlement Olonkinbyen, where all personnel live. Transport to the island is provided by C-130 Hercules military transport planes operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force that land at Jan Mayensfields gravel runway, the planes fly in from Bodø Main Air Station eight times a year. Since the airport does not have any instrument landing capabilities, good visibility is required, for heavy goods, freight ships visit during the summer, but since there are no harbours, the ships must anchor. The island has no population, but is assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ. It uses the Internet country code top-level domain. no and data code JN, Jan Mayen has telephone and internet connection over satellite, using Norwegian telephone numbers
26.
Lawrence, Massachusetts
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Lawrence is a city in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States, on the Merrimack River. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 76,377, surrounding communities include Methuen to the north, Andover to the southwest, and North Andover to the southeast. Lawrence and Salem are the county seats of Essex County, Lawrence is part of the Merrimack Valley. Manufacturing products of the city include electronic equipment, textiles, footwear, paper products, computers, Lawrence was the residence of poet Robert Frost for his early school years, his essays and poems were first published in the Lawrence High School newspaper. Native Americans, namely the Pennacook or Pentucket tribe, had a presence in this area, evidence of farming at Den Rock Park and arrowhead manufacturing on the site of where the Wood Mill now sits have been discovered. Europeans first settled the Haverhill area in 1640, colonists from Newbury following the Merrimack River in from the coast, the area that would become Lawrence was then part of Methuen and Andover. The first settlement came in 1655 with the establishment of a blockhouse in Shawsheen Fields, the future site of the city, was purchased by a consortium of local industrialists. The group allotted fifty thousand dollars to buy land along the river to develop, in 1844, the group petitioned the legislature to act as a corporation, known as the Essex Company, which incorporated on April 16,1845. The first excavations for the Great Stone Dam to harness the Merrimack Rivers water power were done on August 1,1845, the Essex Company would sell the water power to corporations such as the Arlington Mills, as well as organize construction of mills and build to suit. Until 1847, when the legislature recognized the community as a town, it was called interchangeably the New City. The post office, built in 1846, used the designation Merrimac, incorporation as a city would come in 1853, and the name Lawrence, merely chosen as a token of respect to Abbott Lawrence, who it cannot be verified ever saw the city named after him. The work was dangerous, injuries and even death were not uncommon, working conditions in the mills were unsafe and in 1860 the Pemberton Mill collapsed, killing 145 workers. As immigrants flooded into the United States in the mid to late 19th century, Lawrence was the scene of the infamous Bread and Roses Strike, also known as the Lawrence Textile Strike, one of the more important labor actions in American history. Lawrence was a great wool-processing center until that industry declined in the 1950s, the decline left Lawrence a struggling city. The population of Lawrence declined from over 80,000 residents in 1950 to approximately 64,000 residents in 1980, like other northeastern cities suffering from the effects of post-World War II industrial decline, Lawrence has often made efforts at revitalization, some of them controversial. For example, half of the enormous Wood Mill, powered by the Great Stone Dam, the Lawrence Redevelopment Authority and city officials utilized eminent domain for a perceived public benefit, via a top down approach, to revitalize the city throughout the 1960s. There was a clash of differing ideals and perceptions of blight, growth, ultimately the discussion left out those members of the community who would be directly impacted by urban redevelopment. The historic Theater Row along Broadway was also razed, destroying ornate movie palaces of the 1920s and 1930s that entertained mill workers through the Great Depression, the citys main post office, an ornate federalist style building at the corner of Broadway and Essex Street, was razed
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Taunton River
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The Taunton River, is a river in southeastern Massachusetts in the United States. It arises from the confluence of the Town River and Matfield River, the total length of the river is 37.0 miles from the junction of the Town and Matfield Rivers in Bridgewater to the mouth of the Quequechan River in Fall River. It has a watershed of 562 square miles, the rivers watershed includes the Hockomock Swamp, the largest freshwater wetland in the state. The Taunton River is one of the flattest rivers in New England, the river is tidal as far north as Taunton. The river is home to much biodiversity, including some found nowhere else in the state. Over 154 bird species have been documented along the Taunton River, the watershed supports 28 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 29 species of fish, including native brook trout and Atlantic sturgeon, which can be found in the lower part of the watershed. The Mystic Valley Amphipod, which is only to eastern New England, has been found in various wetlands throughout the watershed. All along the river, otters can be found on the shoreline, the watershed also is home to 7 species of freshwater mussels, and the largest herring run in New England. In 2005, a harp seal was found in the Nemasket River. In early summer 2014, a young male Beluga whale was sighted in the Taunton River, and in late August 2014, over 360 plant species were sampled from the floodplain wetlands and the immediate river corridors, and various vegetative communities can be found along the river. These include Atlantic White Cedar Swamps, Forested Bogs, and Coastal Plain Pondshores, since the development of industry beginning with the iron works of the mid-17th century, the Taunton River has played an important role in the economy of the Greater Taunton Area. The shipbuilding industry was active in the Taunton area during the 19th century. The Taunton River is the longest coastal river in New England without dams and supports 45 species of fish, the Taunton River is the principal river that makes up the Taunton River Watershed. The watershed is the habitat for 154 types of birds, including 12 rare types and it is also home to otter, mink, grey fox and deer. Battleship Cove, the worlds largest museum of warships, is located on the Fall River side of the river at its confluence with Mount Hope Bay, beneath the Braga Bridge. After over five years of study for possible inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic River System, such designation was obtained in April 2009. S
28.
