1.
Tokyo
–
Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
Tokyo
–
Clockwise from top:
Nishi-Shinjuku,
Rainbow Bridge,
National Diet Building,
Shibuya,
Tokyo Skytree
Tokyo
–
Satellite photo of Tokyo's 23 Special wards taken by
NASA 's
Landsat 7
Tokyo
–
Tokugawa Ieyasu
Tokyo
–
Ginza area in 1933
2.
Empire of Japan
–
The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces
Empire of Japan
–
The battleship
Asahi
Empire of Japan
–
Flag
Empire of Japan
–
Samurai members of the
First Japanese Embassy to Europe (1862), around Shibata Sadataro, head of the mission staff (seated) and
Fukuzawa Yukichi (to his right) sign of the opening of Japan and Meiji Restoration.
Empire of Japan
–
Emperor Meiji, the 122nd emperor of Japan
3.
Helsinki
–
Helsinki is the capital and largest city of Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. Helsinki has a population of 629,512, a population of 1,231,595. Helsinki is located some 80 kilometres north of Tallinn, Estonia,400 km east of Stockholm, Sweden, Helsinki has close historical connections with these three cities. The Helsinki metropolitan area includes the core of Helsinki, Espoo, Vantaa, Kauniainen. It is the worlds northernmost metro area of one million people. The Helsinki metropolitan area is the fourth largest metropolitan area in the Nordic countries, Helsinki is Finlands major political, educational, financial, cultural, and research center as well as one of northern Europes major cities. Approximately 75% of foreign companies operating in Finland have settled in the Helsinki region, the nearby municipality of Vantaa is the location of Helsinki Airport, with frequent service to various destinations in Europe and Asia. In 2009, Helsinki was chosen to be the World Design Capital for 2012 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, the city was the venue for the 1952 Summer Olympics and the 52nd Eurovision Song Contest 2007. In 2011, the Monocle magazine ranked Helsinki the most liveable city in the world in its Liveable Cities Index 2011, in the Economist Intelligence Units August 2015 Liveability survey, assessing the best and worst cities to live in globally, Helsinki placed among the worlds top ten cities. Helsinki is used to refer to the city in most languages, the Swedish name Helsingfors is the original official name of the city. The Finnish name probably comes from Helsinga and similar names used for the river that is known as the Vantaa River. Helsingfors comes from the name of the parish, Helsinge and the rapids, which flowed through the original village. As part of the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire, one suggestion for the origin of the name Helsinge is that it originated with medieval Swedish settlers who came from Hälsingland in Sweden. Others have proposed that the name derives from the Swedish word helsing, other Scandinavian cities located at similar geographic locations were given similar names at the time, for example Helsingør and Helsingborg. The name Helsinki has been used in Finnish official documents and in Finnish language newspapers since 1819, the decrees issued in Helsinki were dated with Helsinki as the place of issue. This is how the form Helsinki came to be used in written Finnish, in Helsinki slang the city is called Stadi. Hesa, is not used by natives to the city, helsset is the Northern Sami name of Helsinki
Helsinki
–
Clockwise from top:
Helsinki Cathedral, view of central Helsinki, Headquarters of
Sanoma, Helsinki city centre at night, beaches at
Aurinkolahti,
Parliament House and
Suomenlinna.
Helsinki
–
Coat of arms
Helsinki
–
Central Helsinki in 1820 before rebuilding. Illustration by
Carl Ludvig Engel.
Helsinki
–
Construction of
Suomenlinna began in the 18th century.
4.
Finland
–
Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
Finland
–
Hakkapeliitta featured on a 1940 Finnish stamp
Finland
–
Flag
Finland
–
Now lying within Helsinki,
Suomenlinna is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th century sea fortress built on six islands. It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.
Finland
–
Pioneers in Karelia (1900) by
Eero Järnefelt
5.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
6.
League of Nations
–
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
League of Nations
–
The
1864 Geneva Convention, one of the earliest formulations of
international law.
League of Nations
–
1939–41 semi-official flag
League of Nations
–
Lord Bryce, one of the earliest advocates for a League of Nations.
League of Nations
–
The official opening of the League of Nations, 15 November 1920
7.
Mukden Incident
–
The Mukden Incident, or Manchurian Incident, was a staged event engineered by Japanese military personnel as a pretext for the Japanese invasion in 1931 of northeastern China, known as Manchuria. On September 18,1931, Lt. Suemori Kawamoto detonated a small quantity of dynamite close to a line owned by Japans South Manchuria Railway near Mukden. The ruse of war was soon exposed by the Lytton Report of 1932, leading Japan to diplomatic isolation and its March 1933 withdrawal from the League of Nations. The bombing act is known as the Liutiaohu Incident, and the episode of events is known in Japan as the Manchurian Incident. Japanese economic presence and political interest in Manchuria had been growing ever since the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the Treaty of Portsmouth that ended the war had granted Japan the lease of the South Manchuria Railway branch of the China Far East Railway. This included absolute and exclusive administration within the South Manchuria Railway Zone, there were many reports of raids on local Chinese villages by bored Japanese soldiers, and all complaints from the Chinese government were ignored. In Nanjing in April 1931, a leadership conference of the Republic of China was held between Chiang Kai-shek and Zhang Xueliang. They agreed to assert Chinas sovereignty in Manchuria strongly, Itagaki and Ishiwara chose to sabotage the rail section in an area near Liutiao Lake. The alleged Japanese plan was to attract Chinese troops by an explosion, the Japanese press labeled the site Liǔtiáo Ditch or Liǔtiáo Bridge, when in reality, the site was a small railway section laid on an area of flat land. The choice to place the explosives at this site was to preclude the extensive rebuilding that would have been necessitated had the site actually been a railway bridge. Colonel Seishirō Itagaki, Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara, Colonel Kenji Doihara, at around 10,20 PM, September 18, the explosives were detonated. However, the explosion was minor and only a 1. 5-meter section on one side of the rail was damaged, in fact, a train from Changchun passed by the site on this damaged track without difficulty and arrived at Shenyang at 10,30 PM. On the morning of the day, two artillery pieces installed at the Mukden officers club opened fire on the Chinese garrison nearby. Zhang Xueliangs small air force was destroyed, and his soldiers fled their destroyed Beidaying barracks, the Chinese troops were no match for the experienced Japanese troops. By the evening, the fighting was over, and the Japanese had occupied Mukden at the cost of five hundred Chinese lives, honjō moved the Kwantung Army headquarters to Mukden and ordered General Senjurō Hayashi of the Chosen Army of Japan in Korea to send in reinforcements. At 04,00 on 19 September, Mukden was declared secure, therefore, the Japanese soldiers proceeded to occupy and garrison the major cities of Changchun and Antung and their surrounding areas with minimal difficulty. Despite this resistance, within five months of the Mukden Incident, the Imperial Japanese Army had overrun all major towns and cities in the provinces of Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang. Chinese public opinion strongly criticized Zhang Xueliang for his non-resistance to the Japanese invasion, while the Japanese presented a legitimate threat, the Kuomintang focused their efforts mainly on eradicating the communist party
Mukden Incident
–
Japanese troops entering
Shenyang during the Mukden Incident
Mukden Incident
–
Japanese experts inspect the scene of the 'railway sabotage' on South Manchurian Railway
Mukden Incident
–
A section of the Liǔtiáo railway. The caption reads "railway fragment".
Mukden Incident
–
Chinese delegate addresses the League of Nations after the Mukden Incident in 1932.
8.
Manchuria
–
Manchuria is a modern name, first created by the Japanese, given to a large geographic region in Northeast Asia. Depending on the context, Manchuria can either refer to a region that falls entirely within the Peoples Republic of China, the definition of Manchuria can be any one of several regions of various size. These are, from smallest to largest, Northeast China, consisting of Heilongjiang, Jilin and this is the area referred to as Manchuria in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions. Inner Manchuria, the above, plus parts of modern Inner Mongolia, The above, plus Outer Manchuria, the area from the Amur and Ussuri rivers to the Stanovoy Mountains, in Russian administrative terms, Ussuri krai, southern Harbin oblast, Primorskiy kray. The above, plus Sakhalin Island, which is included on Qing dynasty maps as part of Outer Manchuria even though it is not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The island was included in Manchuria on maps made by the Japanese Shogunate. Despite of lines on maps and empiress political claims, the island was inhabited by Ainu people until the Soviet Union enforced a policy after 1945. Three centuries and a half must now pass away before entering upon the act of the Manchu drama. During the ensuing two hundred years the Nü-chêns were scarcely heard of, the House of Ming being busily occupied in other directions and it may be noted here that Manchuria is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression. The present extensive home of the Manchus is usually spoken of as the Three Eastern Provinces, namely, Shêngking, or Liao-tung, or Kuan-tung, Kirin, and Heilungchiang or Tsitsihar. — Herbert A. Giles, China and the Manchus,1912 Manchuria is a translation of the Japanese word Manshū, the Manchu and Chinese languages had no such word as Manchuria and the word has imperialist connotations. According to Bill Sewell, it was Europeans who first started using the name Manchuria to refer to the location, the historian Gavan McCormack agreed with Robert H. G. The Japanese had their own motive for deliberately spreading the usage of the term Manchuria, the historian Norman Smith wrote that The term Manchuria is controversial. Professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi said that she should use the term in quotation marks when referring to Manchuria, in his 2012 dissertation on the Jurchen people to obtain a Doctor of Philosophy degree in History from the University of Washington, Professor Chad D. In the 18th-century Europe, the later known as Manchuria was most commonly referred to as Tartary. However, the term Manchuria started appearing by the end of the century, in current Chinese parlance, an inhabitant of the Northeast, or Northeast China, is a Northeasterner. In China, the term Manchuria is rarely used today, and this usage is seen in the expression Chuǎng Guāndōng referring to the mass migration of Han Chinese to Manchuria in the 19th and 20th centuries. The name Guandong later came to be used more narrowly for the area of the Kwantung Leased Territory on the Liaodong Peninsula and it is not to be confused with the southern province of Guangdong
Manchuria
–
One of the earliest European maps using the term "Manchuria" (Mandchouria) (
John Tallis, 1851). Previously, the term "Chinese
Tartary " had been commonly applied in the West to Manchuria and Mongolia
Manchuria
–
Manchuria
Manchuria
–
A 12th-century
Jurchen stone tortoise in today's
Ussuriysk
Manchuria
–
A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk
9.
