1.
1951
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January 1 – First week as No.1 single on Billboard and Cashbox charts in the United States of Patti Page hit song Tennessee Waltz. January 4 – Korean War, Third Battle of Seoul, Chinese, january 15 – In a court in West Germany, Ilse Koch, The Witch of Buchenwald, wife of the commandant of the Buchenwald concentration camp, is sentenced to life imprisonment. January 20 – Avalanches in the Alps kill 240 and bury 45,000 for a time in Switzerland, Austria, january 25 – Dutch author Anne de Vries releases the first volume of her novel Journey Through the Night set during World War II. January 27 – Nuclear testing at the Nevada Test Site begins with a 1-kiloton bomb dropped on Frenchman Flat, january 31 – The United States last narrow gauge passenger train the San Juan Express ends service. February – Convention Peoples Party wins national elections in Gold Coast, february 1 – The United Nations General Assembly declares that China is an aggressor in the Korean War in United Nations General Assembly Resolution 498. February 4–February 8 – Surgeons remove an ovarian cyst from Gertrude Levandowski in a 96-hour long operation in Chicago and she loses almost half of her weight and emerges weighing 140 kg. February 6 – A Pennsylvania Railroad passenger train derails near Woodbridge Township, New Jersey, killing 85 people and injuring over 500, february 12 – Muhammad Reza Shah marries Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiari. February 15 – Start of the 1951 New Zealand waterfront dispute, february 19 – Jean Lee becomes the last woman hanged in Australia, when Lee and her 2 pimps are hanged for the murder and torture of a 73-year-old bookmaker. February 27 – The Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, march 2 – The first NBA All-Star Game of basketball is played in the Boston Garden. March 3 or 5 – Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats record Rocket 88 at Sam Phillips Sun Studio in Memphis, Tennessee and it is covered on June 14 by Bill Haley and His Saddlemen. March 6 – The trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg for conspiracy to commit espionage begins in the United States, march 9 – United Artists releases sci-fi film The Man from Planet X in the United States. March 12 – Hank Ketchams best-selling comic strip Dennis the Menace appears in newspapers across the United States for the first time, march 14 Korean War, For the second time, United Nations troops recapture Seoul during Operation Ripper. March 29 Second Red Scare, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are convicted of conspiracy to commit espionage, on April 5 they are sentenced to receive the death penalty. Rodgers and Hammersteins The King and I opens on Broadway and runs for three years and it is the first of their musicals specifically written for an actress. Lawrence is stricken with cancer during the run of the show, the show makes a star of Yul Brynner. The 23rd Academy Awards ceremony is held, All About Eve wins the Best Picture award, march 31 – Remington Rand delivers the first UNIVAC I computer to the United States Census Bureau. April 5–13 – The most complete recording of George Gershwins opera Porgy, after its removal from Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day,1950, the Stone of Scone resurfaces on the altar of Arbroath Abbey. April 18 – The Treaty of Paris is adopted, establishing the European Coal, April 21 – The National Olympic Committee of the Soviet Union is formed
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
1949 in the United States
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Events from the year 1949 in the United States. January 4 – RMS Caronia of the Cunard Line departs Southampton for New York City on her maiden voyage. January 4–February 22 – Series of winter storms in Nebraska, Wyoming, South Dakota, Utah, Colorado and Nevada – winds of up to 72 mph – tens of thousands of cattle and sheep perish. January 5 – U. S. President Harry S. Truman unveils his Fair Deal program, January 11 – Los Angeles, California receives its first recorded snowfall. January 17 – The first Volkswagen Beetle to arrive in the United States, unable to interest dealers or importers in the Volkswagen, Pon sells the sample car to pay his travel expenses. Only two 1949 models will be sold in America that year, convincing Volkswagen chairman Heinrich Nordhoff that the car has no future in the U. S, January 19 – The Poe Toaster first appears at the grave of Edgar Allan Poe. January 20 – U. S. President Harry S. Truman begins his full term, January 25 – The first Emmy Awards are presented at the Hollywood Athletic Club. February 10 – Arthur Millers tragedy Death of a Salesman opens at the Morosco Theatre on Broadway in New York City with Lee J. Cobb in the title rôle of Willy Loman and runs for 742 performances. February 19 – Ezra Pound is awarded the first Bollingen Prize in poetry by the Bollingen Foundation, february 22 – Grady the Cow, a 1, 200-pound cow, gets stuck inside a silo on a farm in Yukon, Oklahoma and garners national media attention. March 2 – The B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II under Captain James Gallagher lands in Fort Worth, Texas, march 17 – The Shamrock Hotel in Houston, Texas, owned by oil tycoon Glenn McCarthy, has its grand opening. March 26 – The first half of Giuseppe Verdis opera Aida, conducted by legendary conductor Arturo Toscanini, the second half is telecast a week later. This is the complete opera that Toscanini ever conducts on television. March 28 – United States Secretary of Defense James Forrestal resigns suddenly, march 29 – The 21st Academy Awards ceremony is held. April 4 – The North Atlantic Treaty is signed in Washington, april 7 – Rodgers and Hammersteins South Pacific, starring Mary Martin and Ezio Pinza, opens on Broadway and goes on to become R&Hs second longest-running musical. It becomes an instant classic of the musical theatre, the scores biggest hit is the song Some Enchanted Evening. April 23 – Development of the USS United States supercarrier is cancelled, – A working group has been set up by United States Department of State, to codify the White Paper. This team consists of more than 80 staff members, Lead by Secretary of State Dean Acheson, june 14 – Albert II, a rhesus monkey, becomes the first primate to enter space, on Hermes project V-2 rocket Blossom IVB, but is killed on impact at return. June 19 – Glenn Dunaway wins the inaugural NASCAR race at Charlotte Speedway, a 3/4 mile oval in Charlotte, North Carolina, jim Roper is declared the official winner
4.
1950 in the United States
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Events from the year 1950 in the United States. Senator Estes Kefauver introduces a resolution calling for an investigation of organized crime in the U. S, January 12 – Cold War, U. S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson delivers his Perimeter Speech, outlining the boundary of U. S. security guarantees. January 17 – Great Brinks Robbery,11 thieves steal more than $2 million from a car in Boston. January 21 – Accused communist spy Alger Hiss is convicted of perjury, January 31 – President Harry S. Truman orders the development of the hydrogen bomb, in response to the detonation of the Soviet Unions first atomic bomb in 1949. February 12 – Albert Einstein warns that nuclear war could lead to mutual destruction, february 13 The U. S. Army begins to deploy anti-aircraft cannons to protect nuclear stations and military targets. The U. S. Air Force loses a Convair B-36 bomber that carried an Mk-4 atomic bomb off the west coast of Canada, february 15 – Walt Disney releases his 12th animated film, Cinderella in Hollywood. March 1 – Klaus Fuchs is convicted in London of spying against both Britain and the United States for the Soviet Union, by giving to the top secret atomic bomb data. March 17 – University of California, Berkeley researchers announce the creation of element 98, march 23 – The 22nd Academy Awards ceremony is held. May 9 – L. Ron Hubbard publishes Dianetics, The Modern Science of Mental Health, may 11 – The Kefauver Committee hearings into U. S. organized crime begin. May 14 – The Huntsville Times runs the headline, Dr. von Braun Says Rocket Flights Possible to Moon, may 25 – The Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel is formally opened to traffic. June 1 – Mauna Loa in Hawaii starts erupting, june 25 – Korean War, North Korean troops cross the 38th parallel into South Korea. June 27 – Korean War, U. S. President Harry S. Truman orders American military forces to aid in the defense of South Korea, june 28 – Korean War, North Korean forces capture Seoul. June 29 – United States defeats England 1–0 in the 1950 FIFA World Cup, August 5 – A bomb-laden B-29 Superfortress crashes into a residential area in California,17 are killed,68 injured. He is unsuccessful, and it is not reinstated until 1958, September 4 The comic strip Beetle Bailey is created by Mort Walker. Darlington Raceway is the site of the inaugural Southern 500, the first 500-mile NASCAR race, September 5 – Viking Press publishes On the Road by Jack Kerouac. September 7 – The game show Truth or Consequences debuts on television, September 8 – The Defense Production Act is enacted into law in the U. S. shaping American military contracting for the next 60 years. September 9 – The U. S. state of California celebrates its centennial anniversary, September 15 – Korean War – Battle of Inchon, Allied troops commanded by Douglas MacArthur land in Inchon, occupied by North Korea, to begin a U. N. counteroffensive. September 30 – NSC-68 is enacted by President Truman, setting U. S. foreign policy for the next 20 years, October 2 – The comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz is first published in 7 U. S. newspapers
5.