Massachusetts Route 24
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Route 24 is a freeway south of I-93 in southeastern Massachusetts, linking Fall River with the Boston metropolitan area. It begins in the south in Fall River at the border with Tiverton, Rhode Island where it connects with Rhode Island Route 24, Route 24 is also known as the Fall River Expressway, and officially as the Amvets Highway. Route 24 has a total of 21 interchanges Route 24 connects many of the cities of Southeastern Massachusetts with Boston, Brockton, Taunton, Fall River. The highway continues at the Rhode Island border at Rhode Island Route 24 and it briefly runs concurrently with I-195 east, then exits the interstate and travels north, merging with Route 79 at Exit 7 in northern Fall River. Routes 24 and 79 run concurrently northward until Exit 9, at this point, Route 79 exits the freeway and heads northeast. Route 24 continues north, intersecting the northern end of the Taunton-New Bedford Expressway in Taunton, the highway continues north through the city of Brockton and into Randolph, where Route 24 ends at a split junction with Interstate 93. This section of I-93 from Braintree to its junction with I-95 is frequently referred to by its designation of Route 128. This designation was removed from I-93 in 1989, when the roadway obtained the designation of U. S. Route 1. The route is officially 40.9 miles in length, however, the speed limit on Route 24 is 55 mph from the Rhode Island border to the exit from Interstate 195. North of I-195, the limit is 65 mph. Service plazas are located on side of Route 24 in Bridgewater. Route 24, along with Route 138, are built parallel to an old Indian trail that went along the same north/south route from south of the Boston area into Boston. Route 124 on Cape Cod was originally designated Route 24 before 1951, the original portion of Route 24 opened in 1951, and brought commuters from Exit 10 in Assonet to Raynham. Route 24 is currently 40 miles in length and has 21 interchanges from Fall River to Randolph, there have been calls over the years for Route 24 to be upgraded to an interstate highway. In 1997, a study was initiated by the Massachusetts Highway Department, the project would require major upgrades to 11 interchanges and minor work on 6 others, and the plan was halted due to high costs. In April 2007 the Old Colony Regional Planning Council included this proposal in its 25-year regional transportation plan draft, the portion south of I-195 would have remained MA-24 and then RI-24. This proposal too was eventually tabled due to costs, especially those projected for reconstruction of part of the highway south of Interstate 495. The total cost was expected to be $877 million, there are currently no proposals in the MassDOT highway listings to upgrade MA24 to an interstate
29.
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
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Beginning in the 1890s and accelerating in 1903, New York banker J. P. By 1912, the New Haven operated more than 2,000 miles of track, with 120,000 employees and this quest for monopoly angered Progressive Era reformers, alienated public opinion, resulted in high prices for acquisitions, and increased construction costs. Debt soared from $14 million in 1903 to $242 million in 1913, even as the advent of automobiles, trucks, also in 1913, the federal government filed an anti-trust lawsuit that forced the NH to divest its trolley systems. S. Until the Enron Corporation superseded it in 2001, the majority of the system is now owned publicly by the states of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad was formed on July 24,1872, through the consolidation of the New York and New Haven Railroad and Hartford and New Haven Railroad. It owned a line from New York City to Springfield, Massachusetts via New Haven and Hartford, Connecticut. The company later leased more lines and systems, eventually forming a monopoly in New England south of the Boston. The New York and New Haven was built later, as it ran parallel to the Long Island Sound coast and it opened in 1848, using trackage rights over the New York and Harlem Railroad from Woodlawn in the Bronx area south to New York. From 1913 on, Grand Central Terminal served as the New Havens New York City terminal, about the beginning of the 20th century, New York investors led by J. P. Morgan gained control, and in 1903 installed Charles S. Mellen as President. Morgan and Mellen achieved a monopoly of transportation in southern New England, purchasing other railroads and steamship. More than 100 independent railroads eventually became part of the system before and during these years, substantial improvements to the system were made during the Mellen years, including electrification between New York and New Haven. But the Morgan-Mellen expansion left the company overextended and financially weak, under the stress of the Great Depression the company became bankrupt in 1935, remaining in trusteeship until 1947. Common stock was voided and creditors assumed control, after 1951 both freight and passenger service lost money. The earlier expansion had left NH with a network of low-density branch lines that could not pay their own maintenance, the freight business was short-haul, requiring switching costs that could not be recovered in short-distance rates. They had major commuter train services in New York and Boston, the demise of the New Haven may have been hastened by the opening of the Connecticut Turnpike in 1958 and other interstate highways. With decades of investment, the New Haven could not compete against automobiles or trucks. In 1954 the flashy Patrick B, McGinnis led a proxy fight against incumbent president Frederic C. Buck Dumaine Jr. vowing to return more of the companys profit to shareholders. McGinnis won control of the railroad and appointed Arthur V. McGowan, McGinnis attempted to accomplish many of his financial goals by deferring maintenance