Manchukuo
–
Manchukuo was a puppet state in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia, which was governed under a form of constitutional monarchy. The area, collectively known as Manchuria by westerners and Japanese, was designated by Chinas erstwhile Qing Dynasty as the homeland of the familys ethnic group. In 1931, the region was seized by Japan following the Mukden Incident and a government was installed one year later with Puyi. Manchukuos government was abolished in 1945 after the defeat of Imperial Japan at the end of World War II, Manchus formed a minority in Manchukuo, whose largest ethnic group were Han Chinese. The population of Koreans increased during the Manchukuo period, and there were also Japanese, Mongols, White Russians, the Mongol regions of western Manchukuo were ruled under a slightly different system in acknowledgement of the Mongolian traditions there. The southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula was ruled by Japan as the Kwantung Leased Territory, Manchuria is a transcription of the Japanese reading of the Chinese word 滿洲 which means Manchuria, which in Japanese is Manshū, which in turn dates from the 19th century. The name Manzhou was invented and given to the Jurchen people by Hong Taiji in 1635 as a new name for their ethnic group. However, the name Manchuria was never used by the Manchus or the Qing dynasty itself to refer to their homeland, the name itself holding imperialistic connotation. According to Mark C. 满洲 then began to appear as a place names in more maps created by Japanese like Kondi Jūzō, Takahashi Kageyasu, Baba Sadayoshi and these maps were brought to Europe by the Dutch Philipp von Siebold. According to Bill Sewell, it was Europeans who first started using Manchuria as a name to refer to the location, the historian Gavan McCormack agreed with Robert H. G. Ordinary Manchus largely spurned Manchukuo which claimed to be established for their cause, the Japanese had their own motive for deliberately spreading the usage of the term Manchuria. The historian Norman Smith wrote that The term Manchuria is controversial, professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi said that she should use the term in quotation marks, when referring to Manchuria. Herbert Giles wrote that Manchuria was unknown to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression, the Qing Dynasty, which replaced the Shun and Ming dynasties in China, was founded by Manchus from Manchuria. The Manchu emperors separated their homeland in Jilin and Heilongjiang from the Han Liaoning province with the Willow Palisade and this ethnic division continued until the Qing dynasty encouraged massive immigration of Han in the 19th century during Chuang Guandong to prevent the Russians from seizing the area from the Qing. After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as China, the lands in Manchuria were explicitly stated by the Qing to belong to China in Qing edicts and in the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The area of Manchuria was then converted into three provinces by the late Qing government in 1907, as the power of the court in Beijing weakened, many outlying areas either broke free or fell under the control of Imperialist powers. In the 19th century, Imperial Russia was most interested in the lands of the Qing Empire. In 1858, Russia gained control over a tract of land called Outer Manchuria thanks to the Supplementary Treaty of Beijing that ended the Second Opium War
Manchukuo
–
Japan-Manchukuo Protocol, 15 September 1932.
Manchukuo
–
Flag
Manchukuo
–
The throne of the emperor in Manchukuo, c. 1937.
Manchukuo
–
Puyi as Emperor Kangde of Manchukuo
10.
International Olympic Committee
–
The International Olympic Committee is the supreme authority of the worldwide Olympic movement. It is an international, non-profit, non-governmental organization based in Lausanne and its mission is enshrined in the Olympic Charter, to support the development of competitive sport by ethical and environmentally sustainable means. The IOC was created by Pierre de Coubertin, on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president, today its membership consists of 100 active members,32 honorary members, and 1 honour member. The IOC is the authority of the worldwide modern Olympic movement. The IOC organises the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games, held in summer and winter, the first Summer Olympics organised by the IOC was held in Athens, Greece, in 1896, the first Winter Olympics was in Chamonix, France, in 1924. Until 1992, both Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same year, the first Summer Youth Olympics were in Singapore in 2010 and the first Winter Youth Olympics were held in Innsbruck in 2012. In 2009, the UN General Assembly granted the IOC Permanent Observer status and this decision enables the IOC to be directly involved in the UN Agenda and to attend UN General Assembly meetings where it can take the floor. This has provided the possibility to promote sport at a new level, during each proclamation at the Olympics, announcers speak in different languages, French is always spoken first followed by an English translation and the dominant language of the host nation. The stated mission of the International Olympic Committee is to promote Olympic throughout the world and it is the IOC’s supreme organ and its decisions are final. Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members, among others, the powers of the Session are, To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter. To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President, to elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board. To elect the host city of the Olympic Games, the Olympic Laurel is awarded to individuals for promoting education, culture, development, and peace through sport. For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were selected by other members, countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members. When named, they did not become the representatives of their countries to the IOC. The membership of IOC members ceases in the circumstances, Resignation. Non re-election, any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if they are not re-elected, age limit, any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which they reach the age of 80. Failure to attend Sessions or take part in IOC work for two consecutive years. Transfer of domicile or of main center of interests to an other than the country which was theirs at the time of their election
International Olympic Committee
–
The headquarters of the International Olympic Committee in
Lausanne,
Switzerland.
International Olympic Committee
–
The first IOC, at the
1896 Athens Games
International Olympic Committee
–
1985
German Democratic Republic stamp
11.
Swaraj flag
–
The National Flag of India is a horizontal rectangular tricolour of India saffron, white and India green, with the Ashoka Chakra, a 24-spoke wheel, in navy blue at its centre. It was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on 22 July 1947, the flag was subsequently retained as that of the Republic of India. In India, the term tricolour almost always refers to the Indian national flag, the flag is based on the Swaraj flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya. By law, the flag is to be made of khadi, the manufacturing process and specifications for the flag are laid out by the Bureau of Indian Standards. The right to manufacture the flag is held by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, as of 2009, the Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha has been the sole manufacturer of the flag. Usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India, the original code prohibited use of the flag by private citizens except on national days such as the Independence day and the Republic Day. In 2002, on hearing an appeal from a citizen, Naveen Jindal. Subsequently, the Union Cabinet of India amended the code to allow limited usage, the code was amended once more in 2005 to allow some additional use including adaptations on certain forms of clothing. The flag code also governs the protocol of flying the flag, according to the Flag code of India, the Indian flag has a ratio of two by three. All three stripes of the flag are to be equal in width and length, the size of the Ashoka Chakra is not specified in the Flag code, but it has twenty-four spokes that are evenly spaced. In section 4.3.1 of IS1, Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag, in both the Flag code and IS1, they call for the Ashoka Chakra to be printed or painted on both sides of the flag in navy blue. The navy blue colour can be found in the standard IS, note that the values given in the table correspond to CIE1931 color space. Approximate RGB values for use may be taken to be, India saffron #FF9933, white #FFFFFF, India green #138808, pantone values closest to this are 130 U, White,2258 C and 2735 C. Gandhi first proposed a flag to the Indian National Congress in 1921. The flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya, in the centre was a traditional spinning wheel, symbolising Gandhis goal of making Indians self-reliant by fabricating their own clothing. The design was modified to include a white stripe in the centre for other religious communities. A few days before India became independent on 15 August 1947, a modified version of the Swaraj flag was chosen, the tricolour remained the same saffron, white and green. However, the charkha was replaced by the Ashoka Chakra representing the wheel of law. To address the question of how the star conveyed Indianness, Queen Victoria created the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India to honour services to the empire by her Indian subjects
Swaraj flag
–
Flag of India, New Delhi
Swaraj flag
–
Flag of India
Swaraj flag
–
Indian Flag, the first stamp of independent India, released on 21 Nov 1947, was meant for foreign correspondence.
Swaraj flag
–
A header of an Indian flag (size 6, date 2007/2008) certified by the
ISI.
12.
British Olympic Association
–
The British Olympic Association is the National Olympic Committee for the United Kingdom. It represents the Olympic movement and organises the participation of athletes at the summer, winter, sovereign Base Areas The BOA is one of 206 National Committees currently recognised by the International Olympic Committee. The IOC leads the promotion of Olympism in accordance with the Olympic Charter, working with the national governing bodies of each sport, the BOA selects Team GBs members to compete in all sports at the summer and winter Olympics. The BOA is independent and receives no funding from the government and its income comes from fundraising and events. The United Kingdom is one of five countries which have never failed to be represented at the Summer Olympic Games since 1896. Great Britain is also the nation in the Olympic Games to have won a Gold in every games. Great Britain has hosted three Olympic Games, all of them in London, in 1908,1948 and 2012 and it now includes as its members the thirty-three national governing bodies of each Olympic sport, both summer and winter. A representative of each of the Olympic sports makes up the NOC, the NOC elects three officers, a President, a Chairman, and a Vice-Chairman, each for a four-year term. Six members of the NOC are elected to the Board, which oversees the work of the BOA and it traces its roots back to the National Olympian Association, which held its inaugural meeting at the Liverpool Gymnasium, Myrtle Street, Liverpool in November 1865. It promoted a series of sporting events across Britain, with the aim of encouraging participation in Physical Education through Olympian festivals. The NOA came about mainly through the efforts of John Hulley of Liverpool, Dr. William Penny Brookes and it took the existing Olympian Games of Much Wenlock as its example, thus the NOA Games were open to all comers and not just the products of Britains public schools. After the NOA closed in 1883 its motto and ethos were inherited by the National Physical Recreation Society which was founded in 1885. From 1902 the President and Treasurer of the NPRS were members of the Olympic Comité Britannique and the NPRS was a founding body of the British Olympic Association in 1905
British Olympic Association
–
British Olympic Association logo
13.
Far Eastern Games
–
The Far Eastern Championship Games was an Asian multi-sport event considered to be a precursor to the Asian Games. In 1913, Elwood Brown, president of the Philippine Amateur Athletic Association and Manila Carnival Games, proposed the creation of the Far Eastern Olympic Games to China and it was at that time that Governor-General William Cameron Forbes was the president of the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation from 1911-1913. Governor-General Forbes formed the Far Eastern Olympic Association, the first event was held on the Manila Carnival grounds in Malate, Manila, Philippines on February 4,1913 and was known as the First Oriental Olympic Games. Forbes was also the one who formally declare the games open, in 1915, the name changed to Far Eastern Championship Games and the association to Far Eastern Athletic Association when the event was held at Hongkou Park in Shanghai, China. They were held again in 1921. The games were held two years except in 1929 when Japan decided to delay the project to 1930. The FEAA decided to change the table to four years. Dutch East Indies joined in the 1934 FECG, the 1934 edition was held in a period of dispute between China and Japan, following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Inclusion of people from this region in the games caused controversy between the two nations, which resulted in the break-up of the Far Eastern Athletic Association. In September 1937, Japan invaded China with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and started the Second Sino-Japanese War, a total of nine different sports were contested over the lifetime of the competition. Eight of the featured on each programmes of the games, with the ninth sport – cycling – being held once only. Asian Games East Asian Games Southeast Asian Games West Asian Games Morris, marrow of the Nation, A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China
Far Eastern Games
–
1923 Far Eastern Championship Games.
Far Eastern Games
–
Far Eastern Championship Games Logo
14.
Meiji Jingu Stadium
–
The Meiji Jingu Stadium is a baseball stadium in Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan. It opened in 1926 and holds 37,933 spectators, property of the Meiji Shrine, it is the home field of the Tokyo Yakult Swallows professional baseball team. It also hosts baseball, including the Tokyo Big6 Baseball League. The second oldest baseball stadium in Japan, Meiji Jingu Stadium is one of the few professional stadiums still in existence where Babe Ruth played. In 1934, Ruth joined several other baseball players from the U. S. such as Lou Gehrig and Jimmie Foxx. Jingu Stadium was also used for an exhibition of baseball when Tokyo hosted the 1964 Olympic Games, the United States team of college baseball players, including eight future major league players, defeated a Japanese amateur all-star team in Tokyo, 6-2. Surface – artificial turf Meiji Jingu Stadium
Meiji Jingu Stadium
–
Meiji Jingu Stadium
15.