1952 in the United States
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Events from the year 1952 in the United States of America. President, Harry S. Truman Vice President, Alben W. Barkley Chief Justice and he co-founds the rock band KISS and changes his name to Paul Stanley. February 2 – A tropical storm forms just north of Cuba moving northeast, the storm makes landfall in southern Florida the next day. It is the earliest reported landfall from a storm. February 6 – In the United States, a heart is used for the first time in a human patient. February 20 – Emmett Ashford becomes the first African-American umpire in organized baseball, March 20 – The United States Senate ratifies a peace treaty with Japan. March 21 – Tornadoes ravage the lower Mississippi River Valley, leaving 208 dead, March 22 – Wernher von Braun publishes the first in his series of articles entitled Man Will Conquer Space Soon. Including ideas for manned flights to Mars and the Moon, March 29 – U. S. President Harry S. Truman announces that he will not seek reelection. April 15 – The United States B-52 Stratofortress flies for the first time, april 23 – A nuclear test is held in the Nevada desert. April 28 – The Treaty of San Francisco goes into effect, april 29 – Lever House officially opens in New York City, heralding a new age of commercial architecture in the United States. May 3 – U. S. lieutenant colonels Joseph O. Fletcher, june 14 – The keel is laid for the U. S. nuclear submarine USS Nautilus. June 19 – The United States Army Special Forces is created, several alleged UFOs tracked on multiple radars. Jets scramble on several occasions and the objects take evasive action, july 21 – The 7.3 Mw Kern County earthquake strikes Southern California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI, killing 12 and injuring hundreds. July 25 – Puerto Rico becomes a self-governing commonwealth of the United States, August 29 – John Cages 433 premieres in Woodstock, New York. Walton Lillehei and Dr. F. John Lewis perform the first open-heart surgery at the University of Minnesota, september 23 – Republican vice presidential candidate Richard Nixon gives his Checkers speech. October 12 – The Gamma Sigma Sigma National Service Sorority is founded in New York City at Panhellenic Tower, october 14 – The United Nations begins work in the new United Nations building in New York City. October 16 – Limelight opens in London, writer/actor/director/producer Charlie Chaplin arrives by ocean liner, october 1 to 31 – With an average coast-to-coast precipitation of 0.54 inches or 13.4 megatons. November 4 United States presidential election,1952, Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower defeats Democratic Governor of Illinois Adlai Stevenson, the U. S. National Security Agency is founded
6.
1953 in the United States
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Events from the year 1953 in the United States. January 14 – The CIA-sponsored Robertson Panel first meets to discuss the UFO phenomenon, january 19 – 68% of all television sets in the United States are tuned into I Love Lucy to watch Lucy give birth. January 20 – Dwight D. Eisenhower succeeds Harry S. Truman as President of the United States, january 22 – The Crucible, a drama by Arthur Miller, opens on Broadway. February 5 – Walt Disneys 14th animated film, Peter Pan, february 11 – President Dwight D. Eisenhower refuses a clemency appeal for Ethel and Julius Rosenberg. February 13 – Transsexual Christine Jorgensen returns to New York after successful sexual reassignment surgery in Denmark, february 19 – Georgia approves the first literature censorship board in the United States. March 17 – The first nuclear test of Operation Upshot–Knothole is conducted in Nevada, march 19 – The 25th Academy Awards ceremony is held. March 31 – Due to increasingly lower ridership, Staten Island Rapid Transit closes 2 of its 3 passenger lines, may 11 – The 1953 Waco tornado outbreak, a F5 tornado hits in the downtown section of Waco, Texas, killing 114. May 25 – Nuclear testing, at the Nevada Test Site, june 8 – Flint–Worcester tornado outbreak sequence, a tornado kills 115 in Flint, Michigan. June 9 CIA Technical Services Staff head Sidney Gottlieb approves of the use of LSD in a MKULTRA subproject, Flint–Worcester tornado outbreak sequence, a tornado spawned from the same storm system as the Flint tornado hits in Worcester, Massachusetts, killing 94. June 19 – The U. S. executes Julius and Ethel Rosenberg for spying for the USSR, june 30 – The first Chevrolet Corvette is built at Flint, Michigan. July 18 – Howard Hawkss musical film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, starring Marilyn Monroe, July 26 – The Short Creek raid is carried out on a polygynous Mormon sect in Arizona. July 27 – The Korean War ends, the United States, the Peoples Republic of China, North Korea, august 5 – Operation Big Switch, prisoners of war are repatriated after the Korean War. August 17 – The first planning session of Narcotics Anonymous is held in Southern California, august 18 – The second Kinsey Report, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, on American sexual habits, is issued. August 19 – Cold War, the CIA helps to overthrow the government ofs Mohammed Mossadegh in Iran, august 20 – The United States returns to West Germany 382 ships it had captured during World War II. October – The United States tests the hydrogen bomb, october 5 – Earl Warren is appointed Chief Justice of the United States by U. S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower. October 10 – Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea is concluded in Washington D. C, october 12 – The play The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial opens at Plymouth Theatre, New York. October 30 – Cold War, U. S. President Dwight D, december – Hugh Hefner publishes the first issue of Playboy magazine, it sells 54,175 copies at $.50 each. December 6 – With the NBC Symphony Orchestra, conductor Arturo Toscanini performs what he claims is his favorite Beethoven symphony, Eroica, the live performance is broadcast nationwide on radio, and later released on records and CD
7.
Flag of the United States
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The flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the current design of the U. S. flag is its 27th, the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4,1959, the 50-star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21,1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the version of the U. S. flag and has been in use for over 56 years. At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the flag contemporaneously known as the Continental Colors has historically been referred to as the first national flag. The name Grand Union was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the American flag, the flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign. However, an East India Company flag could have nine to 13 stripes. In any case, both the stripes and the stars have precedents in classical heraldry, Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. The first official U. S. flag flown during battle was on August 3,1777, Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag, the 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a flag did not yet exist. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee, on May 10,1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. However, the term, Standard, referred to a standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag, the appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows, one arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag
8.
Timeline of United States history
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This is a timeline of United States history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political and economic events in the United States and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of the United States, some dates before September 14,1752, when the British government adopted the Gregorian calendar, may be given in the Old Style
9.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
10.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
11.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
12.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
13.
Missouri
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Missouri is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1821. With over six million residents, it is the eighteenth most populous state, the largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. The capitol is in Jefferson City on the Missouri River, the state is the twenty-first most extensive by area and is geographically diverse. The Northern Plains were once covered by glaciers, then tallgrass prairie, in the South are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation. The Mississippi River forms the border of the state, eventually flowing into the swampy Missouri Bootheel. Humans have inhabited the land now known as Missouri for at least 12,000 years, the Mississippian culture built cities and mounds, before declining in the 1300s. When European explorers arrived in the 1600s they encountered the Osage, the French established Louisiana, a part of New France, and founded Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764, after a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Americans from the Upland South, including enslaved African Americans, rushed into the new Missouri Territory, many from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri. Soon after, heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland, Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States, as memorialized by the Gateway Arch. The Pony Express, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, as a border state, Missouris role in the American Civil War was complex and there were many conflicts within. After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business, today, the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis. Missouris culture blends elements from the Midwestern and Southern United States, the musical styles of ragtime, Kansas City jazz, and St. Louis Blues, developed in Missouri. The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue, and lesser known St. Louis-style barbecue can be found across the state, St. Louis is also a major center of beer brewing, Anheuser-Busch is the largest producer in the world. Missouri wine is produced in the nearby Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks, Missouris alcohol laws are among the most permissive in the United States. Outside of the large cities popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks, U. S. President Harry S. Truman is from Missouri. Other well known Missourians include Mark Twain, Walt Disney, Chuck Berry, some of the largest companies based in the state include Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, and OReilly Auto Parts. Missouri has been called the Mother of the West and the Cave State, however, Missouris most famous nickname is the Show Me State, the state is named for the Missouri River, which was named after the indigenous Missouri Indians, a Siouan-language tribe
14.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
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Alben W. Barkley
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Alben William Barkley was a lawyer and politician from Kentucky who served in both houses of Congress and as the 35th Vice President of the United States from 1949 to 1953. In 1905, he was elected county attorney for McCracken County and he was chosen County Judge/Executive in 1909 and U. S. Representative from Kentuckys First District in 1912, as a Representative, he was a liberal Democrat, supporting President Woodrow Wilsons New Freedom domestic agenda and foreign policy. Endorsing Prohibition and denouncing parimutuel betting, Barkley narrowly lost the 1923 Democratic gubernatorial primary to fellow Representative J. Campbell Cantrill, in 1926, he unseated Republican Senator Richard P. Ernst. In the Senate, he supported the New Deal approach to addressing the Great Depression and was elected to succeed Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson upon Robinsons death in 1937, during his 1938 re-election bid, his opponent A. B. Happy Chandler accused him of using Works Progress Administration employees to campaign for him, neither candidate was charged with any wrongdoing, but in 1939, Congress passed the Hatch Act, making it illegal for federal employees to campaign for political candidates. When World War II focused President Franklin D. Roosevelts attention on foreign affairs and he resigned as floor leader after Roosevelt ignored his advice and vetoed the Revenue Act of 1943. The Democratic caucus supported and unanimously re-elected Barkley to the position of Majority Leader, Barkley had a better working relationship with Harry S. Truman, who ascended to the presidency after Roosevelts death in 1945. With Trumans popularity waning entering the 1948 Democratic National Convention, Barkley gave an address that energized the delegates. Truman selected him as his running mate for the upcoming election, Barkley took an active role in the Truman administration, acting as its primary spokesman, especially after the Korean War necessitated the majority of Trumans attention. He retired but was coaxed back into life, defeating incumbent Republican Senator John Sherman Cooper in 1954. Barkley died of an attack while giving a speech at the Washington. Willie Alben Barkley, the eldest of John Wilson and Electa Eliza Barkleys eight children, was born November 24,1877 and his grandmother, midwife Amanda Barkley, delivered him in the log house she lived in with her husband, Alben, in Wheel, Kentucky. Barkleys parents were tenant farmers who grew tobacco, and his father was an elder in the local Presbyterian church, both parents were religious, opposed to playing cards and alcohol. Occasionally, Barkleys parents would leave him in the care of his grandparents for extended periods, during these times, his grandmother related stories of her relatives. Her childhood playmates included future U. S, Vice President Adlai Stevenson I and James A. McKenzie, a future U. S. Barkley worked on his parents farm and attended school in Lowes, Kentucky, unhappy with his birth name, he adopted Alben William as soon as he was old enough to express his opinion in the matter. In the difficult economy of late 1891, relatives convinced Barkleys father to sell his farm and move to Clinton, to pursue opportunities as a tenant wheat farmer
16.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
17.