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Brockton, Massachusetts
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Brockton is a city in Plymouth County, Massachusetts, United States, the population was 95,314 in the 2015 Census. Brockton, along with Plymouth, are the county seats of Plymouth County, two of the villages within the city are Montello and Campello, both have the distinction of having their own MBTA Commuter Rail Stations and post offices. Campello is the smallest neighborhood in the city, but also the most populous, Brockton hosts a baseball team, the Brockton Rox. Brockton is one of the windiest cities in the United States, in 1649, Ousamequin sold the surrounding land, then known as Saughtucket, to Myles Standish as an addition to Duxbury. Brockton was part of area, which the English renamed Bridgewater, until 1821. Its name changed in 1874, after a process finally decided on naming it after Isaac Brock, after a local merchant heard of Brockville, Ontario. Brockton became a city on April 9,1881, during the American Civil War, Brockton was Americas largest producer of shoes, and until the latter parts of the 20th century Brockton had a large shoe and leather products industry. World firsts On October 1,1883, Brockton became the first place in the world to have an underground electrical system when Thomas Edison threw a switch to activate it. The City Theater opened on October 24,1894, the first theater in the world to be tied into the electrical system. US firsts On December 30,1884, the first electrically operated fire station in the United States opened in Brockton, the department store Santa Claus appeared in Brockton in December 1890, when James Edgar, of Edgars Department Store, suited up for the first time. Brockton became the first city in the country to abolish grade crossings in 1896, world Records On November 23,2010, Brockton set the world record for the most Santa Hat wearers in one place at one time with 872 people participating in the event. On November 20,2011 Brockton doubled the citys Santa Claus hat-wearing record with 1792 people in downtown Brockton wearing hats. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 21.6 square miles. Brockton is the 162nd largest city by area in the Commonwealth. Brockton is approximately 25 miles south of Boston, and 30 miles northeast of Providence, Brockton is mostly an urban setting, lying along the Salisbury Plain River, which once powered the many shoe factories of the city. To the northeast lies the Beaver Brook Conservation Land, attached to the end of the Ames Nowell State Park in Abington. There are several parks throughout the city, but the largest is D. W. Field Park, as of the census of 2010, there were 93,810 people,35,552 households, and 22,764 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,398.4 people per square mile, there were 34,837 housing units at an average density of 1,622.8 per square mile
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Middleborough, Massachusetts
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Middleborough is a town in Plymouth County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 23,116 at the 2010 census, for geographic and demographic information on the village of Middleborough Center, please see the article Middleborough Center, Massachusetts. In the summer of 2007, Middleborough became the location for a controversial future resort casino, sponsored by the Wampanoag Tribe of Mashpee. The town was first settled by Europeans in 1661 as Nemasket, later changed to Middlebury, the name Nemasket came from a Native American settlement along the small river that now bears the same name. Nemasket may have meant place of fish, due to the amount of herring that migrate up the river each spring. There are no records that indicate the name Middlebury was taken from a place in England. The names Middlebury and Middleborough were actually derived from the city of Middelburg, Zeeland, Middelburg was an international intellectual center and economic powerhouse. During King Philips War, the entire populace took shelter within the confines of a fort constructed along the Nemasket River. The site is located behind the old high school, and is marked by a state historical commission marker along Route 105. Western Middleborough broke away in 1853 and formed the town of Lakeville, taking with it the main access to the freshwater lakes there. Middleborough was once a large producer of shoes and is home to the Alden Shoe Company. The local Maxim Motors manufactured fire engines from 1914-1989, Middleborough has since become the cranberry capital of the world, hosting the corporate headquarters of Ocean Spray Cranberries. In recent history, Middleborough has made its mark through the prowess of its Little League Baseball program, in 1994 the Middleborough All Stars reached the Little League World Series by defeating Milburn-Short Hills, New Jersey to take the East Region title. The team would finish 3rd in the United States and they are one of only two Massachusetts Little League teams to win the East title before the splitting of the New England and Mid-Atlantic Regions in 2001. In 1999, the again won the Massachusetts State title and fell in the East Region final to Toms River. Since 2000, the team has reached the State semi-finals five times, finishing third in the state in 2000 and 2003, in 2012, they finished fourth in the state. The 2012 team was coached by Skeeter Porter and Ron Holmgren, the 2002 team was only beaten by U. S. runner-up, Jesse Burkett Little League of Worcester. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 72.2 square miles, of which 69.1 square miles is land and 3.1 square miles
32.