1964 Summer Olympics
–
The 1964 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVIII Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event held in Tokyo, Japan, from October 10 to 24,1964. The 1964 Summer Games were the first Olympics held in Asia, Tokyo was chosen as the host city during the 55th IOC Session in West Germany, on May 26,1959. These games were also the first to be telecast internationally without the need for tapes to be overseas, as they had been for the 1960 Olympics four years earlier. The games were telecast to the United States using Syncom 3, the first geostationary communication satellite and these were also the first Olympic Games to have color telecasts, albeit partially. Certain events like the sumo wrestling and judo matches, sports huge in Japan, were tried out using Toshibas new color transmission system, history surrounding the 1964 Olympics was chronicled in the 1965 documentary film Tokyo Olympiad, directed by Kon Ichikawa. The games were scheduled for mid-October to avoid the citys midsummer heat and humidity, the previous Olympics in Rome in 1960 started in late August and experienced hot weather. The following games in 1968 in Mexico City also began in October, the 1964 Olympics were also the last to use a traditional cinder track for the track events. A smooth synthetic all-weather track was used for the first time at the 1968 Olympics, the 2020 Summer Olympics will be held in Tokyo. Tokyo won the rights to the Games on May 26,1959, at the 55th IOC Session in Munich, West Germany, over bids from Detroit, Brussels and Vienna. Toronto was an early bidder again in 1964 after the attempt for 1960. Yūji Koseki composed the song of the opening ceremony. Yoshinori Sakai, who lit the Olympic Flame, was born in Hiroshima on August 6,1945, kumi-daiko was first exhibited to a world-wide audience at the Festival of Arts presentation. Judo and womens volleyball, both sports in Japan, were introduced to the Olympics. Japan won gold medals in three events, but Dutchman Anton Geesink won the Open category. The Japanese womens volleyball won the gold medal, with the final being broadcast live. The womens pentathlon was introduced to the athletics events, soviet gymnast Larisa Latynina won two gold medals, a silver medal and two bronze medals. She held the record for most Olympic medals at 18 which stood until broken by American swimmer Michael Phelps in 2012, czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská wins 3 gold medals, including the individual all-around competition, crowning her the new queen over the reigning champion Larisa Latynina. Australian swimmer Dawn Fraser won the 100 m freestyle event for the time in a row
1964 Summer Olympics
–
Yoshinori Sakai running to the Olympic cauldron.
1964 Summer Olympics
–
Games of the XVIII Olympiad
1964 Summer Olympics
–
Yoyogi National Gymnasium, designed by Kenzo Tange
1964 Summer Olympics
–
Nippon Budokan
16.
Kinuta Park
–
Kinuta Park is a park in Setagaya, Tokyo. The total area is 39 hectares,240,000, m² of which are grass, Kinuta Park is famous for its cherry blossom viewing. It has at least three varieties, Someiyoshino, Yamazakura, and Yaezakura—which makes for a relatively long hanami viewing season of two weeks. There are baseball fields, soccer fields, cycling courses and the Setagaya Art Museum, the 1667 m cycling course doubles as a walking course outside the hours 9–16. The Tōmei Expressway runs along the side, Kampachi, along the east. The Tōmei Expressway ends at that intersection, the park was opened on April 1,1957. After the Pacific War, it was a golf course. Later the golf course was closed to form the current Kinuta Park
Kinuta Park
–
Cherry blossoms in Kinuta Park, March 2004
17.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7,1937 to September 9,1945. The First Sino-Japanese War was fought from 1894 to 1895, China fought Japan, with some economic help from Germany, the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged into the conflict of World War II as a major front of what is broadly known as the Pacific War. Many scholars consider the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. The war was the result of a decades-long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to access to raw material reserves, food. The period after World War One brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity, leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production, the Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction and this faction was led at its height by the Imperial Rule Assistance Associations Hideki Tojo cabinet under the edict from Emperor Shōwa. Before 1937, China and Japan fought in small, localized engagements, the last of these incidents was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, which is traditionally seen as the beginning of total war between the two countries. Since 2017 the Chinese Government has regarded the invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army in 1931, initially the Japanese scored major victories, such as the Battle of Shanghai, and by the end of 1937 captured the Chinese capital of Nanjing. After failing to stop the Japanese in Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior, by 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japans lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, on December 7,1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China via airlift matériel over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road, in 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi-Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces, in 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook the west Hunan, the remaining Japanese occupation forces formally surrendered on September 9,1945 with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29,1946. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of Allies during the war, in the Chinese language, the war is most commonly known as the War of Resistance Against Japan, and also known as the Eight Years War of Resistance, simply War of Resistance. It is also referred to as part of the Global Anti-Fascist War, which is how World War 2 is perceived by the Communist Party of China, in Japan, nowadays, the name Japan–China War is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. In Japan today, it is written as 日中戦争 in shinjitai, the word incident was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
The dead bodies of victims massacred in the
Rape of Nanking on the shore of the
Qinhuai River, with a Japanese soldier standing nearby.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Allied Commander-in-Chief in the China theatre from 1942 to 1945.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Japanese troops entering
Shenyang during the Mukden Incident
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek announced the
Kuomintang policy of resistance against Japan at
Lushan on July 10, 1937, three days after the
Marco Polo Bridge Incident.
18.
National Diet
–
The National Diet is Japans bicameral legislature. It is composed of a house called the House of Representatives. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under parallel voting systems, in addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally responsible for selecting the Prime Minister. The Diet was first convened as the Imperial Diet in 1889 as a result of adopting the Meiji Constitution, the Diet took its current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the post-war constitution and is considered by the Constitution to be the highest organ of state power. The National Diet Building is located in Nagatachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo, the houses of the Diet are both elected under parallel voting systems. Voters are also asked to cast two votes, one for a candidate in a constituency, and one for a party list. Any national of Japan at least 18 years of age may vote in these elections, Japans parallel voting system is not to be confused with the Additional Member System used in many other nations. House of Councillors, Of 242 members,146 are elected from 47 prefectural constituencies by means of the Single Non-Transferable Vote, the remaining 96 are elected by open list PR from a single national list. However it does guarantee universal adult suffrage and a secret ballot and it also insists that the electoral law must not discriminate in terms of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income. Generally, the election of Diet members is controlled by statutes passed by the Diet and this is a source of contention concerning re-apportionment of prefectures seats in response to changes of population distribution. For example, the Liberal Democratic Party had controlled Japan for most of its post-war history, in recent elections the malapportionment ratio amounted to 4.8 in the House of Councillors and 2.3 in the House of Representatives. Candidates for the house must be 25 years old or older and 30 years or older for the upper house. All candidates must be Japanese nationals, under Article 49 of Japans Constitution, Diet members are paid about ¥1.3 million a month in salary. Article 41 of the Constitution describes the National Diet as the highest organ of State power and this statement is in forceful contrast to the Meiji Constitution, which described the Emperor as the one who exercised legislative power with the consent of the Diet. The Diets responsibilities include not only the making of laws but also the approval of the national budget that the government submits. It can also initiate draft constitutional amendments, which, if approved, the Diet may conduct investigations in relation to government. The Prime Minister must be designated by Diet resolution, establishing the principle of legislative supremacy over executive government agencies, the government can also be dissolved by the Diet if it passes a motion of no confidence introduced by fifty members of the House of Representatives. Government officials, including the Prime Minister and Cabinet members, are required to appear before Diet investigative committees, the Diet also has the power to impeach judges convicted of criminal or irregular conduct
National Diet
National Diet
–
National Diet of Japan 日本国の国会 Nippon-koku no Kokkai
National Diet
–
Joint session of the Diet of Japan
National Diet
–
Buildings housing the Diet in 1905.
19.
1940 Winter Olympics
–
Sapporo subsequently hosted the 1972 Winter Olympics. The IOC then decided to give the Winter Olympics to St Moritz, Switzerland, however, due to controversies between the Swiss organizing team and the IOC, the Games were withdrawn again. In the spring of 1939, the IOC gave the 1940 Winter Olympics, now scheduled for February 2–11, to Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, three months later, Germany invaded Poland, on September 1, to ignite World War II and the Winter Games were cancelled in November. Likewise, the 1944 Games, awarded in 1939 to Cortina dAmpezzo, St Moritz held the first post-war games in 1948, while Cortina dAmpezzo hosted in 1956. Germany has not hosted the Winter Olympics since 1936, on 6 July 2011, Munich lost out to Pyeongchang, South Korea to host the 2018 Winter games
1940 Winter Olympics
–
Summer Games
20.
Surrender of Japan
–
The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2,1945, bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting major operations, on August 6,1945, at 8,15 AM local time, the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Sixteen hours later, American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japans surrender, warning them to expect a rain of ruin from the air, later in the day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. After several more days of negotiations and a failed coup détat. In the radio address, called the Jewel Voice Broadcast, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies, on August 28, the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began. The role of the bombings in Japans unconditional surrender. The state of war ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28,1952. Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, by 1945, the Japanese had suffered an unbroken string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific, the Marianas campaign, and the Philippines campaign. In July 1944, following the loss of Saipan, General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as minister by General Kuniaki Koiso. After the Japanese loss of the Philippines, Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki, the Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945. Okinawa was to be an area for Operation Downfall, the American invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet, the destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet, combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry, had wrecked Japans war economy. Production of coal, iron, steel, rubber, and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war, as a result of the losses it had suffered, the Imperial Japanese Navy had ceased to be an effective fighting force. Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational, their use was limited by the lack of fuel, the only course left is for Japans one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight. As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances, the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō and this was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Instead, everything was staked on the beachhead, more than 3,000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the transports before troops. The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality, a set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands. In the event of invasion, these caves, the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters, were to be used by the army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family
Surrender of Japan
–
Japanese
foreign affairs minister Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the
Japanese Instrument of Surrender on board
USS Missouri as General
Richard K. Sutherland watches, September 2, 1945
Surrender of Japan
–
Representatives of Japan stand aboard
USS Missouri prior to signing of the Instrument of Surrender.
Surrender of Japan
–
Allied landings in the Pacific Theatre of Operations, August 1942 to August 1945
Surrender of Japan
–
The rebuilt battle cruiser
Haruna sank at her moorings in the naval base of
Kure on July 24 during a
series of bombings.
21.
Japanese yen
–
The yen is the official currency of Japan. It is the third most traded currency in the exchange market after the United States dollar. It is also used as a reserve currency after the U. S. dollar, the euro. Before the Meiji Restoration, Japans feudal fiefs all issued their own money, hansatsu, in an array of incompatible denominations. The New Currency Act of 1871 did away with these and established the yen, the former han became prefectures and their mints private chartered banks, which initially retained the right to print money. To bring an end to this situation the Bank of Japan was founded in 1882, following World War II the yen lost much of its prewar value. To stabilize the Japanese economy the exchange rate of the yen was fixed at ¥360 per $1 as part of the Bretton Woods system, when that system was abandoned in 1971, the yen became undervalued and was allowed to float. The yen had appreciated to a peak of ¥271 per $1 in 1973, then underwent periods of depreciation and appreciation due to the 1973 oil crisis, arriving at a value of ¥227 per $1 by 1980. Since 1973, the Japanese government has maintained a policy of intervention. The Japanese government focuses on an export market, and tries to ensure a low yen value through a trade surplus. Since that time, however, the yen has greatly decreased in value, the Bank of Japan maintains a policy of zero to near-zero interest rates and the Japanese government has an extreme anti-inflation policy. Yen derives from the Japanese word 圓, which is cognate with the Chinese yuan, originally, the Chinese had traded silver in mass called sycees and when Spanish and Mexican silver coins arrived, the Chinese called them silver rounds for their circular shapes. The coins and the name appeared in Japan. While the Chinese eventually replaced 圓 with 元, the Japanese continued to use the same word, the spelling and pronunciation yen is standard in English. This is because mainly English speakers who visited Japan at the end of the Edo period to the early Meiji period spelled words this way, ゑん /wen/ in historical kana orthography. In the 16th century, Japanese /e/ and /we/ both had been pronounced and Portuguese missionaries had spelled them ye, some time thereafter, by the middle of the 18th century, /e/ and /we/ came to be pronounced as in modern Japanese, although some regions retain the pronunciation. In the early Meiji era, James Curtis Hepburn, following Medhurst, spelled all es as ye in his A Japanese and that was the first full-scale Japanese-English/English-Japanese dictionary, which had a strong influence on Westerners in Japan and probably prompted the spelling yen. Hepburn revised most of yes to e in the 3rd edition in order to mirror the contemporary pronunciation and this was probably already fixed and has remained so ever since
Japanese yen
–
Early 1 yen
banknote (1873), engraved and printed by the Continental Bank Note Company of New York.