Chief Justice of the United States
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The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the United States federal court system and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States. The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices, the eight are the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1789 until 1866, the office was known as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice also serves as a spokesperson for the judicial branch. The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments, when the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the courts opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the courts meetings, in the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the Senate. In modern tradition, the Chief Justice also has the duty of administering the oath of office of the President of the United States. The first Chief Justice was John Jay, the 17th and current Chief Justice is John G. Roberts, Jr. The office was known as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and is still informally referred to using that title. However,28 U. S. C. §1 specifies that the title is Chief Justice of the United States, the title was changed from Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Congress in 1866 at the suggestion of the sixth Chief Justice, Salmon P. Chase. Chase wished to emphasize the Supreme Courts role as a branch of government. The first Chief Justice commissioned using the new title was Melville Fuller in 1888, use of the previous title when referring to Chief Justices John Jay through Roger B. Taney is technically correct, as that was the title during their time on the court. The other eight members of the court are officially Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Chief Justice is the only member of the court to whom the Constitution refers as a Justice, and only in Article I. Article III of the Constitution refers to all members of the Supreme Court simply as Judges, the Chief Justice is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed to sit on the Court by the United States Senate. The salary of the Chief Justice is set by Congress, the Constitution prohibits Congress from lowering the salary of any judge, including the Chief Justice, while that judge holds office. As of 2015, the salary is $258,100 per year, which is higher than that of the Associate Justices. Three serving Associate Justices have received promotions to Chief Justice, Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, Associate Justice Abe Fortas was nominated to the position of Chief Justice of the United States, but his nomination was filibustered by Senate Republicans in 1968. Despite the failed nomination, Fortas remained an Associate Justice until his resignation the following year, there have been 21 individuals nominated for Chief Justice, of whom 17 have been confirmed by the Senate, although a different 17 have served
18.
Fred M. Vinson
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Frederick Fred Moore Vinson was an American politician who served the United States in all three branches of government and was the most prominent member of the Vinson political family. In the legislative branch, he was an member of the United States House of Representatives from Louisa, Kentucky. In the executive branch, he was Secretary of the Treasury under President Harry S. Truman, in the judicial branch, President Truman appointed Vinson the 13th Chief Justice of the United States in 1946. To date, he is the last candidate nominated by a president from the Democratic Party to be confirmed as Chief Justice. As a child he would help his father in the jail, Vinson worked odd jobs while in school. He graduated from Kentucky Normal School in 1908 and enrolled at Centre College, while at Centre, he was a member of the Kentucky Alpha Delta chapter of Phi Delta Theta fraternity. He became a lawyer in Louisa, a town of 2,500 residents. He first ran for and was elected to office as the City Attorney of Louisa and he joined the Army during World War I. Following the war, he was elected as the Commonwealths Attorney for the Thirty-Second Judicial District of Kentucky, Vinson married Julia Roberta Dixon on January 24,1924 in Ashland, Kentucky. In 1924, he ran in an election for his districts seat in Congress after William J. Fields resigned to become the governor of Kentucky. Vinson was elected as a Democrat and then was reelected twice before losing in 1928 and his loss was attributed to his refusal to dissociate his campaign from Alfred E. Smiths presidential campaign. When the position of the American Medical Association on the measure was questioned, while he was in Congress he befriended Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman, a friendship that would last throughout his life. He soon became an advisor, confidant, card player. Vinsons Congressional service ended after he was nominated by Franklin D. Roosevelt on November 26,1937, Roosevelt wanted him to fill a seat vacated by Charles H. Robb on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Vinson was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 9,1937, while he was there, he was designated by Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone on March 2,1942, as chief judge of the United States Emergency Court of Appeals. He served here until his resignation on May 27,1943 and he resigned from the bench to become Director of the Office of Economic Stabilization, an executive agency charged with fighting inflation. He also spent time as Federal Loan Administrator and director of War Mobilization and Reconversion and he was appointed United States Secretary of the Treasury by President Truman and served from July 23,1945, to June 23,1946. Before the war ended, Vinson directed the last of the great war-bond drives, in order to encourage private investment in postwar America, he promoted a tax cut in the Revenue Act of 1945
19.
Sam Rayburn
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He represented Texas 4th congressional district as a Democrat from 1913 to 1961. Rayburn was born in Roane County, Tennessee, on January 6,1882,24 days before Franklin D. Roosevelt and he was the son of Martha Clementine and William Marion Rayburn. In 1887 the Rayburn family moved to a farm near Windom. Rayburn graduated from East Texas Normal College in Commerce and became a schoolteacher and he won election to the Texas House of Representatives, beginning his first term in 1907. He attended the University of Texas School of Law while a state representative, during his third two-year term in the Texas House, he was elected Speaker of the House at the age of twenty-nine. The next year, he won election to the United States House of Representatives in District 4 and he entered Congress in 1913 at the beginning of Woodrow Wilsons presidency and served in office for almost 49 years, until the beginning of John F. Kennedys presidency. For the next 21 years, Rayburn was the leader of the House Democrats and his career as Speaker was interrupted twice, 1947–1949 and 1953–1955, when Republicans controlled the House. During those periods of Republican rule, Rayburn served as Minority Leader, martin Jr. of Massachusetts, actually a close personal friend of Rayburns. Rayburn was instrumental to Lyndon Johnsons ascent to power, particularly his rapid rise to the position of Minority Leader, Johnson had been in the Senate for a mere four years when he assumed the role. Johnson also owed his subsequent elevation to Majority Leader to Rayburn, like Johnson, Rayburn did not sign the Southern Manifesto. Rayburn was a friend of Jaja Wachuku, the first indigenous Speaker of the Nigerian House of Representatives. Although many Texas legislators were on the payroll of public service corporations, when the first check came after I entered the firm, Mr. Thurmond brought to my desk one-third of the amount of the check, explaining what it was for. I never did take a dollar of it, I have been guided by the principle in all my dealings. This practice of refusing to accept fees from clients with interests before the legislature was virtually unheard-of at the time, later, while serving in Congress, a wealthy oil man had a very expensive horse delivered to Rayburns farm in Bonham. No one apparently knew the oil man delivered the horse except him, Rayburn, in shaping legislation, Rayburn preferred working quietly in the background to being in the public spotlight. As Speaker, he won a reputation for fairness and integrity, after he died his estate was valued at just under $300,000, which was mostly land he owned, and the amount of cash he had in various checking accounts was just over $26,000. Rayburn was well known among his colleagues for his after business hours Board of Education meetings in hideaway offices in the House, during these off-the-record sessions, the Speaker and powerful committee chairmen would gather for poker, bourbon, and a frank discussion of politics. Rayburn alone determined who received an invitation to these gatherings, to be invited to one was a high honor
20.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
21.