Grade (slope)
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The grade of a physical feature, landform or constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle of that surface to the horizontal. It is a case of the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A larger number indicates higher or steeper degree of tilt, often slope is calculated as a ratio of rise to run, or as a fraction in which run is the horizontal distance and rise is the vertical distance. The grades or slopes of existing physical features such as canyons and hillsides, stream and river banks, grades are typically specified for new linear constructions. The grade may refer to the slope or the perpendicular cross slope. There are several ways to express slope, as an angle of inclination to the horizontal, as a percentage, the formula for which is 100 rise run which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 100. In the U. S. this percentage grade is the most commonly used unit for communicating slopes in transportation, surveying, construction, and civil engineering. As a per mille figure, the formula for which is 1000 rise run which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 1000 and this is commonly used in Europe to denote the incline of a railway. As a ratio of one part rise to so many parts run, for example, a slope that has a rise of 5 feet for every 100 feet of run would have a slope ratio of 1 in 20. This is generally the method used to describe railway grades in Australia, any of these may be used. Grade is usually expressed as a percentage, but this is converted to the angle α from horizontal or the other expressions. Slope may still be expressed when the run is not known. This is not the way to specify slope, it follows the sine function rather than the tangent function. But in practice the way to calculate slope is to measure the distance along the slope and the vertical rise. When the angle of inclination is small, using the slope length rather than the horizontal displacement makes only an insignificant difference, Railway gradients are usually expressed in terms of the rise in relation to the distance along the track as a practical measure. In cases where the difference between sin and tan is significant, the tangent is used. In any case, the identity holds for all inclinations up to 90 degrees, tan α = sin α1 − sin 2 α In Europe. Grades are related using the equations with symbols from the figure at top
33.
Eastport, Maine
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Eastport is a small city in Washington County, Maine, United States. The population was 1,331 at the 2010 census, the principal island is Moose Island, which is connected to the mainland by causeway. Eastport is the easternmost city in the United States, the native Passamaquoddy Tribe has called this area home for at least 10,000 years. Some archeologists estimate the habitation at 20,000 years, the first known European contact was the St. Croix colony founded by the French explorer Samuel de Champlain in 1604. Near present-day Calais, the unsuccessful Saint Croix Island Acadia settlement predates the first successful English settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, on June 25,1604, Champlain and his men spent a long and severe winter on St. Croix Island with no fresh water and diminished supplies. Two-fifths of the men died of scurvy, and the colony moved across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal in present-day Nova Scotia, fishermen and traders visited the area in the 17th century. Moose Island was first settled in 1772 by James Cochrane of Newburyport, Massachusetts, on February 24,1798, Eastport was incorporated as a town from Plantation Number 8 PS by the Massachusetts General Court, and named for being the easternmost port in the United States. Lubec, on the mainland, was set off and incorporated as a town on June 21,1811, from 1807 to 1809, the town was a center of extensive two-way smuggling during the Embargo Act imposed by President Thomas Jefferson. England claimed that Moose Island was on the British side of the border which had been determined in 1783. Nevertheless, the town was returned to United States control in 1818, the boundary between the U. S. and Canada in the area remained disputed until settled by the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. Eastport would be incorporated as a city on March 18,1893, industries included a grain mill, box factory and carding mill. But the islands economy was directed at the sea. With tides of about 25 feet, Eastports spacious harbor remained ice-free year round, the first sardine factory was built here about 1875. The population grew with the emergence of the fishery and related canning businesses. By 1886, the town contained 13 sardine factories, which operated day and night during the season, about 800 men, women and children worked in the plants. But the industry would decline, and many moved away. Indeed, the city went bankrupt in 1937, in 1976, the Groundhog Day Gale destroyed many structures along the waterfront. Today, catching fish remains the industry, although tourism has become important as well
34.
1873 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1873 Atlantic hurricane season was quiet, with only two tropical storms and three hurricanes, two of which were major hurricanes, being recorded. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated, the Atlantic hurricane database, HURDAT, recognizes five tropical cyclones for the 1873 season. Three storms attained hurricane status, with winds of 75 mph or greater, the second and fifth hurricanes of the season were the most intense, with maximum sustained winds up to 120 mph. The first storm of the season developed on June 1 over the western Bahamas and it moved northward before turning and striking near the Florida/Georgia border on June 2. It produced 28 mph wind gusts in Jacksonville, Florida, on August 13, a tropical storm formed in the Atlantic. It followed the track of a Cape Verde-type hurricane, becoming a hurricane on August 17 and it recurved to the north and northeast as it was reaching its peak of 115 mph. As it passed to the south of Nova Scotia, it slowed down, the hurricane was able to retain hurricane strength, and made landfall on Newfoundland on August 26, and became extratropical the next day. Despite its relatively low maximum winds, the Nova Scotia Cyclone was a deadly storm and it destroyed 1200 boats and 900 buildings in Nova Scotia, and killed at least 223 people, mostly sailors who were lost at sea. This number is disputed, as The Monthly Weather Review, published by the Weather Service, set the toll at 223. The hurricane caused $3.5 million in damage, during this hurricane, the first hurricane warning was issued between Cape May, New Jersey and New London, Connecticut. A hurricane was first observed in the central Gulf of Mexico on September 18. It moved quickly northeastward, striking St. Marks, Florida on September 19, There, it produced heavy damage. Later, it weakened to tropical storm as it crossed over Georgia and South Carolina, a few days after the previous storm, another storm was observed in the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September 22. It moved across Florida the next day, and was last observed on September 24, a tropical storm was first seen in the eastern Caribbean on September 26. It moved northwestward, hitting Haiti as a 115 mph hurricane and it turned westward as a minimal tropical storm, but as it crossed the Yucatán Channel, it restrengthened, becoming a major hurricane again before hitting southwest Florida on October 7. The hurricane became extratropical on October 9 before dissipating the next day, the hurricane generated a 14 foot storm tide at Punta Rassa, Florida. The hurricane caused 26 deaths with the loss of a ship, the Maisi and may also have caused a schooner, 1870-1879 Atlantic hurricane seasons Tropical cyclone observation Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project
35.