Japanese yen
–
Banknotes
Japanese yen
–
Early one yen coin (1.5g of pure gold), obverse and reverse.
Japanese yen
–
Early silver one yen coin, 24.26 grams of pure silver, Japan, minted in 1870 (Year 3 of the
Meiji period).
22.
Yle
–
Yleisradio Oy, also known as Rundradion or the Finnish Broadcasting Company, abbreviated to Yle, is Finlands national public-broadcasting company, founded in 1926. It is a limited company which is 99. 98% owned by the Finnish state. Yle shares many of its characteristics with its UK counterpart. By far the major part of the Yle tax is collected from individual taxpayers, minors, as well as persons with an annual income of less than €7,813 are exempt. At the lower limit the tax payable by individuals amounts to €50 per annum, Yle receives no advertising revenues as all channels are advertisement-free. Yle has a status that could be described as that of a public body. It is governed by a governing council. Yles turnover in 2010 was €398.4 million, Yle operates four national television channels,13 radio channels and services, and 25 regional radio stations. As is customary in Finnish television and cinemas, foreign films, dubbing is used in cartoons intended for young children who have not yet learned to read, as well as many nature and history documentaries. In the field of broadcasting, one of Yles best known services is Nuntii Latini, the news in Latin. Yle was also one of 23 founding broadcasting organisations of the European Broadcasting Union in 1950, Yle hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki, Finland. Yleisradio was founded in Helsinki on 29 May 1926, the first radio programme was transmitted on 9 September in that year, and this is the date generally considered to be the birthday of regular broadcasting activities in Finland. However, it was not until 1928 that Yles broadcasts became available throughout the country, after this the broadcasting network was developed and by the beginning of the 1930s,100,000 households were able to listen Yles programmes. In 1957 Yle made its first television broadcast tests, and the year regular TV programming was started under the name Suomen Televisio. The popularity of television in the country grew rapidly and in 1964, Yle obtained TES-TV and Tamvisio, colour television broadcasts began in 1969 and broadcasts were fully in colour within ten years. During the past few years, Yle has founded a number of new radio and television channels, a completely new digital channel Yle Teema was introduced, and the Swedish-language FST was moved from reserved analogue channel time to its own digital channel YLE FST5. Five channels were reserved, where the channel was initially used for 24-hour news. However, this channel was decommissioned, and the replacement, YLE Extra, was decommissioned in 2007
Yle
–
Yle's headquarters, known as Iso Paja ("the big workshop"), in
Pasila,
Helsinki
Yle
–
Yleisradio Rundradion
23.
1948 Summer Olympics
–
The 1948 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIV Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event which was held in London, England, United Kingdom. After a 12-year hiatus because of World War II, these were the first Summer Olympics since the 1936 Games in Berlin, the 1940 Games had been scheduled for Tokyo, and then for Helsinki, the 1944 Games had been provisionally planned for London. This was the occasion that London had hosted the Olympic Games. The 1948 games were the first of two summer Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Sigfrid Edström, the event came to be known as the Austerity Games, because of the economic climate and post-war rationing. No new venues were built for the games, and athletes were housed in existing accommodation in the Wembley area instead of an Olympic Village, as were the 1936 Games and the subsequent 1952 Games. A record 59 nations were represented by 4,104 athletes,3,714 men and 390 women, germany and Japan were refused permission to participate, the USSR was invited but chose not to send any athletes. The United States team won the most total medals,84, the host nation won 23 medals, three of them gold. One of the performers at the Games was Dutch sprinter Fanny Blankers-Koen. Dubbed The Flying Housewife, the 30-year-old mother of two won four medals in athletics. In the decathlon, American Bob Mathias became the youngest male ever to win an Olympic gold medal at the age of 17, the most individual medals were won by Veikko Huhtanen of Finland who took three golds, a silver and a bronze in mens gymnastics. In June 1939, the International Olympic Committee awarded the 1944 Olympic Summer Games to London, ahead of Rome, Detroit, Budapest, Lausanne, Helsinki, Montreal, World War II stopped the plans and the Games were cancelled so London again stood as a candidate for 1948. Britain almost handed the 1948 games to the USA due to financial and rationing problems. The official report of the London Olympics shows that there was no case of London being pressed to run the Games against its will. As a result, a committee was set up by the British Olympic Council to work out in some detail the possibility of holding the Games. After several meetings they recommended to the council that the Lord Mayor of London should be invited to apply for the allocation of the Games in 1948. In March 1946 the IOC, through a vote, gave the summer Games to London. London was selected ahead of Baltimore, Minneapolis, Lausanne, Los Angeles, London, which had previously hosted the 1908 Summer Olympics, became the second city to host the Olympics twice, Paris hosted the event in 1900 and 1924. It became the first city to host the Olympics for the time when London hosted the 2012 Summer Olympics. E
1948 Summer Olympics
–
The XIV Olympic Games opens in London, 1948
1948 Summer Olympics
–
Games of the XIV Olympiad
1948 Summer Olympics
–
A Boy Scout who fainted in the intense heat was the first 'casualty' of the 1948 Olympic Games. The temperature was in the nineties (32°C) as the sun blazed down mercilessly.
1948 Summer Olympics
–
Start of the 50 km walk
24.
Finland-Sweden athletics international
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Suomi-Ruotsi-maaottelu or Finnkampen, is a yearly athletics international competition held between Finland and Sweden since 1925. It is, since the late 1980s, the annual athletics international still held at a professional level. The two-day event attracts significant audiences, with a total of over 50,000 tickets sold for the 2011 competition. Three-time heptathlon world champion Carolina Klüft made her final appearance for Sweden at the meeting in 2012. The competition is divided into two internationals, one for men and one for women. Youth competitions for men and women are also held, each country provides their three best participants in each of the events, except for the relays where there are four participants from each country. Traditionally, the competitions have been arranged alternatively, with Finland hosting in even years and this have changed few times in the later years, seeing one country arranging the international twice in a row a few times. The reasons for this include stadium renovations and major international competitions, points are given to all contestants completing their event, based on the final position in every event. Points given in each event are, from 1st to 6th place, 7-5-4-3-2-1, the competition may not be a world class one looking at the results, no single world record has been set, but there are few competitions in the world that are fiercer and more prestigious. Another important aspect of the event is that it is a team competition. A competitor who manages to reach fourth place instead of a sixth place can be just as important, or even more important. A fight to the finish between competitor number five and six, half a lap behind the winner, can be just as important as the actual winner, the race is not over until the last competitor crosses the line. For many of the competitors the international is the most prestigious competition of the year, the events in Finland have always been held in Helsinki, after 1939 at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium, but 2016 event will take place in Tampere Ratina Stadium. The Swedish events have mostly held in Stockholm at the Stockholm Olympic Stadium. From 1999 until 2012 they were held in Gothenburg at the Ullevi Stadium because of larger spectator capacity, Finnkampen was held for the first time in Helsinki in 1925, with one of the participants being the five-time Olympic champion in the 1924 Summer Olympics, Paavo Nurmi. Competitions were held in 1927,1929 and 1931, after a pause of eight years the next competition was held in 1939, just before the outbreak of the Second World War, which led to the cancellation of the competition between 1941 and 1944. The 1940 competition was held as an event between Finland, Sweden and Germany, with only two athletes from each country competing in each event. The international has been held for men since 1945 and for women since 1964
Finland-Sweden athletics international
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Finland-Sweden athletics international
Finland-Sweden athletics international
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2013 Finland-Sweden international in Stockholm
Finland-Sweden athletics international
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1500 meters in 1939
25.
Helsinki Olympic Stadium
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The stadium is best known for being the centre of activities in the 1952 Summer Olympics. During those games, it hosted athletics, equestrian jumping. The stadium was also the venue for the first Bandy World Championship in 1957 and it hosted the European Athletics Championships in 1971,1994 and 2012. It is also the stadium of the Finland national football team. The Stadium has closed temporarily in March 2016 for renovation works, the Olympic Stadium was designed in functionalistic style by the architects Yrjö Lindegren and Toivo Jäntti. It hosted the 1952 Summer Olympics over a decade later instead, the stadium was also to be the main venue for the cancelled 1943 Workers Summer Olympiad. It was the venue for the first ever Bandy World Championship in 1957, the stadium was completely modernized in 1990–1994 and also renovated just before the 2005 World Championships in Athletics. In 2006 an American TV series, The Amazing Race 10, had one of its episodes ending at The Olympic Stadium Tower, as a task, teams had to do a face-first rappel down the Helsinki Olympic Tower. Since March 2007, a Eurasian eagle-owl has been spotted living in, on June 6,2007, during a Euro 2008 qualifying match, the owl delayed play by ten minutes after perching on a goalpost. The owl was later christened Bubi and was named as Helsinkis Resident of the Year, on the reverse, a view of the Helsinki Olympic Stadium can be seen. On the right, the 500 markka commemorative coin minted in 1952 celebrating the occasion is depicted, the stadiums spectator capacity was at its maximum during the 1952 Summer Olympics with over 70,000 spectator places. Nowadays the stadium has 40,600 spectator places, during concerts, depending on the size of the stage, the capacity is 45, 000–50,000. It is possible to see into the adjacent Sonera Stadium, a Youth Hostel is located within the Stadium complex. Major renovation work at the stadium started in the spring of 2016, the stadium will be closed during the construction and will reopen in 2019. During renovation all the stands will be covered with canopies and the field area. It will also offer extended restaurant areas and more indoor sport venues, projected costs for the renovation is 209 million euros and it will be funded by Finnish state and the city of Helsinki. U2 performed at the stadium during their PopMart Tour on 9 August 1997, madonna performed at the stadium during her MDNA Tour on 12 August 2012. Muse performed at the stadium during their The 2nd Law World Tour on 27 July 2013
Helsinki Olympic Stadium
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Helsingin olympiastadion Helsingfors Olympiastadion
Helsinki Olympic Stadium
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The tower of the Olympic Stadium
Helsinki Olympic Stadium
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50th anniversary of the Helsinki Olympic Games commemorative coin featuring the Helsinki Olympic Stadium
26.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
Sweden
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A
Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
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Flag
Sweden
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A
romantic nationalist interpretation of
Valdemar IV taking control over
Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
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Stockholm in mid-17th century
27.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
Nazi Germany
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Hitler became Germany's head of state, with the title of
Führer und Reichskanzler, in 1934.