Party leaders of the United States Senate
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The Senate Majority and Minority Leaders are two United States Senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate. They are elected to their positions in the Senate by their party caucuses, the Senate Democratic Caucus. By rule, the Presiding Officer gives the Majority Leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate, the Assistant Majority and Minority Leaders of the United States Senate are the second-ranking members of each partys leadership. The main function of the Majority and Minority Whips is to gather votes on major issues, because they are the second ranking member of the Senate, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader. Before 1969, the titles were Majority Whip and Minority Whip. The Senate is currently composed of 52 Republicans,46 Democrats, the current leaders are Republican Majority Leader Mitch McConnell of Kentucky and Democratic Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York. The current Assistant Majority Leader is Republican John Cornyn of Texas, the current Assistant Minority Leader/Whip is Democrat Dick Durbin of Illinois. The Democrats began the practice of electing floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority, John W. Kern was a Democratic Senator from Indiana. While the title was not official, he is considered to be the first Senate party leader from 1913 through 1917, the Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as President of the United States Senate. The Constitution also calls for a President pro tempore to serve as the leader of the body when the President of the Senate is absent, for these reasons, it is the Majority Leader who, in practice, manages the Senate. This is in contrast to the House of Representatives where the elected Speaker of the House has a deal of discretionary power. The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920, the Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925. gov Republican Majority Democratic Minority
22.
Scott W. Lucas
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Scott Wike Lucas was an American attorney and politician. A member of the Democratic Party, he represented Illinois in the U. S. House of Representatives and he was the Senate Majority Leader from 1948 to 1950. Lucas was born on a tenant farm near Chandlerville, in Cass County and he was the youngest of six children of William Douglas and Sarah Catherine Lucas. His parents named him after Scott Wike, a Democrat who served a representative from Illinois, after attending public schools, he began his studies at Illinois Wesleyan University. During college, he was active in athletics He lettered in football, basketball, Lucas graduated from Wesleyan with a law degree in 1914 and was admitted to the bar the following year. He served as a schoolteacher before entering private practice in Havana, during World War I, he served in the US Army and rose to become a lieutenant. Lucas returned to his law practice following his service and served as a states attorney for Mason County from 1920 to 1925. He also worked as a commander of the Illinois Department of the American Legion, in 1932, he was defeated by William H. Dieterich for the Democratic nomination to challenge Republican incumbent Otis F. Glenn for a United States Senate seat from Illinois. Lucas was later appointed chairman of State Tax Commission by Governor Henry Horner, in 1934, following the death of Speaker of the House Henry Thomas Rainey, Lucas was elected to the House of Representatives from Illinoiss 20th congressional district. He established himself as a supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal, working to pass the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936. However, Lucas disagreed with Roosevelt over the presidents court-packing plan, which Lucas denounced as useless, selfish, and futile. In 1938, after William Dieterich declined to run for re-election, Lucas was elected to the U. S. Senate over Republican Richard J. Lyons, with support from Harry Truman, he was elected party whip in 1946. Lucas, a moderate, drew support from conservative and liberal wings of the party. He took over the Midwest campaign for Truman and was credited with assisting Trumans 1948 re-election, when Alben Barkley became vice-president and resigned his seat, Lucas became majority leader. However, he was unable to build a consensus as Senate Majority Leader with the onset of the anticommunist era, Lucas had become a target of Republican wrath with loss of political power in the Senate and the White House. Dirksen would go on to easily defeat Lucas with a 54% to 46% victory, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. A film clip Longines Chronoscope with Scott Lucas is available at the Internet Archive
23.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
24.
Ernest McFarland
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Ernest William McFarland was an American politician and, with Warren Atherton, is considered one of the Fathers of the G. I. He is the only Arizonan to serve in the highest office in all three branches of Arizona government—two at the level, one at the federal level. He was a Democratic Senator from Arizona from 1941 to 1953 before serving as the tenth Governor of Arizona from 1955 to 1959, finally McFarland sat as Chief Justice on the Arizona Supreme Court in 1968. During World War I, he served in the United States Navy, following surgery by Navy surgeons, he was discharged in 1919 and sent to live in a drier climate. Thus, after the war McFarland moved to Phoenix, Arizona and he gathered enough money to pay for tuition and graduated with a law and political science degree from Stanford University in 1921. He moved back to Arizona, passed the bar exam, and he soon developed an expertise in agricultural and water-use legislation, which would suit Arizona well in the future. S. The twenty-eight-year Democratic incumbent, Henry F. Ashurst, appeared to be unbeatable, while Ashurst remained in Washington, D. C. McFarland canvassed the state, giving speeches on water issues and World War II in Europe, by a three-to-one margin, he defeated Ashurst in the primary and went on to win the general election. Senator McFarland, along with Senator Carl T. Hayden, lobbied for the Central Arizona Project aimed at providing Arizonas share of the Colorado River to the state. His efforts failed while he was a senator, however, they laid a foundation for the eventual passage of the CAP in the late 1960s. Not forgetting his roots, McFarland became interested in legislation to benefit veterans returning from World War II. He outlined his proposals before the American Legion in a speech in 1943, bill with veterans organizations and members of Congress. After Democratic Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas was defeated in 1950 due to his link with Trumans administration and he served in that position for two years. In 1952, he was defeated by Barry Goldwater in the national Republican landslide that year led by Dwight D. Eisenhower, McFarland was elected governor of Arizona in 1954 and reelected in 1956. He worked with members of the Bureau of Reclamation to pick a location for the Glen Canyon Dam, shortly after he returned from the Senate, he and several friends formed the Arizona Television Company to start a television station in Phoenix. McFarland had long been intrigued by the still-new medium, in 1955, shortly after he became governor, he opened KTVK, Phoenixs third television station. He chose the letters because TV would be our middle name. KTVK was the ABC affiliate for much of Arizona until 1995 and it remained in the hands of McFarlands family until 1999
25.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona
26.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
27.
81st United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from January 3,1949 to January 3,1951, during the fifth and sixth years of Harry S. Trumans presidency. The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Sixteenth Census of the United States in 1940, both chambers had a Democratic majority. § 403a May 5,1950, Uniform Code of Military Justice,169,64 Stat.109 October 25,1949, Hospital Survey and Construction Amendments of 1949, ch. 81–380,63 Stat.898 October 26,1949, Fair Labor Standards Amendment,910,29 U. S. C. ch.8 October 31,1949, Agricultural Act of 1949, ch. 792,63 Stat.1051 May 10,1950, National Science Foundation Act,149,42 U. S. C. ch.16 September 8,1950, Defense Production Act of 1950, Pub. L. 81–774,64 Stat.798 September 12,1950, Budget and Accounting Procedures Act of 1950,946,64 Stat.832 September 23,1950, McCarran Internal Security Act, ch. 987,50 U. S. C. §781 September 30,1950, Performance Rating Act,1123,64 Stat.1098 August 15,1950, Omnibus Medical Research Act, Pub. L. 81–692,64 Stat.443 December 29,1950, Celler–Kefauver Act,1184,64 Stat.1125 January 12,1951, Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950, ch. Arends Conference Chair, Roy O. Woodruff House Democratic Caucus Senators are popularly elected every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Senators are ordered first by state, and then by seniority, the count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress. Duke Chaplain, James Shera Montgomery Bernard Braskamp Clerk, Ralph R. Roberts Doorkeeper, William Mosley Miller Parliamentarian, Lewis Deschler Postmaster, Finis E. Scott Sergeant at Arms, official Congressional Directory for the 81st Congress, 1st Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 81st Congress, 2nd Session
28.