1882 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1882 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and early fall of 1882. This is the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin, in the 1882 Atlantic season there were two tropical storms, two Category 1 hurricanes, and two major hurricanes. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated. Of the known 1882 cyclones, Hurricane One and Hurricane Five were both first documented in 1996 by Jose Fernandez-Partagas and Henry Diaz, while Tropical Storm Three was first recognised in 1997, in 2011 the third storm of the year was downgraded from a hurricane to a tropical storm. The Atlantic hurricane database recognizes six tropical cyclones for the 1882 season, in the 1882 Atlantic season there were two tropical storms, two Category 1 hurricanes, and two major hurricanes. Hurricane One is known, from ship reports, to have active in the north Atlantic on August 24 and 25. Early in September, Hurricane Two impacted Cuba, Florida, Georgia, the storm caused flooding and damaged property but is not known to have caused any loss of life. Tropical Storm Three formed in the Gulf of Mexico and made landfall near the Texas/Louisiana border on September 15, Tropical Storm Four formed north of the Bahamas and caused extensive flooding from North Carolina to Massachusetts. It eventually dissipated near Long Island on September 23. A tropical storm developed into a hurricane on September 25 but Hurricane Five remained at sea, as a Category 4 hurricane, Hurricane Six was the strongest storm of 1882. The storm hit Cuba at that intensity but quickly weakened over the island, the storm caused some considerable damage in Florida before moving out to sea. Based on reports from two ships, the Case and Ida, a hurricane was active on August 24 in the North Atlantic and its prior track is unknown, but the storm continued to the north-northeast. It was last seen on the 25th to the southeast of Newfoundland, a tropical storm was first seen to the north of the Mona Passage on September 2. It moved to the west-northwest, reaching winds of 100 mph before hitting Cuba and it crossed the island, and turned north in the Gulf of Mexico. The hurricane peaked at 125 mph before hitting near Pensacola, Florida on September 10 and it accelerated over the southeastern United States, crossing central Georgia, the western area of South Carolina and entered North Carolina on September 11. Continuing northward the storm moved offshore at Chesapeake Bay and after reaching the Atlantic Ocean, at Pensacola, the hurricane damaged crops, shipping and buildings. In Louisiana, half of the crop in Plaquemines Parish was destroyed by flooding. It caused a landslide, and property damage throughout North Carolina, a tropical storm was first observed in the Gulf of Mexico on September 14. Its prior track is unknown, but it moved to the west-northwest, port Eads, Louisiana recorded winds of 70 mph and a pressure of 29.38 inches
36.
Hurricane Hazel
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Hurricane Hazel was the deadliest and costliest hurricane of the 1954 Atlantic hurricane season. The storm killed at least 400 people in Haiti before striking the United States near the border between North and South Carolina, as a Category 4 hurricane. After causing 95 fatalities in the US, Hazel struck Canada as a storm, raising the death toll by 81 people. As a result of the death toll and the damage caused by Hazel. In Haiti, Hazel destroyed 40% of the trees and 50% of the cacao crop. The hurricane made landfall in the Carolinas, and destroyed most waterfront dwellings near its point of impact, from North Carolina, it traveled north along the Atlantic coast. Hazel affected Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, when it was over Pennsylvania, Hazel consolidated with a cold front, and turned northwest towards Canada. When it hit Ontario as a storm, rivers and streams in and around Toronto overflowed their banks. As a result, many areas located in the local floodplains. In Canada alone, over C$135 million of damage was incurred, Hazel had traveled 1,100 km over land, but while approaching Canada, it had merged with an existing powerful cold front. The storm stalled over the Greater Toronto Area, and although it was now extratropical, to help with the cleanup,800 members of the military were summoned, and a Hurricane Relief Fund was established that distributed $5.1 million in aid. On October 5, a wave with tropical-storm force winds was approaching the Lesser Antilles. Due to the potential for storm formation, a Hurricane Hunters plane flew from San Juan. When the plane reached the system, they observed a tropical cyclone about 30 mi east of the island of Grenada with winds estimated at 100 mph, the United States Weather Bureau promptly classified the system as Hurricane Hazel. The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis later assessed that Hazel developed at 06,00 UTC on October 5 about 220 mi east of Grenada. Although the Hurricane Hunters observed hurricane-force winds, the storm had a small eye 5 mi in diameter and a central barometric pressure of 1,002 mbar. The 100 mph winds were therefore revised downward to 65 mph late on October 5, at the same time, Hazel made landfall on Grenada with winds of 75 mph. After entering the Caribbean Sea, Hazel continued to present a small eye, the winds gradually increased as the storm moved westward, parallel to the northern Venezuela coast
37.