Nazi Germany
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Flag
Nazi Germany
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Joseph Goebbels,
Reich Minister of Propaganda
Nazi Germany
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Ethnic Germans in
Saaz, Czechoslovakia, greet German soldiers with the
Nazi salute, 1938
28.
Gliding
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The word soaring is also used for the sport. Gliding as a sport began in the 1920s, initially the objective was to increase the duration of flights but soon pilots attempted cross-country flights away from the place of launch. Improvements in aerodynamics and in the understanding of phenomena have allowed greater distances at higher average speeds. Long distances are now flown using any of the sources of rising air, ridge lift, thermals. When conditions are favourable, experienced pilots can now fly hundreds of kilometres before returning to their home airfields, some competitive pilots fly in races around pre-defined courses. These gliding competitions test pilots abilities to make best use of weather conditions as well as their flying skills. Local and national competitions are organized in countries, and there are biennial World Gliding Championships. Techniques to maximize a gliders speed around the task in a competition have been developed, including the optimum speed to fly, navigation using GPS. If the weather deteriorates pilots are unable to complete a cross-country flight. Consequently, they may need to land elsewhere, perhaps in a field, powered-aircraft and winches are the two most common means of launching gliders. These and other methods require assistance and facilities such as airfields, tugs. These are usually provided by gliding clubs who also train new pilots, the development of heavier-than-air flight in the half century between Sir George Cayleys coachman in 1853 and the Wright brothers in 1903 mainly involved gliders. With the active support of the German government, there were 50,000 glider pilots by 1937, the first German gliding competition was held at the Wasserkuppe in 1920, organized by Oskar Ursinus. The best flight lasted two minutes and set a distance record of 2 kilometres. Within ten years, it had become an event in which the achieved durations. In 1931, Gunther Grönhoff flew 272 kilometres on the front of a storm from Munich to Kadaň in Western Czechoslovakia, in the 1930s, gliding spread to many other countries. In the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin gliding was a demonstration sport, a glider, the Olympia, was developed in Germany for the event, but World War II intervened. By 1939 the major gliding records were held by Russians, including a record of 748 kilometres
Gliding
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A
Ventus 2 glider landing while jettisoning water that has been used as ballast
Gliding
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The "gull wing"
Göppingen Gö 3 Minimoa produced in Germany from 1936
Gliding
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Good gliding weather: Competitors studying
cumulus humilis, which suggest active thermals and light winds.
Gliding
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A lenticular cloud produced by a mountain wave
29.
Gliding at the 1936 Summer Olympics
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Gliding at the 1936 Summer Olympics was a demonstration sport. The sport of gliding had been developed in Germany in the 1920s but had spread widely by 1936, no contest took place and no prizes were allowed by the IOC. ISTUS which later became part of the FAI Gliding Commission had wanted to present prizes, however, a Swiss, Hermann Schreiber, was awarded a gold medal for his flight across the Alps in 1935. The demonstration at the 1936 Berlin Olympics was at Berlin-Staaken airfield on 4 August,14 pilots from seven countries took part. On the previous day, a wing of a glider broke during a flight by an Austrian. The Hungarian pilot, Lajos Rotter, declared on the evening of 10 August at Rangsdorf that the day he would fly to Kiel. He then flew his Nemere glider to Kiel in poor weather, on arrival over Kiel at an altitude of 650 m he saluted the Olympic site with two loops and landed at Holtenau 4hr 31min after launch. The distance flown was 336.5 km and this was then the longest pre-declared goal flight by a glider
Gliding at the 1936 Summer Olympics
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Cover of one of 26 booklets produced for the 1936 Olympics describing each sport. It illustrates a glider being
bungee launched
30.
DFS Olympia Meise
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The DFS Olympia Meise was a German sailplane designed by the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug for Olympic competition, based on the DFS Meise. As a result of this, the Meise was redesigned to fit into the new Olympic class specifications, the new Olympia Meise had the prescribed wingspan of 15 m, spoilers, but no flaps, and an undercarriage consisting of a skid and a non-retractable wheel. The pilot sat all-enclosed in an aerodynamically clean fuselage made of laminated wood, the plane could be launched by winch as well by airplane. Its wood-and-fabric construction made it easy for flying clubs to maintain, to repair, a design contest to select the single Olympic glider was run by testing the prototypes of the entered and accepted designs at Sezze airfield in Italy between 20–26 February 1939. There were six evaluation pilots of different nationalities and they chose Hans Jacobs’ design, the DFS Meise. Nevertheless,626 Olympia Meises were built in Germany during the war by Flugzeugbau Ferdinand Schmetz Herzogenrath, most of the German production were among the 15,000 German gliders destroyed in 1945. 17 were also built at the time in Sweden, the design of the Olympia Meise however survived the war and was taken up by a small British firm called Chilton Aircraft Ltd. The German drawings were not detailed and so new drawings were made that retained the Olympia Meises aerodynamic shape. After building one prototype, which flew in 1946, the rights and drawings of the Chilton aircraft were taken up by another British company and their first EoN Olympia flew in 1947. Later variants by Elliotts continued to be produced as gliders suitable for the World Gliding Championships into the late 1950s, Chilton Olympia 2 A single prototype built in England by Chilton Aircraft in 1946. Elliotts of Newbury EoN Olympia Further production in the UK after Elliotts acquired the rights to the design from Chilton, EoN Type 5 Olympia 1, Improved Olympia-Meise. EoN Type 5 Olympia 2, Fixed monowheel, EoN Type 5 Olympia 3, Jettisonable dolly wheels and skid. EoN Type 5 Olympia 4, New wing section, NACA643618 at root, nord 2000 Production in France post-war. Zlin Z-25 Šohaj Production in Czechoslovakia post-war, cinke A modified version built in Hungary post-war. Gliders and Sailplanes of the World, Olympia test pilots image Detailed history at scalesoaring. co. uk
DFS Olympia Meise
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DFS Olympia Meise
31.
1952 Summer Olympics
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The 1952 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XV Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event held in Helsinki, Finland, in 1952. Helsinki had been selected to host the 1940 Summer Olympics. It is the northernmost city at which a summer Olympic Games have been held and it was also the Olympic Games at which the most number of world records were broken until surpassed by the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. The Soviet Union, the Peoples Republic of China, Indonesia, Israel, Thailand, Helsinki was chosen as the host city over bids from Amsterdam and five American cities at the 40th IOC Session on June 21,1947, in Stockholm, Sweden. Minneapolis and Los Angeles finished tied for second in the final voting, the voting results in chart below, These were the final Olympic Games organised under the IOC presidency of Sigfrid Edström. For the first time, a team from the Soviet Union participated in the Olympics, the first gold medal for the USSR was won by Nina Romashkova in the womens discus throwing event. The Soviet womens gymnastics won the first of its eight consecutive gold medals. The Jewish state had been unable to participate in the 1948 Games because of its War of Independence, a previous Palestine Mandate team had boycotted the 1936 Games in protest of the Nazi regime. Indonesia made its Olympic debut with three athletes, the PRC would not return to the Summer Olympics until Los Angeles 1984. The Republic of China withdrew from the Games on July 20, the Olympic Flame was lit by two Finnish heroes, runners Paavo Nurmi and Hannes Kolehmainen. Nurmi first lit the cauldron inside the stadium, and later the flame was relayed to the tower where Kolehmainen lit it. Only the flame in the tower was burning throughout the Olympics, hungary, a country of 9 million inhabitants, won 42 medals at these games, coming in third place behind the much more populous United States and Soviet Union. Hungarys Golden Team won the tournament, beating Yugoslavia 2–0 in the final. Germany and Japan were invited after being barred in 1948, following the post-war occupation and partition, three German states had been established. Teams from the Federal Republic of Germany and the Saarland participated, though they won 24 medals, the fifth-highest total at the Games, German competitors failed to win a gold medal for the only time. Rules in equestrianism now allowed non-military officers to compete, including women, lis Hartel of Denmark became the first woman in the sport to win a medal. Emil Zátopek of Czechoslovakia won three medals in the 5000 m,10,000 m and the Marathon. The India national field hockey team won its fifth consecutive gold, bob Mathias of the United States became the first Olympian to successfully defend his decathlon title with a total score of 7,887 points
1952 Summer Olympics
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Paavo Nurmi and the Olympic Flame
1952 Summer Olympics
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Games of the XV Olympiad
1952 Summer Olympics
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A
Romanian poster promoting the 1952 Olympics
1952 Summer Olympics
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50th anniversary of the Helsinki Olympic Games commemorative coin
32.
2020 Summer Olympics
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The games are planned to be held from 24 July to 9 August 2020 in Tokyo. The city was announced as the host at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires on 7 September 2013, Tokyo, Istanbul, and Madrid were the three candidate cities. The applicant cities of Baku and Doha were not promoted to candidate status, a bid from Rome was withdrawn. The IOC voted to select the host city of the 2020 Summer Olympics on 7 September 2013 at the 125th IOC Session at the Buenos Aires Hilton in Buenos Aires, an exhaustive ballot system was used. No city won over 50% of the votes in the first round, a run-off vote between these two cities was held to determine which would be eliminated. In the final vote, a head-to-head contest between Tokyo and Istanbul, Tokyo was selected by 60 votes to 36, the Tokyo metropolitan government set aside a fund of 400 billion Japanese yen to cover the cost of hosting the Games. The Japanese government is considering increasing slot capacity at both Haneda Airport and Narita International Airport by easing airspace restrictions, but East Japan Railway Company is planning a new route near Tamachi to Haneda Airport. Funding is also planned to accelerate completion of the Central Circular Route, Tokyo Gaikan Expressway and Ken-Ō Expressway, the Organizing Committee is headed by former Prime Minister Yoshiro Mori. Olympic and Paralympic Minister Tamayo Marukawa is overseeing the preparations on behalf of the Japanese government, as a result, a design competition for the new stadium was launched. In November 2012, the Japan Sport Council announced that out of 46 finalists, plans included dismantling the original stadium, and expanding the capacity from 50,000 to a modern Olympic capacity of about 80,000. However, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced in July 2015 that plans to build the new National Stadium would be scrapped,11 new venues are to be constructed. Seven venues will be located within the business area of Tokyo. Several of these venues were used for the 1964 Summer Olympics. 30,000 yen will be the price for the final of popular games, such as athletics. The average price of all the Olympic tickets is 7,700 yen, 60% of the tickets will be sold for 4,400 yen or less. Tickets will be sold through 40,000 shops in Japan, the 2020 Summer Olympic program is scheduled to feature 33 sports and a total of 47 disciplines and 324 events. Following the 2012 Games, the IOC assessed the 26 sports held in London, with the remit of selecting 25 core sports to join new entrants golf, in effect, this would involve the dropping of one sport from the 2016 Games program. This would leave a vacancy in the 2020 Games program, which the IOC would seek to fill from a shortlist containing seven unrepresented sports
2020 Summer Olympics
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The
Tokyo Big Sight Conference Tower would be used as the International Broadcast Center & Party Venue.
2020 Summer Olympics
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View of the
Rainbow Bridge from Odaiba Marine Park
2020 Summer Olympics
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The
Wakasu Olympic Marina, where Sailing will be held
2020 Summer Olympics
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The Sapporo Dome in
Sapporo
33.