82nd United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from January 3,1951 to January 3,1953, during the last two years of the second administration of U. S. President Harry S. Truman. The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Sixteenth Census of the United States in 1940, both chambers had a Democratic majority. March 29,1951, Ethel and Julius Rosenberg are convicted of conspiracy to commit espionage, on April 5 they are sentenced to receive the death penalty. April 11,1951, U. S. President Harry S Truman relieves General Douglas MacArthur of his Far Eastern commands. September 5,1951, Treaty of San Francisco, In San Francisco, october 24,1951, U. S. President Harry Truman declares an official end to war with Germany. November 10,1951, Direct dial coast-to-coast telephone service begins in the United States, december 31,1951, The Marshall Plan expires after distributing more than $13.3 billion USD in foreign aid to rebuild Europe. March 29,1952, U. S. President Harry S. Truman announces that he not seek reelection. June 19,1952, The Special Forces are created, July 25,1952, Puerto Rico became a Commonwealth of the United States, an unincorporated organized territory, with the ratification of its constitution. November 4,1952, United States presidential election,1952, Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower defeats Democrat Adlai Stevenson, october 10,1951, Mutual Security Act, ch. 479,65 Stat.373 June 27,1952, Immigration and Nationality Act, 82–414 July 14,1952, McGuire Act, Pub. L. 82–542,15 U. S. C. §42 July 16,1952, Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act, 82–550 July 16,1952, Federal Coal Mine Safety Act Amendments of 1952, Pub. L. 82–552 July 16,1952, Wire Fraud Act of 1952, arends Republican Conference Chairman, Clifford R. Hope House Democratic Caucus Senators are popularly elected every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers, the count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress. Duke Chaplain, Bernard Braskamp Clerk, Ralph R. Roberts Doorkeeper, William Mosley Fishbait Miller Parliamentarian, Lewis Deschler Postmaster, Finis E. Scott Sergeant at Arms, official Congressional Directory for the 82nd Congress, 1st Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 82nd Congress, 2nd Session
29.
Governor of Alabama
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The Governor of Alabama is the chief executive of the U. S. state of Alabama. The governor is the head of the branch of Alabamas state government and is charged with enforcing state laws. The governor has the power to approve or veto bills passed by the Alabama Legislature, to convene the legislature. The governor is also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. There have officially been 53 governors of the state of Alabama, the first governor, William Wyatt Bibb, served as the only governor of the Alabama Territory. Five people have served as acting governor, bringing the number of people serving as governor to 58. Four governors have served multiple terms, Bibb Graves, Jim Folsom. Officially, these terms are numbered only with the number of their first term. William D. Jelks also served non-consecutive terms, but his first term was in an acting capacity, the longest-serving governor was George Wallace, who served sixteen years over four terms. The shortest term for a governor was that of Hugh McVay, who served four. Lurleen Wallace, wife of George Wallace, was the first and so far only woman to serve as governor of Alabama, the current governor is Republican Robert J. Bentley, who took office on January 17,2011. For the period before Alabama Territory was formed, see the list of Governors of Mississippi Territory, Alabama Territory was formed on March 3,1817, from Mississippi Territory. It had only one appointed by the President of the United States before it became a state. Alabama was admitted to the Union on December 14,1819, following the end of the American Civil War, Alabama during Reconstruction was part of the Third Military District, which exerted some control over governor appointments and elections. Alabama was readmitted to the Union on July 14,1868, the first Alabama Constitution, ratified in 1819, provided that a governor be elected every two years, limited to serve no more than four out of every six years. This limit remained in place until the constitution of 1868, which simply allowed governors to serve terms of two years, the current constitution of 1901 increased terms to four years, but prohibited governors from succeeding themselves. Amendment 282 to the constitution, passed in 1968, allowed governors to succeed themselves once, the constitution had no set date for the commencement of a governors term until 1901, when it was set at the first Monday after the second Tuesday in the January following an election. The office of lieutenant governor was created in 1868, abolished in 1875, earlier constitutions said the powers of the governor devolved upon the successor, rather than them necessarily becoming governor, but the official listing includes these as full governors
30.
Jim Folsom
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James Elisha Folsom Sr. commonly known as Jim Folsom or Big Jim Folsom, was the 42nd governor of the U. S. state of Alabama, having served from 1947 to 1951, and again from 1955 to 1959. Born in Coffee County in southeastern Alabama, Folsom was among the first southern governors to embrace integration and enforcement of civil rights for African Americans. In his Christmas message on December 25,1949, he said, As long as the Negroes are held down by deprivation and lack of opportunity, after service in the United States Merchant Marine in the early 1930s, Folsom became an insurance salesman. He attended the University of Alabama, Samford University in Birmingham, before his gubernatorial campaigns, he won a race only once, as delegate to the 1944 Democratic National Convention. He was a supporter of keeping Vice President Henry A. Wallace on the ticket, rather than replacing him with Harry S. Truman of Missouri. Folsom was elected governor for the first time in 1946 and he waged a colorful campaign with a hillbilly band, brandishing a mop and bucket that he said would clean out the Capitol. Johnston dropped the suit in June for a settlement from Folsom. However, despite the paternity suit and other scandals that arose during his administration, the Alabama Constitution at that time forbade a governor from succeeding himself, then a common provision in most southern states. Folsom was 68 and employed the slogan the little mans big friend, in 1958, Governor Folsom commuted a death sentence imposed on James E. Wilson, an African American sentenced to death for a $1.95 robbery. The Wilson case sparked protests, but some segregationists called for Folsom not to commute the sentence. On the other hand, Folsom did not intervene in another case, that of Jeremiah Reeves. In 1962, Folsom again ran for governor against his one-time protégé George C, a sardonic slogan emerged during that campaign, referring to Folsoms reputation for taking graft, Something for everyone and a little bit for Big Jim. Folsom sometimes referred to the emoluments of office and once told a campaign crowd and that crowd I got it from, you had to steal it to get it. I stole for you, and you, and you, Folsoms campaign was also damaged by a television appearance where he appeared to have been seriously intoxicated and unable to remember his own childrens names. Both the appearance and the supposed slogan hurt him with the middle class. Folsom ran again for governor in 1966, when he faced three other leading Democrats in the primary, former U. S, in the general election Lurleen Wallace handily defeated the Republican nominee, James D. Martin, a one-term U. S. representative from Gadsden. Folsom never again was elected to public office, Folsom ran several times for public office but was not taken seriously by his political opponents. The former governor was plagued by ill health in the years of his life
31.
Gordon Persons
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Seth Gordon Persons was an American Democratic politician who was the 43rd Governor of Alabama from 1951 to 1955. He was born and died in Montgomery, Alabama, the Dauphin Island Bridge south of Mobile is formally named for him. Persons built a business running electrical lines in rural Alabama, in addition to financial gain. When running for office in 1950, Persons gained notoriety by touring the state in a helicopter and he won the Democratic nomination by defeating a crowded field that included former governor Chauncey Sparks. In office, his accomplishments included abolishing flogging in Alabamas prisons, advocating for the establishment of Alabama Public Television. Persons largely accomplished his goal of having four years of no fighting, maintaining a truce among the various wings of the state Democratic Party, at the end of his term, Persons ordered the National Guard into Phenix City following the assassination of Attorney-General-elect Albert Patterson. After leaving office as governor, Persons never sought public office again. Persons was an alumnus of Auburn University, though he attended for one year. While at Auburn, Persons served as president of a student organization that traveled to away football games, Gordon Persons at Find a Grave Encyclopedia of Alabama biography of Persons
32.
Governor of Arizona
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The Governor of Arizona is the head of the executive branch of Arizonas state government and the commander-in-chief of the states military forces. Twenty-two people have served as governor over 26 distinct terms, one governor, Evan Mecham, was successfully impeached, and one, Fife Symington III, resigned upon being convicted of a felony. The longest-serving governor was Hunt, who was elected seven times, bolin had the shortest tenure, dying less than five months after succeeding as governor. Four governors were born in Arizona, Campbell, Sidney Preston Osborn, Rose Mofford. Arizona has had four governors, the most in the United States. The current Governor is Doug Ducey, who was elected on November 4,2014 and this proposed territory consisted of the part of New Mexico Territory south of 33°40 N. On April 2, they elected a governor, Lewis Owings, the provisional territory was to exist until such time as an official territory was created, but that proposal was rejected by the U. S. Congress at the time. On March 16,1861, soon before the American Civil War broke out, Lewis Owings remained as territorial governor. The Confederacy took ownership of the territory on August 1,1861, when led by Lieutenant Colonel John Baylor won decisive control of the territory. The territory was organized on February 14,1862, on March 20,1862, Baylor issued an order to kill all the adult Apache and take their children into slavery. When Confederate President Jefferson Davis learned of this order, he strongly disapproved and demanded an explanation. Baylor wrote a letter December 29,1862, to justify his decision, by that time, the government of Confederate Arizona was in exile in San Antonio, Texas, as the territory had been effectively lost to Union forces in July 1862, no new governor was appointed. For the period before Arizona Territory was formed, see the list of Governors of New Mexico Territory, Arizona Territory was formed on February 24,1863 from New Mexico Territory, remaining a territory for 49 years. On January 18,1867, the corner of the territory was transferred to the state of Nevada. The state of Arizona was admitted to the Union on February 14,1912, the state constitution of 1912 called for the election of a governor every two years. The term was increased to four years by a 1968 amendment, gubernatorial terms begin on the first Monday in the January following the election. Governors who have served the two term limit can run again after four years out of office. Arizona is one of seven states which does not have a lieutenant governor, instead, in the event of a vacancy in the office of governor, the Secretary of State, if elected, succeeds to the office
33.