1954 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1954 Atlantic hurricane season resulted in over $750 million in damage, the most of any season at the time. The season officially began on June 15, and nine days later the first named storm developed, Hurricane Alice developed in the Gulf of Mexico and moved inland along the Rio Grande, producing significant precipitation and record flooding that killed 55 people. Activity was slow until late August, only Barbara, a tropical storm. In the span of two weeks, hurricanes Carol and Edna followed similar paths before both striking New England as major hurricanes, the latter became the costliest hurricane in Maines history. In late September, Tropical Storm Gilda killed 29 people after drenching northern Honduras, a tropical depression in early October was captured by a high-altitude photograph on a rocket, thus producing the first large-scale image of a tropical cyclone. The strongest and deadliest hurricane of the season was Hurricane Hazel and it caused heavy damage in the United States before becoming extratropical and affecting Ontario. Intense rainfall affected Toronto with severe flooding, leaving significant damage, the season officially ended on November 15, although another hurricane named Alice developed on December 30 to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles, it lasted until January 6 of the following year. In total, there were 16 tropical storms,7 hurricanes, the hurricane season officially began on June 15, when the United States Weather Bureau in Miami, Florida began 24‑hour operations. The agency, under the direction of Grady Norton had access to 43 other weather stations across the Atlantic basin, Norton died during the season from a stroke while tracking Hurricane Hazel. Additionally, a group of Hurricane Hunters planes were put on standby for the season, able to be flown out into storms, during the season, there were eight named storms, as well as an unnamed hurricane and a tropical depression. The season officially ended on November 15, although a tropical storm formed a day later. In addition, Tropical Storm Alice developed on December 31, the latest a tropical cyclone has developed in the calendar year, cumulatively, tropical cyclones left 193 deaths and $756 million in damage, becoming the costliest hurricane season at the time. The season was one of six to have three major hurricanes strike the country, along with 2005,1893,1909,1933, and 2004. Two of the major hurricanes – Carol and Edna – struck New England, Carol struck Connecticut as a hurricane and left widespread heavy damage. Only ten days later, Edna became the costliest hurricane in Maines history, the third major hurricane, Hazel, was the strongest hurricane of the season, attaining winds of 150 mph. Unusually, no tropical cyclones affected Florida, the seasons activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy rating of 113, which is categorized as being above normal. ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots or tropical storm strength, a broad trough developed over the eastern Gulf of Mexico on May 26. A frontal disturbance formed over Florida along the trough, spawning an area of cyclonic turning
38.
1883 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1883 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1883. This is the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin, in the 1883 Atlantic season there was one tropical storm, one Category 1 hurricane, and two major hurricanes. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated, the Atlantic hurricane database recognizes four tropical cyclones for the 1883 season. In 1883 there was one tropical storm, one Category 1 hurricane, due to the inactivity of the season, there were no storms in June, July or November. Both Hurricane One and Hurricane Two were active in the Western Atlantic throughout the half of August. Although Hurricane One was the storm of the year not to make a landfall. Hurricane Three was a hurricane that was first seen in the Lesser Antilles. It caused 106 deaths in the Bahamas and North Carolina, the last known cyclone was a tropical storm active in October between the Bahamas and the coast of North Carolina. A tropical storm was first seen on August 18 in the tropical Atlantic and it moved to the west-northwest, becoming a hurricane before turning to the northeast. It moved past Newfoundland on August 26, the hurricane caused 80 deaths from swells in the Newfoundland area. A hurricane was first seen on August 24 to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles, resembling a Cape Verde-type hurricane, it moved to the northwest, and reached major hurricane status on the 28th. On the 29th, the peaked at 130 mph. It passed south of the Canadian Maritimes, and became extratropical on August 30 to the east of Newfoundland, the extratropical storm persisted until September 2 when it lost its identity over East Anglia. A major hurricane moved through the Lesser Antilles on September 4 and it crossed Hispaniola, weakening to a minimal hurricane. It restrengthened as it passed the Bahamas, and struck North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane on the 11th and it dissipated over Virginia on September 13. Across North Carolina trees were uprooted and fences, light buildings, telegraph, several vessels were wrecked off the North Carolina coast and flooding occurred along the Cape Fear River. In Virginia the rains from this storm helped end a summer-long drought but any benefit was minimal, at Nottoway, Virginia, heavy rain from the cyclone may have led to a train with 10 freight cars derailing. Overall the hurricane caused 106 deaths in the Bahamas and North Carolina, a tropical storm formed on October 22 over the Bahamas
39.