Stalag
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In Germany, stalag was a term used for prisoner-of-war camps. Stalag is a contraction of Stammlager, itself short for Kriegsgefangenen-Mannschafts-Stammlager, according to the Third Geneva Convention of 1929 and its predecessor, the Hague Convention of 1907, Section IV, Chapter 2, those camps were only for prisoners of war, not civilians. Stalags were operated in both World War I and World War II and intended to be used for non-commissioned personnel, officers were held in separate camps called Oflag. During World War II, the Luftwaffe operated Stalag Luft in which flying personnel, the Kriegsmarine operated Marlag for Navy personnel and Milag for Merchant Navy personnel. Civilians who were attached to military units, such as war correspondents, were provided the same treatment as military personnel by the Conventions. Further articles of Section III detailed conditions under which they should work, be housed, during World War II these latter provisions were consistently breached, in particular for Russian, Polish, and Yugoslav prisoners. According to the Nazi ideology, Slavic people were regarded as rassisch minderwertig, prisoners of various nationalities were generally separated from each other by barbed-wire fences subdividing each stalag into sections. Frequently prisoners speaking the language, for example British Commonwealth soldiers, were permitted to intermingle. These sub-camps sometimes held more than 1,000 prisoners, separated by nationality, the sub-camps were administered by the parent stalag, which maintained personnel records, collected mail, International Red Cross packages and then delivered to the individual Arbeitskommando. Likewise any individuals that were injured in work, or became ill, were returned to the Lazarett at the parent stalag, Stalag Luft III, a large prisoner of war camp near Sagan, Silesia, Germany, was the site of a spectacular escape attempt. On March 24,1944,76 Allied prisoners escaped through a 110 m long tunnel,73 were recaptured within two weeks. 50 of them were executed by order of Hitler in the Stalag Luft III murders, the largest German World War II prisoner of war camp was Stalag VII-A at Moosburg, Germany. Over 130,000 Allied soldiers were imprisoned there and it was liberated by the U. S. 14th Armored Division following a short battle with SS soldiers of the 17th SS Panzer Grenadier Division on 29 April 1945. Stalag III-C is notable for the escape of US paratrooper Joseph Beyrle, who joined a Soviet tank battalion commanded by Aleksandra Samusenko. The airmen in the show Hogans Heroes were imprisoned in fictitious Stalag Luft 13 near Hammelburg, the World War II play Stalag 17, which was made into the 1953 movie Stalag 17, was set in Stalag XVII-B, located near Krems, Austria. In 2007, Ari Libsker made a film on this topic, list of POW camps in Germany and occupied territories pl, Stalag Luft II
Stalag
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A model of one compound of the huge
Stalag Luft III
Stalag
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Entry to Stalag IV-B Mühlberg
Stalag
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Main street in Stalag IV-B
34.
Langwasser
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Langwasser is a district of Nuremberg in the southeastern area of the city. It was developed as a prototype of the town concept in the 1960s and is primarily a suburban residential area. The name Langwasser comes from a stream bordering the area on its eastern edge. Langwasser is located in the area of Nuremberg. At the beginning of the 20th century, the area that would become Langwasser was heavily wooded, after devastating forest fires between 1917 and 1919 the area was cleared and used for farming. Prior to World War II, the area which had cleared by fire became an important site for the Nazi movement. Beginning in 1934 it was the site of various tent cities, the area originally housed a tent encampment of the Reich Labor Service and later the Hitler Youth. Permanent camps for the SS, SA, HJ, and RAD were built near the Nuremberg Rally Grounds, the Langwasser camp, with space for 200,000, was the largest. At the outbreak of World War II, party rallies ceased and the compound was converted into a camp known as Stalag XIII-D. United States military records report that 6,676 American POWs were transferred there late in the war, the history of Langwasser as a district begins after the Second World War in 1949. For ten years the area was a mixture of refugee camps, construction of the first permanent housing developments did not begin until the 1950s. Many German refugees from Silesia and from the Sudetenland made Langwasser their new home, the facilities were used as internment camp by the US occupation army. During the Nuremberg trials 21 witnesses - members of the SS - were moved to the camp on July 17,1946, from the Palace of Justice to the camp. The modern history of Langwasser begins with the decision of the city of Nuremberg to develop a community in the area marketed with the slogan living in the country. An architectural competition was held in 1956, with beginning the following year. Construction was not fully completed until the 1990s, a part of Langwasser Nordost around Euckenweg is apparently carfree, although with underground garages. Langwasser is served by the U-Bahn, Langwasser Süd is a Nuremberg U-Bahn station, located on the U1 and U11 lines. This article was created as a student project as part of the Lexicon Franconian Translation Project
Langwasser
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Coat of arms
Langwasser
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"Plattenbau" housing complex built in the 1970s in the southern end of Langwasser.
35.
Nuremberg
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Nuremberg is a city on the river Pegnitz and the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in the German state of Bavaria, in the administrative region of Middle Franconia, about 170 kilometres north of Munich. It is the second-largest city in Bavaria, and the largest in Franconia, the population as of February 2015, is 517,498, which makes it Germanys fourteenth-largest city. The urban area also includes Fürth, Erlangen and Schwabach with a population of 763,854. The European Metropolitan Area Nuremberg has ca.3.5 million inhabitants, Nuremberg was, according to the first documentary mention of the city in 1050, the location of an Imperial castle between the East Franks and the Bavarian March of the Nordgau. From 1050 to 1571, the city expanded and rose dramatically in importance due to its location on key trade routes, Nuremberg is often referred to as having been the unofficial capital of the Holy Roman Empire, particularly because Imperial Diet and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg were an important part of the structure of the empire. The increasing demand of the court and the increasing importance of the city attracted increased trade. Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe. In 1298, the Jews of the town were accused of having desecrated the host, behind the massacre of 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city, which were divided by the Pegnitz. The Jews of the German lands suffered many massacres during the plague years, in 1349, Nurembergs Jews were subjected to a pogrom. They were burned at the stake or expelled, and a marketplace was built over the former Jewish quarter, the plague returned to the city in 1405,1435,1437,1482,1494,1520 and 1534. Charles was the patron of the Frauenkirche, built between 1352 and 1362, where the Imperial court worshipped during its stays in Nuremberg. Charles IV conferred upon the city the right to conclude alliances independently, frequent fights took place with the burgraves without, however, inflicting lasting damage upon the city. Through these and other acquisitions the city accumulated considerable territory, the Hussite Wars, recurrence of the Black Death in 1437, and the First Margrave War led to a severe fall in population in the mid-15th century. During the Middle Ages, Nurembergs literary culture was rich, varied, the cultural flowering of Nuremberg, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made it the centre of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Protestant Reformation, and in 1532, during the 1552 revolution against Charles V, Nuremberg tried to purchase its neutrality, but the city was attacked without a declaration of war and was forced into a disadvantageous peace. The state of affairs in the early 16th century, increased trade routes elsewhere, frequent quartering of Imperial, Swedish and League soldiers, the financial costs of the war and the cessation of trade caused irreparable damage to the city and a near-halving of the population. In 1632, the city, occupied by the forces of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, was besieged by the army of Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein, the city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the 19th century, when it grew as an industrial centre
Nuremberg
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Nuremberg Castle
Nuremberg
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Flag
Nuremberg
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Old fortifications of Nuremberg
Nuremberg
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The Imperial Castle
36.
Olympic Flame
–
The Olympic flame is a symbol of the Olympic Games. Commemorating the theft of fire from the Greek god Zeus by Prometheus, its origins lie in ancient Greece, the fire was introduced at the Games of the IX Olympiad 1928 in Amsterdam and it has been part of the modern Olympic Games ever since. The first fire of the Olympic Winter Games was introduced at the IV Olympic Winter Games 1936 in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, the Olympic Torch today is ignited several months before the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games at the site of the ancient Olympics in Olympia, Greece. Eleven women, representing the Vestal Virgins, perform a celebration at the Temple of Hera in which the torch is kindled by the light of the Sun, its rays concentrated by a parabolic mirror. The torch briefly travels around Greece via short relay, and then starts its transfer to the host city after a ceremony in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens, the Olympic Torch Relay ends on the day of the opening ceremony in the central stadium of the Games. The final carrier is often kept unannounced until the last moment, the final bearer of the torch runs towards the cauldron, often placed at the top of a grand staircase, and then uses the torch to start the flame in the arena. It is considered to be an honor to be asked to light the Olympic flame. After being lit, the continues to burn throughout the Games, until the day of the closing ceremony and celebration. In the time of the games within the boundaries of Olympia. For the ancient Greeks, fire had divine connotations—it was thought to have stolen from the gods by Prometheus. Therefore, fire was present at many of the sanctuaries in Olympia. During the Olympic Games, which honoured Zeus, additional fires were lit at his temple, the modern Olympic flame is ignited at the site where the temple of Hera used to stand. The tradition was reintroduced during the 1928 Games, an employee of the Electric Utility of Amsterdam lit the first Olympic flame in the Marathon Tower of the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam. The modern convention of moving the Olympic flame via a system from Greece to the Olympic venue began in 1936 in Germany. Carl Diem devised the idea of the relay for the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin that was organized by the Nazis under the guidance of Joseph Goebbels. The Krupp armaments company produced the torches in wood and metal, the Olympic flame was lit by a concave mirror in Olympia, Greece and transported over 3,187 kilometres by 3,331 runners in twelve days and eleven nights from Greece to Berlin. Leni Riefenstahl later staged the torch relay for the 1938 film Olympia, adolf Hitler saw the link with the ancient Games as the perfect way to illustrate his belief that classical Greece was an Aryan forerunner of the modern German Reich. There were minor protests in Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia on the way, although most of the time the torch with the Olympic flame is still carried by runners, it has been transported in many different ways
Olympic Flame
–
Olympic fire in Berlin, 1936
Olympic Flame
Olympic Flame
–
Paavo Nurmi, lighting the Olympic flame in Helsinki in 1952
Olympic Flame
–
Igniting the Olympic flame in Greece, using the Sun's energy
37.
Messerschmitt Me 261
–
The Messerschmitt Me 261 Adolfine was a long-range maritime reconnaissance aircraft designed in the late 1930s. It looked like a version of the Messerschmitt Bf 110. It was not put into production, in 1937, Messerschmitt began Projekt P.1064, a study for a long-range reconnaissance aircraft, and took the basic design of the Bf 110 twin-engine heavy fighter as its basis. The P.1064 had a long, slim fuselage with two wing-mounted engines, the plan captured the imagination of Adolf Hitler at an early stage in its design and in tribute, the aircraft carried the unofficial name, Adolfine. The Me 261 incorporated a number of features which were advanced for its day. The single-spar all-metal wing was designed to serve as a fuel tank, power came from four Daimler-Benz DB601 engines, coupled together in pairs in a power system known as the DB606, weighing 1.5 metric tonnes apiece. The Me 261s original design brief as a reconnaissance aircraft had been forgotten and it was viewed as non-strategic and was nearly abandoned. However, the Air Ministry realised that it could be a vehicle for evaluating long-range operations. Me 261 V1 The first flight of the Me 261 V1 was on 23 December 1940, willy Messerschmitt wrote to Ernst Udet in early 1941 with the results of the first flight, predicting a range of over 20,000 km for the type. The decision to use the DB606 engine was a problem because only a few were available for development projects, the Me 261 V1 was badly damaged during an Allied bombing attack on Lechfeld in 1944 and eventually scrapped. Me 261 V2 The first flight of the Me 261 V2 was in early 1941, by now official thinking saw the Me 261 as a long-range maritime reconnaissance aircraft. Messerschmitt had realised that the nature of the aircrafts wings ruled out fitting armaments to them. There was a suggestion that one or both be used to drop leaflets on New York City, but nothing came of the idea before the aircraft were destroyed. The Me 261 V2 was damaged during the same Allied bombing attack as the V1, Me 261 V3 The V3 differed from its predecessors in being powered by two DB610 power system engines and room for two additional crew members. The first flight of the Me 261 V3 was in early 1943 and this aircraft had the longest series of flight tests. In July 1943, the Me 261 V3s hydraulics failed on landing, the V3 was transported to Oranienburg for repairs, and after that used on a few long-range missions for the Luftwaffes reconnaissance division. Data from Warplanes of the Third Reich General characteristics Crew,7 Length,16.68 m Wingspan,26.86 m Height,4
Messerschmitt Me 261
–
Me 261 Adolfine
Messerschmitt Me 261
–
3D-model of the Me 261
38.