Dan Edward Garvey
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Dan Edward Garvey was the ninth Secretary of State of Arizona and the eighth Governor of Arizona from 1948 to 1951. He was the first of many people to ascend to the office of Governor from the Secretaryship, born in Vicksburg, Mississippi, Garvey graduated from St. Aloysius High School and worked for the Illinois Central Railroad. In 1909, he moved to the Arizona Territory to work as an accountant for Randolph Railroad Co. a company later absorbed by the Southern Pacific Railroad. Later, he entered the business, but it failed during the Great Depression. Garvey was hired by the Pima County treasurers office in 1931 and he became Pima County treasurer in 1935 and Tucson city treasurer in 1938. Garvey became known throughout Arizona during the two decades as a dedicated public servant. He moved to Phoenix in 1940 when he was hired as assistant to Secretary of State Harry M. Moore, upon Moores death in 1942, Garvey was appointed to succeed him by Governor Sidney P. Osborn, himself the first Secretary of State during most of the 1910s. Garvey was elected to the office twice, in 1944 and 1946, Garvey assumed the governorship, in accordance with Arizona law, when Osborn died on May 25,1948. That fall, Garvey won a term on the Democratic ticket by a fair margin. He presided over one of the largest growth periods in Arizona history between 1948-1951, a large majority of Arizona newcomers were Republicans and Arizona became a bona fide two-party state for the first time. Garvey was defeated in the Democratic primary in 1950 by State Auditor Ana Frohmiller in another cluttered primary, at the end of his elected term as governor, Garvey was appointed Arizona administrator for the federal Reconstruction Finance Corporation. In 1955, Governor Ernest W. McFarland appointed him state examiner, a post he held until his retirement in 1969
34.
John Howard Pyle
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John Howard Pyle was the ninth Governor of the U. S. state of Arizona, serving from 1951 to 1955. A1930 graduate of Arizona State University, he also was a member of Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity. Born in 1906 in Sheridan, Wyoming, Pyle was the first governor of Arizona to be born in the 20th century and was the Program Director of KFAD Radio in Phoenix from 1930 to 1951. He also served as a war correspondent during World War II, Pyle defeated pioneering female politician Ana Frohmiller in his 1950 campaign for governor. He served as Governor of Arizona from 1951 to 1955 and he received honorary LL. D. degrees from University of Redlands, Chapman University, Arizona State University, Lebanon College and Bradley University. This move alienated many voters in the state after photographs of children being forcibly removed from their distraught mothers appeared in the newspapers. Pyle subsequently lost his 1954 re-election bid to former Democratic Senator Ernest McFarland, Pyle was an aide to President Dwight D. Eisenhower in the late 1950s. Pyle died on November 29,1987 in Tempe, Arizona, records of Howard Pyle, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library National Governors Association John Howard Pyle at Find a Grave The Political Graveyard
35.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
36.
Governor of Arkansas
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The Governor of Arkansas is the head of the executive branch of Arkansass state government and the commander-in-chief of the states military forces. The state has had 45 elected governors, as well as 10 acting governors who assumed powers and duties following the resignation or death of the governor, before becoming a state, Arkansas Territory had four governors appointed to it by the President of the United States. Orval Faubus served the longest term as governor, being elected six times to serve twelve years. Bill Clinton, elected five times over two terms, fell only one month short of twelve years. The current governor is Asa Hutchinson, who took office on January 13,2015 after his election on November 4,2014, for the period before Arkansas Territory was formed, see the list of Governors of Missouri Territory. Arkansaw Territory was split from Missouri Territory on July 4,1819 and it lost land twice, on November 15,1824, and May 6,1828, with the land being made unorganized territory both times, this land eventually became part of Oklahoma. As secretary of the territory from 1819 to 1829, Robert Crittenden served as acting governor whenever the governor was not in the state. This meant he was in fact the first person to perform the office of Governor of Arkansas Territory, Arkansas was admitted to the Union on June 15,1836. It seceded from the Union on May 6,1861, following the end of the American Civil War, it was part of the Fourth Military District. Arkansas was readmitted to the Union on June 22,1868, the first state constitution of 1836 established four-year terms for governors, which was lowered to two years in the 1874, and current, constitution. Amendment 63 to the Arkansas Constitution, passed in 1984, increased the terms of governor and lieutenant governor to four years. Governors were originally limited only to serving no more than eight out of twelve years. A referendum in 1992 limited governors to two terms and this led to some situations where the governorship changed hands in quick succession, due to senate terms ending or new senate presidents being elected. For example, after John Sebastian Little resigned in 1907, three senate presidents acted as governor before the elected governor took office. Should the president of the senate be similarly incapacitated, the next in line for the governorship was the speaker of the house of representatives. The 1864 constitution created the office of lieutenant governor who would act as president of the senate. The 1868 constitution maintained the position, but the 1874 constitution removed it, amendment 6 to the constitution, passed in 1914 but not recognized until 1925, recreated the office of lieutenant governor, who becomes governor in case of vacancy of the governors office. The governor and lieutenant governor are not elected on the same ticket, Arkansas was a strongly Democratic state before the Civil War, electing only candidates from the Democratic party
37.
Sid McMath
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Sidney Sanders McMath was a decorated U. S. McMath remained loyal to President Harry S. Truman during the Dixiecrat rebellion of 1948, campaigning throughout the South for Trumans re-election. As a former governor, McMath led the opposition to segregationist Governor Orval Faubus following the 1957 Little Rock school crisis and he later became one of the nations foremost trial lawyers, representing thousands of injured persons in precedent-setting cases and mentoring several generations of young attorneys. McMath was born in a log cabin on the old McMath home place near Magnolia, Columbia County, Arkansas. After years of wrangling horses and bad-luck wildcatting in the Southwest Arkansas oil fields, there, he sold the last of his horses and took a job as a barber. Nettie went to work as a manicurist and for the Malco movie theater as a ticket vendor and he was elected president of his class each of his high school years, the last of which he won the state Golden Gloves welterweight boxing title. He attended Henderson State College and the University of Arkansas, where he was elected president of the student body and he was a member of the Arkansas Pershing Rifles military fraternal organization, Blue Key, and Sigma Alpha Epsilon. He graduated from the Universitys School of Law in 1936, McMath received a reserve ROTC commission as a second lieutenant in the Marines upon graduation from college. During World War II he served with the Marines after voluntarily returning to duty in 1940. He received a promotion to Lieutenant Colonel and was awarded the Silver Star. The citation for the former, personally signed by Admiral W. F, bull Halsey, lauded McMaths extraordinary heroism. and disregard for his own safety above and beyond the call of duty was an inspiration to the officers and men who observed him. Shortly afterward, McMath was stricken with malaria and filariasis and hospitalized for months in New Zealand. He then served in the Marine Corps headquarters in Washington, D. C. planning an invasion of the Japanese home islands. Lt. Col. McMath was discharged from duty in December 1945. He resumed his activity with the Marine Corps Reserve following his tenure as governor and he held the office of National President of the 3d Marine Division Association 1960–61. He was promoted to Major General on November 7,1966, in 1967, the general served as Assistant Deputy Commander, Fleet Marine Force, Atlantic, during the summer training period. He served a second brief Reserve tour in Vietnam, with the 3rd Marine Division, in 1967, he helped found the Marine Corps JROTC at Catholic High School for Boys in Little Rock, Arkansas, which became one of the top JROTC units in the nation. In early 1946, McMath and other veterans returning from World War II banded together to fight corruption in the Hot Springs city government, Hot Springs at the time was a national gambling mecca frequented by organized crime figures from Chicago, New York City, and other metropolitan areas. Casinos flourished and hotels advertised the availability of prostitutes, Law enforcement officers were on the payroll of the local organization headed by long-serving Mayor Leo McLaughlin
38.