1926 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1926 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of major hurricanes at the time. At least eleven tropical cyclones developed during the season, all of which intensified into a tropical storm, six hurricanes deepened into a major hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The first system, the Nassau hurricane, developed near the Lesser Antilles on July 22, moving west-northwest for much of its duration, the storm struck or brush several islands of the Lesser and Greater Antilles. However, the Bahamas later received greater impact, at least 287 deaths and $7.85 million in damage was attributed to this hurricane. The next cyclone primarily effected mariners in and around the The Maritimes of Canada, with boating accidents, in late August, the third hurricane brought widespread impact to the Gulf Coast of the United States, especially Louisiana. Crops and buildings suffered $6 million in damage and there were 25 people killed, the next three storms left relatively little to no damage on land. The strongest and most damaging storm of the season was Hurricane Seven, peaking as a Category 4 hurricane, the hurricane struck the Bahamas and Florida at a slightly weaker intensity. Much of the Miami metropolitan area was devastated by the storm, inland, a storm surge on Lake Okeechobee flooded towns such as Clewiston and Moore Haven. The storm was a factor in ending the Florida land boom of the 1920s, overall, the Miami hurricane resulted in at least 372 deaths and $125 million in damage. However, adjusted for wealth normalization in 2010, the toll would be $164.8 billion – far higher than Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The eight, ninth, and eleventh tropical cyclones left only minor or not impact on land, however, the tenth storm, nicknamed the Havana-Bermuda, devastated Cuba, the Bahamas, and ships in the vicinity of Bermuda. At least 709 deaths were linked to the system, with 600 in Cuba alone, damage to towns on the island exceeded $100 million. Collectively, the storms of this season left over $267.4 million in damage, the season featured twelve named storms and eight of which strengthened into hurricanes. With six of those storms reaching major hurricane intensity, this was the highest number in a season on record, until being tied in 1933 and 1950 and then being surpassed in 1961. There were several cyclones that brought devastating effects, including the Nassau hurricane, the Louisiana hurricane, the Miami hurricane, collectively, the storms of this season left over $267.4 million in damage and at least 1,554 fatalities. Tropical cyclogenesis began on July 22 with Nassau hurricane, followed by the storm on July 29. Only one system, the Louisiana hurricane, developed in the month of August, September was much more active, featuring the forth, fifth, six, seventh, and eighth storms of the season. On September 17, four tropical cyclones existed simultaneously in the Atlantic Ocean, in October, the ninth and tenth storms formed
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1900 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1900 Atlantic hurricane season featured seven known tropical cyclones, three of which made landfall in the United States. The first system, Hurricane One, was observed on August 27. The final storm, Tropical Storm Seven, transitioned into a cyclone on October 29. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical activity in the Atlantic. Every storm of the season except Tropical Storm Seven existed simultaneously with another tropical cyclone, of the seasons seven tropical cyclones, three reached hurricane status. Furthermore, two of those three strengthened into hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The strongest cyclone of the season, the first hurricane, peaked at Category 4 strength with 145 mph winds. Upon striking Texas shortly after peak intensity, it produced a storm surge in the Galveston area, with nearly destroyed the city. Nicknamed the Galveston hurricane of 1900, it remains the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States, the hurricane also caused about $31.35 million in damage. Impact from other tropical cyclones was generally minor, though the remnants of Tropical Storm Five resulted in 1 death, Tropical cyclogenesis began with the development of the first hurricane on August 27 well west of Cape Verde. It was the strongest storm of the season, peaking as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 145 mph. This was abnormally late, as the date of development of the first tropical storm between 1944 and 1996 was July 11. In comparison, the latest date of the first tropical storm during the era was Hurricane Anita on August 29,1977. During the month of September, which is the peak of hurricane season. After the third hurricane dissipated on September 23, activity went dormant for nearly 2 weeks, as it was becoming extratropical, a sixth tropical cyclone developed in the Bay of Campeche on October 10. The final system formed in the eastern Caribbean Sea, crossed Hispaniola, by far, the storm that caused the most devastation was Hurricane One, nicknamed the Galveston hurricane. Its storm surge submerged much of Galveston Island in Texas, killing between 6,000 and 12,000 people, official estimates put the death toll at approximately 8,000. As a result, it is currently the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States