1916 Summer Olympics
–
The 1916 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the VI Olympiad, were scheduled to be held in Berlin, Germany, but were eventually canceled due to the outbreak of World War I. Berlin was selected as the host city during the 14th IOC Session in Stockholm on 4 July 1912, defeating bids from Alexandria, Amsterdam, Brussels, Budapest, after the 1916 Games were cancelled, Berlin would eventually host the 1936 Summer Olympics. Work on the stadium, the Deutsches Stadion, began in 1912 at what was the Grunewald Race Course and it was planned to seat more than 18,000 spectators. On 8 June 1913, the stadium was dedicated with the release of 10,000 pigeons, at the outbreak of World War I in 1914, organization continued as no one expected that the war would continue for several years. Eventually, though, the Games were canceled, a winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, the concept of this week eventually gave rise to the first Winter Olympic Games. The central venue was to have been the Deutsches Stadion, Berlin returned to Olympic bidding in 1931, when it beat Barcelona, Catalonia, for the right to host the 1936 Summer Olympics, the last Olympics before the outbreak of World War II
1916 Summer Olympics
–
Parade for the opening of the stadium on 8 June 1913
39.
1944 Summer Olympics
–
The 1944 Summer Olympics, which were to be officially known as the Games of the XIII Olympiad, were cancelled due to World War II. It would have held in London, England, United Kingdom. The selection was made at the 38th IOC Session in London in 1939, because of the cancellation, London went on to host the 1948 Summer Olympics. In spite of the war, the IOC organized many events to celebrate the anniversary of its foundation at its headquarters in Lausanne. Held from 17 June to 19 June 1944, this celebration was referred to as The Jubilee Celebrations of IOC by Carl Diem, the event has been considered to be a demonstration of the Olympic spirit transcending war
1944 Summer Olympics
–
Summer Games
40.
Summer Olympic Games
–
The Summer Olympic Games or the Games of the Olympiad, first held in 1896, is an international multi-sport event that is hosted by a different city every four years. The most recent Olympics were held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the International Olympic Committee organizes the games and oversees the host citys preparations. In each Olympic event, gold medals are awarded for first place, silver medals are awarded for second place, and bronze medals are awarded for third, the Winter Olympic Games were created due to the success of the Summer Olympics. The Olympics have increased in scope from a 42-event competition with fewer than 250 male competitors from 14 nations in 1896 to 302 events with 10,768 competitors from 204 nations in 2012, eighteen countries have hosted the Summer Olympics. The United States has hosted four Summer Olympics, more than any other nation, four cities have hosted two Summer Olympics, Athens, Paris, Los Angeles, and Tokyo. Tokyo is the first city outside of the Western world to host the Summer Olympics multiple times, asia has hosted the Summer Olympics four times in Japan, South Korea, and China. The only Summer Olympics held in the Southern Hemisphere have been in Australia, the 2016 Games are the first Summer Olympics to be held in South America and the first to be held during the local winter season. Africa has yet to host a Summer Olympics, only five countries—Greece, Australia, France, Great Britain, and Switzerland—have been represented at every Summer Olympic Games. The only country to have won at least one medal at every Summer Olympic Games is Great Britain. The United States leads the medal table. Qualification rules for each of the Olympic sports are set by the International Sports Federations that governs that sports international competition, for individual sports, competitors typically qualify through attaining a certain place in a major international event or on the IFs ranking list. There is a rule that maximum three individual athletes may represent each nation per competition. Nations most often qualify teams for team sports through continental qualifying tournaments, each nation may be represented by no more than one team per competition a team is two people in some sports. The United States has hosted four Summer Olympic Games, more than any other nation, the United Kingdom hosted the 2012 Olympic Games, its third Summer Olympic Games, in its capital London, making London the first city to host the Summer Olympic Games three times. Australia, France, Germany, Greece, and Japan have all hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice. Other countries that have hosted the Summer Olympics are Belgium, Brazil, China, Canada, Finland, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, South Korea, Spain, the Soviet Union, asia has hosted the Summer Olympics three times and will host again in 2020. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro hosted the first Summer Olympics in South America, three cities have hosted two Summer Olympic Games, Los Angeles, Paris, and Athens. Stockholm has hosted events at two Summer Olympic Games, having hosted the games in 1912 and the events at the 1956 Summer Olympics—which they are usually listed as jointly hosting
Summer Olympic Games
–
The Olympic flame in
London during the
2012 Summer Olympics.
Summer Olympic Games
–
The opening ceremony of the first Olympic Games in the
Panathenaic Stadium
Summer Olympic Games
–
Dorando Pietri finishes the modern marathon at the current distance
Summer Olympic Games
–
The
2000 Summer Olympics held in Sydney, Australia, known as the "Games of the New Millennium".
41.
Olympic Games
–
The Olympic Games are considered the worlds foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in changes to the Olympic Games. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, as a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship, World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916,1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games, the Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations, National Olympic Committees, and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, the IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals, gold, silver, the Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to themselves to the world. The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat such as wrestling. It has been written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce and this idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus
Olympic Games
–
Stadium in
Olympia, Greece.
Olympic Games
–
Baron
Pierre de Coubertin
Olympic Games
–
A postage stamp from the first Greek Olympic stamp set.
Olympic Games
–
The opening ceremony in the
Panathinaiko Stadium.
42.
List of IOC country codes
–
The International Olympic Committee uses three-letter abbreviation country codes to refer to each group of athletes that participate in the Olympic Games. Several of the IOC codes are different from the standard ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes, other sporting organisations, such as FIFA, use similar country codes to refer to their respective teams, but with some differences. Still others, such as the Commonwealth Games Federation or Association of Tennis Professionals, the 1956 Winter Olympics and 1960 Summer Olympics were the first Games to feature Initials of Nations to refer to each NOC in the published official reports. However, the used at the next few Games were often based on the host nations language or based on the French name for the nation. By the 1972 Winter Olympics, most codes were standardized on the current usage, there are 206 current NOCs within the Olympic Movement. The following tables show the currently used code for each NOC and any different codes used in past Games, some of the past code usage is further explained in the following sections. Codes used specifically for a Summer Games only or a Winter Games only, fourteen historical NOCs or teams have codes that are still used in the IOC results database to refer to past medal winners from these teams. IRN was changed to IRI for Iran for the 1992 Games, ANZ is now used in the IOCs medal database to identify the team from Australasia, composed of athletes from both Australia and New Zealand for the 1908 and 1912 Games. By 1920, both nations competed separately, EUA is now used in the IOCs medal database to identify the United Team of Germany, composed of athletes representing the NOCs of both East Germany and West Germany for the 1956–1964 Games. At the time, the team was known as Germany in the official reports for those six Games. EUN was used in 1992 for the Unified Team, composed of athletes from most of the ex-republics of the Soviet Union. Only the Baltic states were able to compete as independent teams in 1992, IOP was used for Independent Olympic Participants at the 1992 Summer Olympics as a designation used for athletes from FR Yugoslavia who could not compete as a team due to United Nations sanctions. At the 1992 Summer Olympics IOP was used as a designation for athletes from the Republic of Macedonia too, IOP was also used during the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi by Indian athletes due to the Indian Olympic Association suspension. IOA was used for Individual Olympic Athletes in 2000, a used for athletes from Timor-Leste prior to the formation of its NOC. IOA was used again in the 2012 Games, when it stood for Independent Olympic Athletes, comprising athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles, the Netherlands Antilles Olympic Committees membership from the IOC was withdrawn the previous year, and South Sudan has not formed an NOC. IOA was used again in 2016 for athletes from Kuwait as a result of the suspension of its National Olympic Committee, IOC was used as the country code for Athletes from Kuwait at the 2010 Asian Games, as the Kuwait Olympic Committee was suspended. MIX is used as the code for Mixed NOCs at the Youth Olympics. ROT was the Refugee Olympic Team at the 2016 Summer Olympics for athletes to compete who have displaced from their home countries
List of IOC country codes
–
The flag of the international Olympic movement
43.
John Murray (publisher)
–
Since 2004, it has been owned by conglomerate Lagardère under the Hachette UK brand. The business was founded in London in 1768 by John Murray I, an Edinburgh-born Royal Marines officer, John Murray the elder was one of the founding sponsors of the London evening newspaper The Star in 1788. He was succeeded by his son, John Murray II, who made the house one of the most important. He was a friend of leading writers of the day. He was the publisher of Jane Austen, Sir Walter Scott, Washington Irving, George Crabbe and his home and office at 50 Albemarle Street in Mayfair was the centre of a literary circle, fostered by Murrays tradition of Four oclock friends, afternoon tea with his writers. Murrays most notable author was Lord Byron, who became a close friend, Murray published many of his major works, paying him over £20,000 in rights. On 10 March 1812 Murray published Byrons second book, Childe Harolds Pilgrimage, on 17 May 1824 Murray participated in one of the most notorious acts in the annals of literature. Byron had given him the manuscript of his memoirs to publish later on. Together with five of Byrons friends and executors, he decided to destroy Byrons manuscripts because he thought the scandalous details would damage Byrons reputation, with only Thomas Moore objecting, the two volumes of memoirs were dismembered and burnt in the fireplace at Murrays office. It remains unknown what they contained, John Murray III also started the Murray Handbooks in 1836, a series of travel guides from which modern-day guides are directly descended. The rights to these guides were sold around 1900 and subsequently acquired in 1915 by the Blue Guides and his successor Sir John Murray IV was publisher to Queen Victoria. Among other works, he published Murrays Magazine from 1887 until 1891, competitor Smith, Elder & Co. was acquired in 1917. His son Sir John Murray V, grandson John Murray VI, in 2002, John Murray was acquired by Hodder Headline, which was itself acquired in 2004 by the French conglomerate Lagardère Group. Since then, it has been an imprint under Lagardère brand Hachette UK, on 26 January 2005, it was announced that the National Library was to be given £17. 7m by the Heritage Lottery Fund towards the £31. 2m price offered by John Murray. The Scottish Executive agreed to make a contribution of £8. 3m,1768 – John MacMurray, a former lieutenant of the Marines, buys a bookselling business at 32 Fleet Street. He changes his name to Murray and uses his contacts to build up a thriving business 1807 – The first bestseller. 1858-1864 by David and Charles Livingstone published 1912 – June, Published Behind The Night Light by Nancy Price, a Publisher and His Friends, Memoir and Correspondence of the Late John Murray. The first John Murray, and the late eighteenth-century London book trade, the Seven Lives of John Murray, The Story of a Publishing Dynasty
John Murray (publisher)
–
John Murray I (1745–1793), the eponymous founder of the publishing house
John Murray (publisher)
–
John Murray (publisher)
44.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
45.