Governor of California
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The position was created in 1849, the year before California became a state. The current governor is Jerry Brown, a Democrat who was inaugurated January 3,2011, in October 2013, Jerry Brown surpassed Earl Warren for the longest cumulative period of time served as governor. Governors are elected by ballot and serve terms of four years. Governors take office on the first Monday after January 1 after their election, there are two methods available to remove a governor before the expiration of the gubernatorial term of office. Impeachment and removal by the legislature The governor can be impeached for misconduct in office by the State Assembly, recall by the voters Petitions signed by California state voters equal in number to 12% of the last vote for the office of governor can launch a gubernatorial recall election. The voters can vote on whether or not to recall the incumbent governor. If a majority of the voters in the vote to recall the governor. The 2003 California recall began with a drive that successfully forced sitting Democratic Governor Gray Davis into a special recall election. It marked the first time in the history of California that a governor faced a recall election and he was subsequently voted out of office, becoming the second governor in the history of the United States to be recalled after Lynn Frazier of North Dakota in 1921. He was replaced by Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger, the Lieutenant Governor of California is separately elected during the same election, not jointly as the running mate of the gubernatorial candidate. California has had a governor and a lieutenant governor of different parties 26 of the past 31 years, the lieutenant governor is also the President of the California State Senate. In practice, there is an agreement for the Lieutenant Governor not to perform more than perfunctory duties while the Governor is away from the state. This agreement was violated when Mike Curb was in office, as he signed several executive orders at odds with the Brown administration when Brown was out of the state. Court rulings have upheld the lieutenant governors right to perform the duties, peter Burnett had the longest post-governorship,44 years. He left office in 1851 and died in 1895, excluding governors who died in office, Robert Waterman had the shortest post-governorship. He died on April 12,1891, a three months and four days after the expiration of his term. Sworn in at the age of 30, J. Neely Johnson was the youngest governor from 1856 to 1858, sworn in at the age of 72, Jerry Brown became the oldest governor in 2011. Earl Warren was the governor to serve more than two consecutive terms in office
39.
Earl Warren
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Earl Warren was an American jurist and politician, who served as the 30th Governor of California and later the 14th Chief Justice of the United States. Warren is the person elected to three consecutive terms as Governor of California, and with those three elected terms he is second only to Jerry Brown for total gubernatorial wins in California. Before holding these positions, he was the District Attorney for Alameda County, California, Warren was the nominee of the Republican Party for Vice President in 1948, as the running mate of Thomas E. Dewey. He was appointed to chair what became known as the Warren Commission, which was formed to investigate the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Earl Warren was born in Los Angeles, on March 19,1891, to Mathias H. Warren, a Norwegian immigrant whose family name was Varren, and his wife, Crystal. Mathias Warren was an employee of the Southern Pacific Railroad. After he was blacklisted for joining in a strike, the moved to Bakersfield, California. Matthias worked in a repair yard, and Earl had summer jobs in railroading. Earl Warren grew up in Bakersfield, where he attended Washington Junior High and his father was murdered there by an unknown person during a robbery. In 1912 Warren graduated with a B. A. in political science from the University of California, in 1914 he earned his J. D. at the University of California, Berkeley School of Law. He was a member of The Gun Club secret society, and the Sigma Phi Society, as an undergraduate, Warren also played clarinet in the Cal Band. Warren maintained a friendship with fellow Cal student Robert Gordon Sproul. In 1948, at the Republican National Convention, Sproul would nominate Warren for Vice President, Warren was admitted to the California bar in 1914. Warren worked a year for Associated Oil Company in San Francisco, then joined Robinson & Robinson, in August 1917, Warren enlisted in the U. S. Army for World War I service. Assigned to the 91st Division at Camp Lewis, Washington, 1st Lieutenant Earl Warren was discharged in 1918. After the war, he served as a clerk of the Judicial Committee for the 1919 Session of the California State Assembly, then as the Deputy City Attorney in Oakland, Warren came to the attention of powerful Republican Joseph R. Knowland, publisher of The Oakland Tribune. He was strongly influenced by California Governor Hiram Johnson and other leaders of the Progressive Era to oppose corruption, in 1925, Warren was appointed as the District Attorney of Alameda County. Warren was re-elected to three four-year terms, Warren vigorously investigated allegations that a deputy sheriff was taking bribes in connection with street-paving arrangements
40.
Governor of Colorado
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The Governor of the State of Colorado is the head of the executive branch of Colorados state government and the commander-in-chief of the states military forces. Seven people served as governor of Colorado Territory over eight terms, since statehood, there have been 36 governors, serving 41 distinct terms. The longest-serving governors were Richard Dick Lamm and Roy Romer, who served twelve years over three terms. Thus, Peabody served only a few minutes as governor, the current governor is John Hickenlooper, who took office on January 11,2011. The self-proclaimed Provisional Government of the Territory of Jefferson was organized on November 7,1859, Jefferson Territory included all of present-day Colorado, but extended about 3 miles farther east,138 miles farther north, and about 50 miles farther west. The territory was never recognized by the government in the tumultuous days before the American Civil War. The Jefferson Territory had only one governor, Robert Williamson Steele and he proclaimed the territory dissolved on June 6,1861, several months after the official formation of the Colorado Territory, but only days after the arrival of its first governor. For the period before Colorado Territory was formed, see the lists of Governors of New Mexico Territory, Utah Territory, Kansas Territory, the State of Colorado was admitted to the Union on August 1,1876. To serve as governor, one must be at least 30 years old, be a citizen of the United States, and have been a resident of the state for at least two years prior to election. The state constitution of 1876 originally called for election of the governor two years, with their term beginning on the second Tuesday of the January following the election. An amendment passed in 1956, taking effect in 1959, increased terms to four years, originally, there was no term limit applied to the governor, a 1990 amendment allowed governors to succeed themselves only once. There is however no limit on the number of terms one may serve as long as one who has served the two term limit is out of office for four years. Should the office of governor become vacant, the lieutenant governor becomes governor, the lieutenant governor was elected separately from the governor until a 1968 amendment to the constitution made it so that they are elected on the same ticket. There are four living former governors of Colorado, the oldest being Roy Romer, the most recent death of a former governor was that of John David Vanderhoof, who died on September 19,2013
41.
Walter Walford Johnson
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Walter Walfred Johnson was a United States businessman and Democratic politician who served as the 32nd Governor of the State of Colorado from 1950 to 1951. Walter Walfred Johnson was born in Pueblo, Colorado on April 16,1904 and he married Neva Morrow in 1922. The couple had two children, Winnifred and Walfred, Johnson developed real estate and insurance businesses in Pueblo. In 1940, Johnson was elected to the Colorado State Senate, in 1948, he was elected Lieutenant Governor of Colorado. In April 1950, Colorado Governor William Lee Knous resigned to become a district judge in Denver. Johnson succeeded Knous as governor and completed the remaining nine months of Knous term, Johnson ran unsuccessfully against Republican Dan Thornton for a full gubernatorial term in 1950. In 1970, Johnson retired to Tempe, Arizona and he died there after a brief illness on March 23,1987, at the age of eighty two and is buried at Pueblo. History of Colorado Law and government of Colorado List of Governors of Colorado State of Colorado Abbott, Carl, Leonard, Stephen, Colorado Associated University Press, Boulder Colorado,1982. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque,1976, newspaper Files of Walter W. Johnson. Denver Public Library Western History Collection, ubbelohde, Carl, Benson, Maxine, and Smith, Duane. Boulder, CO. Pruett Publishing Co.1972, obituary, Rocky Mountain News, March 25,1987, p.147 and biographical article, June 25,1955, p.28. The Governors of Colorado The Governor Walter W. Johnson Collection at the Colorado State Archives
42.
Daniel I. J. Thornton
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Daniel Isaac J. Dan Thornton was a United States cattle breeder and Republican politician who served as the 33rd Governor of the State of Colorado from 1951 to 1955. Daniel Isaac J. Thornton was born in Hall County, Texas, on January 31,1911 and graduated from Lubbock and he was very active in 4-H and was elected President of the Texas 4-H clubs in 1927. He was married to the former Jessie Willock, in 1937, the Thorntons purchased a cattle ranch near Springerville in northeastern Arizona. In 1941, they moved their operation to a ranch in Gunnison County in southern Colorado, the Thorntons developed the Thornton Type, a strain of Hereford cattle. In 1948, Thornton was elected to the Colorado State Senate, in 1950, Thornton defeated incumbent Democratic Governor Walter Walford Johnson. Thornton was known for his Stetson hat, pipe, and cowboy boots and he served as governor for two then two-year terms. As governor, he was instrumental in locating the U. S. Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, in 1952 he was one of five people on the short list for consideration of the Republican vice presidential nomination. Dwight D. Eisenhower, like Thornton Texas-born, instead chose Richard Nixon, in 1956, Thornton was under discussion for a cabinet appointment. He was the Republican nominee for the U. S. Senate in Colorado that year, Dan Thornton died of a heart attack in Carmel, California, on January 18,1976, two weeks shy of his 65th birthday. Governor Thornton is the namesake of the City of Thornton outside Denver, in 2008, he was listed among the 100 Most Influential People from Lubbock, as part of the city centennial observation. History of Colorado Law and government of Colorado List of Governors of Colorado State of Colorado Thornton, Daniel I. J. Thornton Manuscript Collection. Daniel I. J. Thornton Newspaper Clippings Collection, Gunnison County Stockgrowers Since 1894, Tops in Cattle. Stetson, Pipe and Boots, Colorados Cattleman Governor, A Biography about Dan Thornton, Trafford Publishing, Victoria, the Governors of Colorado The Governor Daniel I. J. Thornton Collection at the Colorado State Archives
43.