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1935 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1935 Atlantic hurricane season ran from June 16 through October 31,1935. The 1935 season featured below average activity, but it was eventful, a Category 1 hurricane in the Caribbean killed an estimated 2,150 people in the Greater Antilles and Central America. A Category 3 storm hit central Cuba and grazed Miami, the third tropical cyclone of the season struck the Florida Keys in southern Florida as a Category 5 hurricane, it remains the strongest landfalling hurricane in the United States. A rare November hurricane also affected the Miami—Fort Lauderdale area, the seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 106 units, ranking it as a near-normal year. It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, a tropical depression developed in the northeastern Caribbean Sea on May 15. It soon struck Dominican Republic and moved northward across the island, after emerging into the Atlantic Ocean, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm on May 16. The storm then accelerated northeastward and became extratropical, on May 18, while located east-southeast of Bermuda. A hurricane was detected near the Leeward Islands on August 18, moving west-northwest, the storm gradually intensified into a Category 2 hurricane the following day. On August 20, the system began to curve northward and later north-northeast, the hurricane later passed just west of Bermuda late on August 22 as a slightly weaker 115 miles per hour hurricane. On August 24, the weakened to a Category 2 hurricane. The storm later dissipated on the same day, penned as the worst gale in 36 years, the remnants of Hurricane Two battered Newfoundland with damaging winds. Charlottetown on Prince Edward Island received 5.6 in of rain over a span, however. In St. Johns, Newfoundland, wind gusts averaged 52 mph, total losses were estimated in the thousands of dollars. Communication lines across the island were downed, though the greatest effects were felt offshore, gale-force winds and rough seas wrecked multiple schooners off the coast of Newfoundland, claiming an estimated 50 lives. Every ship that set sail within a day of the storm was damaged, six people drowned when the Walter sank near Trepassey. In the days following the storm, wrecks of schooners, such as the Carrie Evelyn, the strongest storm of the season was the Labor Day Hurricane that made landfall in the Florida Keys on September 2. The storm was first detected as a disturbance east of the Bahamas and it strengthened very rapidly as it moved across the Straits of Florida. It made landfall on Craig Key in the Upper Keys as a small, a pressure reading of 892 millibars was recorded near where the center crossed the islands
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1869 Saxby Gale
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The Saxby Gale was the name given to a tropical cyclone which struck eastern Canadas Bay of Fundy region on the night of October 4–5,1869. Much of the devastation was attributed to a 2-metre storm surge created by the storm coincided with a perigean spring tide. The Saxby Gale storm surge produced a level which gave Burntcoat Head, Nova Scotia. It is also thought to have formed the long beach that connects Partridge Island, Nova Scotia. Sailing ships in various harbors were tossed about and/or broken up against wharves, farmers trying to rescue livestock from fields along shorelines drowned after dykes were breached, over 100 people were killed in the Maritimes alone. The gale destroyed miles of the newly completed Windsor and Annapolis Railway along the Minas Basin near Horton and Wolfville, the storm was given the name Saxby in honor of Lieutenant Stephen Martin Saxby, Royal Navy, who was a naval instructor and amateur astronomer. Many newspapers took up Saxbys warning in the coming days, in a monthly weather column published October 5,1869, in Halifaxs The Evening Express, amateur meteorologist Frederick Allison relayed Lt. Saxbys warning for a devastating storm the following week. Despite the warning, many throughout the United Kingdom, Canada, Newfoundland. Lt. Saxbys predictions were considered quite lunatic at the time, some believed that his predictions were founded upon astrology, which was not the case
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1869 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1869 Atlantic hurricane season was the earliest season in the Atlantic hurricane database in which there were at least ten tropical cyclones. Initially there were three known storms in the year, but additional research uncovered the additional storms. All activity occurred in a period between the middle of August and early October. Out of the ten storms, seven reached hurricane intensity. The strongest hurricane was a Category 3 on the modern-day Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale which struck New England at that intensity and it left heavy damage, killing at least one person. The most notable hurricane of the season was the Saxby Gale, the hurricane was one of six to produce hurricane-force winds in Maine, where it left heavy damage and flooding. The Saxby Gale left 37 deaths along its path, with its destruction greatest along the Bay of Fundy, there, the first tropical cyclone of the season was observed on August 12, about 500 mi southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland. Its entire track was unknown, and its existence was confirmed for 24 hours. The second, a barque, the Prinze Frederik Carl, sustained damage to all of its sails, by August 16, a strong hurricane was located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico south of Louisiana. With estimated winds of 105 mph, it tracked westward and struck Texas on Matagorda Island before passing near Refugio, the hurricane quickly weakened over land and dissipated late on August 17. Damage from the hurricane was heaviest in Refugio and Indianola, in the latter city, strong waves damaged wharves and boats while the storm surge flooded the streets with about 1 ft of water. Intense winds knocked down several houses as well as a church, in Sabine Pass, the winds ruined a variety of fruit crops. The third hurricane of the season was only due to it affecting one ship. A vessel in the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company reported a hurricane on August 27, the storm was estimated to have been moving north-northwestward with winds of 80 mph, although its entire track is unknown. A tropical storm was first observed on September 1 to the east of the Bahamas, there, it left heavy damage to a brig sailing from Nassau to New York City. The storm tracked northeastward, damaging another ship on September 2 near Bermuda. On September 4, a hurricane was located in the northern Gulf of Mexico, the next day, it moved ashore in southeastern Louisiana with winds estimated at 80 mph, passing west of New Orleans. It dissipated early on September 6, the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path that caused flooding
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Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