1936 Summer Olympics
–
The 1936 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event that was held in 1936 in Berlin, Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games over Barcelona, Spain, on 26 April 1931 and it marked the second and final time the International Olympic Committee gathered to vote in a city that was bidding to host those Games. To outdo the Los Angeles games of 1932, Adolf Hitler had built a new 100, 000-seat track and field stadium, six gymnasiums, the games were the first to be televised, and radio broadcasts reached 41 countries. Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl was commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the Games for $7 million and her film, titled Olympia, pioneered many of the techniques now common in the filming of sports. When threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, total ticket revenues were 7.5 million Reichsmark, generating a profit of over one million marks. The official budget did not include outlays by the city of Berlin or outlays of the German national government and these were the final Olympics under the presidency of Henri de Baillet-Latour and the final Olympic Games for 12 years because of World War II. The next Olympic Games would be held in 1948, the bidding for these Olympic Games was the first to be contested by IOC members casting votes for their own favorite host cities. The vote occurred in 1931, during the Weimar Republic, before Adolf Hitler, many other cities around the world also wanted to host the Summer Olympics for that year, but except for Barcelona they did not receive any IOC votes. The other cities competing to hold the games were Alexandria, Buenos Aires, Cologne, Dublin, Frankfurt, Helsinki, Lausanne, Nuremberg, Rio de Janeiro, Budapest, and Rome. The selection procedure marked the second and final time that the International Olympic Committee would gather to vote in a city which was bidding to host those Games, the only other time this occurred was at the inaugural IOC Session in Paris, France, on 24 April 1894. Then, Athens and Paris were chosen to host the 1896 and 1900 Games, after the Nazis took control and began instituting anti-Semitic policies, the IOC held private discussions among its delegates about changing the decision to hold the Games in Berlin. However, Hitlers regime gave assurances that Jewish athletes would be allowed to compete on a German Olympic team, in September 1934, the US Olympic committee publicly accepted the invitation to go to the Berlin games, halting any further IOC attempts to quietly revise the decision. The next scheduled games in 1940 were awarded to Tokyo, the Japanese military even demanded that venues should be built from wood because metal was needed for its wars in Manchuria. The Olympic torch relay – itself pioneered as part of the 1936 Summer Games – was to fly the Olympic flame from Olympia to Tokyo in a specially-designed long-range aircraft. In 1938 the Japanese rejected hosting the games because they saw the Olympics and he promoted the idea that the use of sports would harden the German spirit and instill unity among German youth. At the same time he believed that sports was a way to weed out the weak, Jewish. Among Diems ideas for the Berlin Games was the introduction of the Olympic torch relay between Greece and the host nation, the 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay was the first of its kind, following on from the reintroduction of the Olympic Flame at the 1928 Games. It pioneered the modern convention of moving the flame via a system from Greece to the Olympic venue
1936 Summer Olympics
–
Games of the XI Olympiad
1936 Summer Olympics
–
The
Olympic Flag flying over the Olympic Stadium, Berlin 1936
1936 Summer Olympics
–
Runners carrying the Olympic Flame.
1936 Summer Olympics
–
TV camera from Telefunken.
46.
Olympic Games ceremony
–
Olympic Games ceremonies of the Ancient Olympic Games were an integral part of these Games, the modern Olympic games have opening, closing and medal ceremonies. Some of the elements of the modern ceremonies harken back to the Ancient Games from which the Modern Olympics draw their ancestry, an example of this is the prominence of Greece in both the opening and closing ceremonies. During the 2004 Games, the winners received a crown of olive branches. The various elements of the ceremonies are mandated by the Olympic Charter, even the artistic portion of the opening and closing ceremonies must meet the approval of the International Olympic Committee. The ceremonies have evolved over the centuries, Ancient Games incorporated ceremonies to mark the beginning and ending of each successive game. There are both similarities and differences between the ancient Olympic ceremonies and their modern counterparts, the presentation of the Opening and Closing Ceremonies continue to increase in scope, scale and expense with each successive celebration of the Games, but they are still steeped in tradition. The Ancient Games, held in Greece from ca.776 BC to ca.393 AD, the victory celebration, elements of which are in evidence in the modern-day medal and closing ceremonies, often involved elaborate feasts, drinking, singing, and the recitation of poetry. The wealthier the victor the more extravagant the celebration, the victors were presented with an olive wreath or crown harvested from a special tree in Olympia by a boy, specially selected for this purpose, using a golden sickle. The festival would conclude with the victors making solemn vows and performing sacrifices to the various gods to which they were beholden. There is evidence of changes in the format of the Ancient Games over the nearly 12 centuries that they were celebrated. Eventually, by roughly the 77th Olympiad, a standard 18-event program was established, in order to open a Games in ancient Greece the organizers would hold an Inauguration Festival. This was followed by a ceremony in which took an oath of sportsmanship. The first competition, a competition of trumpeters and heralds. The Olympic opening ceremonies represent the official commencement of an Olympic Games, in recent Olympics, athletic competition began prior to the opening ceremonies. For example, the competitions for both men and women at the 2008 Summer Olympics began two days prior to the opening ceremonies. As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the Opening Ceremonies of a celebration of the Olympic Games, most of these rituals were canonized at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. The artistic program is what creates the idiosyncratic element of each ceremony, Coubertins initial vision of the Modern Olympics featured both athletic competitions and artistic achievements. As the modern Olympics have evolved into a celebration of sport, the opening ceremonies are an important ritual of the Olympic games
Olympic Games ceremony
–
The Olympic Flag being raised during the opening ceremony of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics by members of the
Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
Olympic Games ceremony
–
A scene from
the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Summer Olympics.
Olympic Games ceremony
–
As per tradition, Greek athletes lead the Parade of Nations during the opening ceremony of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics
Olympic Games ceremony
–
The lighting of the cauldron during the opening ceremony of the Salt Lake City 2002 Winter Olympics
47.
Olympic Charter
–
The Olympic Charter is a set of rules and guidelines for the organisation of the Olympic Games, and for governing the Olympic movement. Its last revision was on the 9 September 2013, adopted by International Olympic Committee, it is the codification of the fundamental principles, rules and by-laws. French and English are the languages of the Olympic Charter. Throughout the history of the Olympics, the Olympic Charter has often decided the outcome of Olympic controversy, with its 5 chapters and 61 articles, the Olympic Charter outlines in detail several guidelines and rules. Article 2, The mission of the IOC is to promote Olympism throughout the world, article 6, The Olympic Games are competitions between athletes in individual or team events and not between countries. Article 8, The Olympic symbol consists of five interlocking rings which, from left to right are blue, yellow, black, green and this chapter outlines the membership, meetings, and guiding doctrines of the International Olympic Committee. Chapter 3 discusses the role of International Federations in the Olympic movement, IFs are international non-governmental organisations that administer to sports at the world level and encompass organisations administering such sports at the national level. For each sport that is part of the Olympic Games, an International Federation exists and these IFs work to ensure their sports are developed in a way that agrees with the Olympic Charter and the Olympic spirit. With technical expertise in its sport, an IF has control over eligibility for competition as well as details of the venue in which the athletic competition takes place. Article 28, The mission of the National Olympic Committees is to develop, promote, the role of NOCs within each country is to promote the spirit of Olympicism, ensure the observance of the Olympic Charter, and to encourage ethics in and development of sports. They are in charge of their countrys representation at the Games, deciding on a host city for the Games, in addition, Section 3 of this chapter discusses applicable protocol for Olympic functions and events. This includes an outline of use of the Olympic flag, flame, the five rings of the Olympic games signify the five continents. Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a whole the qualities of body, will. The goal of Olympism is to sport at the service of the harmonious development of humankind. It reaches its peak with the bringing together of the athletes at the great sports festival. Its symbol is five interlaced rings, the practice of sport is a human right. Belonging to the Olympic Movement requires compliance with the Olympic Charter, the Olympic Charter is not simply a matter of unenforced policy for the Olympic Games. Throughout history, it has served as guidance for the proceedings of the Games, below are a few of the most recent examples, May 2004, Bernard Lagat became a US citizen three months before he ran track in Athens and won the silver medal in 2004
Olympic Charter
–
Olympic torch
Olympic Charter
–
Olympic Games
48.
List of Olympic Games host cities
–
This is a list of host cities of the Olympic Games, both summer and winter, since the modern Olympics began in 1896. Since then, summer games have usually – but not always – celebrated a four-year period known as an Olympiad, there have been 29 Summer Olympic Games held in 23 cities, and 22 Winter Olympic Games held in 19 cities. The 1906 Summer Olympics were officially sanctioned and held in Athens, in 1949, the International Olympic Committee, decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games. Three cities have been chosen by the IOC to host upcoming Olympic Games, Pyeongchang for the 2018 Winter Olympics, Tokyo for the 2020 Summer Olympics, in 2022, Beijing will become the only city that has held both the summer and winter Olympic Games. Seven cities have hosted the Olympic Games more than once, Athens, Paris, London, St. Moritz, Lake Placid, Los Angeles, in addition, Stockholm hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics. London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics, the United States has hosted a total of eight Olympic Games, more than any other country, followed by France with five editions. Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom have each hosted three Games, the Games have primarily been hosted in the continents of Europe and North America, eight Games have been hosted in Asia and two have been hosted in Oceania. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro became South Americas first Olympic host city, other major geographic regions which have not hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia. Host cities are selected by the IOC membership, usually seven years in advance, the selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may submit an application to become a host city, after 10 months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant city will become official candidates as based on the recommendation of a working groups that reviews the applications. In a second stage, the cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission. The host city is chosen by vote of the IOC session. For individual summer and winter lists, see List of modern Summer Olympic Games, the 1906 Intercalated Games are not officially recognised by the IOC as an official Olympic Games
List of Olympic Games host cities
–
4 times or more
49.
Bids for Olympic Games
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National Olympic Committees select from within their national territory cities to put forward bids to host an Olympic Games. The staging of the Paralympic Games is automatically included in the bid, what follows is a list of the cities that have bid to host any of the Summer and Winter Olympics. No African, Central American, Central Asian, Middle Eastern, the agreement came into effect at the 2008 Paralympic Summer Games in Beijing, and the 2010 Paralympic Winter Games in Vancouver. The agreement was adjusted in 2003, an extension was signed in June 2006. London is the city to have bid more than once. Detroit has had the most bids whilst failing to win the rights to host the games once, hungary has had the most bids in the Summer Games that have failed to win the rights to host the games at least once. Sweden has had the most bids in the Winter Games that have failed to win the rights to host the games at least once, Beijing is the only city to host both the Summer and Winter Games. International Olympic Committee — Olympic Games IOC Vote History Olympic Games Museum Olympic Bid Election History GamesBids. com TheBidLibrary. com
Bids for Olympic Games
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Olympic Games
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