Governor of Connecticut
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The Governor of Connecticut is the elected head of the executive branch of Connecticuts state government. The current governor is Dan Malloy, who took office on January 5,2011, Connecticut is among the few U. S. states that includes its colonial governors of Connecticut Colony in an unbroken list of chief executives spanning over 350 years to the present day. John Haynes became the first governor in 1639, the first incumbent after the Revolution, Jonathan Trumbull, is therefore numbered the sixteenth governor of Connecticut. For the period before independence, see the list of governors of Connecticut. Connecticut was one of the original Thirteen Colonies and was admitted as a state on January 9,1788, before it declared its independence, Connecticut was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain. Like most early states, Connecticut had claims to western areas and it maintained its Western Reserve until 1800, at which time it was reassigned to the Northwest Territory. There have been 68 governors of the state, serving 72 distinct spans in office, the longest terms in office were in the states early years, when four governors were elected to nine or more one-year terms. The shortest term was that of Hiram Bingham III, who served one day before resigning to take an elected seat in the U. S. Senate. Lowell P. Weicker, Jr. is noted for a third party win in American politics. The Governor of Connecticut is the head of the executive branch of Connecticuts state government. The governor has a duty to enforce laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Connecticut General Assembly. Unusual among U. S. governors, the Governor of Connecticut has no power to pardon, the Governor of Connecticut is automatically a member of the states Bonding Commission. He is a member of the Board of Trustees of the University of Connecticut. The current Constitution of Connecticut, ratified in 1965, calls for a term for the governor. The previous constitution of 1818 originally had only a term for governor. The 1875 amendment also set the date of the term to its current date, before then. The constitution provides for the election of a lieutenant governor for the term as the governor. The two offices are elected on the ticket, this provision was added in 1962
44.
Chester Bowles
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Chester Bliss Bowles was an American diplomat and ambassador, Governor of Connecticut, Member of Congress and co-founder of a major advertising agency, Benton & Bowles, now part of Publicis Groupe. Born in Springfield, Massachusetts, to Charles Allen Bowles and Nellie Seaver Bowles, Chester Bowles attended The Choate School in Wallingford, Connecticut and he matriculated at the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University, earning a Bachelor of Science degree in 1924. S. Bowles became an copywriter for $25 per week at the Batten Company, an agency in New York City that later became BBDO. In 1929, Bowles established the Benton & Bowles advertising agency with William Benton, despite the difficult economic environment of Great Depression, by the mid-1930s Benton & Bowles was a multimillion-dollar company. Benton & Bowles created the soap opera, offering specialized programming to receptive demographic groups. This allowed Benton & Bowles to create advertising campaigns to promote their clients products to this targeted radio audience, the New York Times referred to Bowles career as an advertising executive as brilliant. He and his business parter, Mr. Benton, signed major U. S. companies as advertising clients for Benton & Bowles, including General Foods, Procter & Gamble, Bowles was appointed chairman of the board in 1936. By 1941, the company earned a annual profit of more than $250,000. Bowles sold his shares in Benton & Bowles for a substantial profit and he became a multi-millionaire who retired the first time by age 40. Benton & Bowles merged to become Darcy, Macius, Benton & Bowles in 1986 and it merged with Leo Burnett in 1999. The combined agency, which continues to be known as Leo Burnett, was purchased by Publicis in 2002, initially, Bowles was opposed to the United States getting involved in World War II and joined an opposition group, the America First Committee. Later, he said he was embarrassed by his views, when the United States entered World War II in December 1941, he attempted to join the Navy. Bowles was rejected because of an injury to his ear. Bowles then took a job as the state of Connecticuts rationing administrator in 1942 and he becoming state director of price administration later that year, and then general manager. He was appointed by President Roosevelt in 1943 as administrator of the Office of Price Administration and he served as a member of the War Production Board and the Petroleum Board for War. In 1946, he was appointed director of the Office of Economic Stabilization, Bowles ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in Connecticut that year. During these years, the UN General Assembly met in session at Lake Success, New York on Long Island and he continued with the United Nations as international chairman of the United Nations Childrens Appeal from 1948 to 1951. Bowles was elected to the governorship of Connecticut in 1948, defeating James C, shannon, and served one term, during which time he signed into law an end to segregation in the state national guard
45.
John Davis Lodge
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John Davis Lodge, was an American actor turned politician. He was the 79th Governor of Connecticut from 1951 to 1955, and U. S. Ambassador to Spain, Argentina, as an actor, he was often credited simply as John Lodge. Lodge was born in Washington, D. C, through his mother, Mathilda Elizabeth Frelinghuysen Davis, he was a great-great grandson of Senator John Davis. He had two siblings, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. also a politician, and Helena Lodge de Streel, a baroness. Lodge attended the Evans School for Boys in Mesa, Arizona, Middlesex School, Concord, Massachusetts, Ecole de Droit, Paris, France, in 1925, he graduated from Harvard College, where he was a member of the Fox Club. In 1929, he graduated from Harvard Law School, in 1932, he was admitted to the New York bar and commenced practice in New York City. Lodge was affiliated with the industry and the theater from 1933 to 1942, appearing in movies such as Little Women. He was Marlene Dietrichs co-star in The Scarlet Empress, Lodge appeared in several European-made films, in France and the United Kingdom, playing Bulldog Drummond in the 1937 film Bulldog Drummond at Bay. A fluent French speaker, he performed his roles in French in Maurice Tourneurs Koenigsmark and in Max Ophülss De Mayerling à Sarajevo, in 1941, after returning to the United States, he appeared in several Broadway stage productions, including Lillian Hellmans Watch on the Rhine. He served with the United States Navy as a lieutenant and lieutenant commander August 1942 to January 1946 and was an officer between the French and American fleets. He was decorated with the rank of Chevalier in the French Legion of Honor, after the war he engaged in research work in economics. He retired from the United States Navy Reserve in 1966 with the rank of Captain and he was elected as a Republican from Connecticuts 4th congressional district to the 80th and 81st Congresses, serving from January 3,1947 to January 3,1951. He was not a candidate for renomination in 1950 and he was elected Governor of Connecticut, serving from January 1951 to January 1955 and was unsuccessful for reelection in 1954. He was a delegate to the Republican National Convention from Connecticut in 1952 and 1960, ironically, the highway is now named after the former Governor. Lodge then served as United States Ambassador to Spain from January 1955 until January 1961 and he was National president, Junior Achievement, Inc. He was a candidate for U. S. He was married July 6,1929, to actress and ballet dancer, Francesca Braggiotti and they had two daughters, Lily and Beatrice. Lily Lodge is the Director of the Actors Conservatory and he was a resident of Westport, Connecticut until his death in New York City
46.
Governor of Delaware
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The Governor of Delaware is the head of the executive branch of Delawares state government and the commander-in-chief of the states military forces. There have been 70 people who have served as governor, over 73 distinct terms, additionally, Henry Molleston was elected, but died before he could take office. The shortest term is that of Dale E. Wolf, who served 18 days following his predecessors resignation, the current governor is John Carney, who took office on January 17,2017. For the period before independence, see the List of colonial governors of Pennsylvania, between 1681 and 1776, Delaware was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain, administered by colonial governors in Pennsylvania as the Lower Counties on Delaware. In 1776, soon after Delaware and the other Thirteen Colonies declared independence from Britain and it created the office of President of Delaware, a chief executive to be chosen by the legislature to serve a term of three years. The term was lengthened to four years by the 1831 constitution, the current constitution of 1897 allows governors to serve two terms. The 1776 constitution stated that if the presidency were vacant, the speaker of the council would be a vice-president. The offices of governor and lieutenant governor are elected at the same time, two have served as President of Pennsylvania. Four resigned to take other offices, three in the U. S. Congress and one to be President of Pennsylvania, all representatives and senators listed represented Delaware except where noted. As of January 2017, there are six former U. S. governors who are living at this time. The most recent death of a former U. S. governor of Delaware was that of David Buckson, the most recently serving U. S. governor of Delaware to die was Sherman W. Tribbitt, who died on August 14,2010. Delaware gubernatorial elections General Constitutions Specific Office of the Governor of Delaware
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Media related to 1951 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
