1.
1958 in Canada
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Events from the year 1958 in Canada. Head of state – Queen Elizabeth II Governor general – Vincent Massey Prime minister – John Diefenbaker Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – John J. A. C. March 25 – The Avro Arrow flies for the first time March 31 – John Diefenbaker leads the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada to an election victory. June 17 – The Second Narrows Bridge in Vancouver collapses killing 18, October 22 – Canada appoints, Margaret Meagher, the countrys first female ambassador, to Israel. October 23 – The third Springhill Mining Disaster occurs killing 74, ellen Fairclough becomes Canadas first federal female cabinet minister. Department of Physical Education started at the University of Saskatchewan July 16 – The Manitoba Theatre Centre opens, grey Cup – Winnipeg Blue Bombers win 35–28 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats. Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4–2 over the Boston Bruins, NASCAR Grand National Series – American race car driver Lee Petty wins the 1958 Jim Mideon 500. Service, poet and writer October 2 – Charles Avery Dunning, politician, Minister and university chancellor November 10 – Billy Boucher, ice hockey player
2.
1959 in Canada
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Events from the year 1959 in Canada. Head of state – Queen Elizabeth II Governor general – Vincent Massey then Georges Vanier Prime minister – John Diefenbaker Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – John J. A. C and he is the first French Canadian Governor General. September 16, Walter Shaw becomes premier of Prince Edward Island, replacing Alex Matheson October 12, Isabella Memorial unveiled November 18, december 2, York University is founded National Energy Board of Canada is created Steven Truscott falsely convicted of the murder of Lynne Harper. He would be exonerated in 2007, mordecai Richler, The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz Hugh MacLennan, The Watch That Ends the Night Farley Mowat, Grey Seas Under Max Aitken, Friends Gordon R. Dickson, Dorsai. See 1959 Governor Generals Awards for a complete list of winners, November 1 – Jacques Plante becomes the first ice hockey goalie to wear a protective face mask
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
21st century
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The 21st century is the current century of the Anno Domini era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1,2001 and will end on December 31,2100 and it is the first century of the 3rd millennium. It is distinct from the time known as the 2000s. The long term effects of increased globalization are not known, the Arab Spring of the early 2010s led to mixed outcomes in the Arab world. The Digital Revolution which began around the 1980s also continues into the present, millennials and Generation Z come of age and rise to prominence in this century. The completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003 marks the rise of life sciences, making mankinds long-held dreams, such as curing cancer. By the 2010s, gene therapy, first performed somatically in late 1990 and heritably in 1996, showed promise but remains an experimental, by 2013, about 80% of the worlds population used mobile phones. An estimated 33% owned personal computers in 2010, and 46% used the Internet by 2016, the International Energy Agency estimates that 83% of the global population has access to electricity as of 2013 with the percentage projected to increase to 88% by 2030. The world population was about 6.1 billion at the start of the 21st century and it had reached 7.3 billion in 2015, and is estimated to reach about 9.37 billion by the year 2050. There is a debate among experts and the public on how to pronounce specific years of the 21st century in English. A less common variation would have been twenty nought-five, the Vancouver Olympics, which took place in 2010, was being officially referred to by Vancouver 2010 as the twenty-ten Olympics. The latest timeframes for change are usually placed at 2020, kubrick said he did this in the hope that if the film became popular, it would influence the pronunciation of that year. See the timeline of the 21st century, genocide still remains a problem in this century with the concern of the war in Darfur and the growing concern in Sri Lanka. Also controversies from past genocides remain commonplace in the minds of victims, 1998–2002 – The Second Congo War continued into the early 21st century. A1999 ceasefire quickly broke down and a UN peacekeeping mission, Laurent Kabila, president of the DRC, was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph Kabila, took power. Throughout 2002 steps were made towards peace and Rwanda and Uganda both removed their troops from the country, on December 17,2002, a massive treaty officially ended the war. However, the DRC only holds power in less than half of the country, with most of the eastern and northern portions still controlled by rebel groups, in addition, Rwanda still supports anti-DRC rebels and anti-Rwandan rebels continue to operate from the DRC. The war killed an estimated 3.9 million people, displaced nearly 5.5 million, Severe human rights violations continue to be reported
6.
1930s
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The 1930s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1930, and ended on December 31,1939. In response, authoritarian regimes emerged in countries in Europe and South America. The 1930s also saw a proliferation of new technologies, especially in the fields of aviation, radio. Colombia–Peru War – fought between the Republic of Colombia and the Republic of Peru, Chaco War – the war was fought between Bolivia and Paraguay over the disputed territory of Gran Chaco resulting in an overall Paraguayan victory in 1935. An agreement dividing the territory was made in 1938, officially ending outstanding differences, saudi–Yemeni War – was a war between Saudi Arabia and Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. Second Sino-Japanese War – fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It also made up more than 50% of the casualties in the Pacific War, World War II breaks out on September 1,1939 Chinese Civil War - The ruling Kuomintang and the rebel Communist Party of China fight a civil war for control of China. The Communists consolidated territory in the early 1930s and proclaimed a short-lived Chinese Soviet Republic that collapsed upon Kuomintang attacks, the Kuomintang and Communists attempted to put away their differences after 1937 to fight the Japanese occupation of China, but intermittent clashes continued through the remainder of the 1930s. Spanish Civil War – Germany and Italy back anti-communist Falange forces of Francisco Franco, the Soviet Union and international communist parties back the left-wing republican faction in the war. The war ends in April 1939 with Francos nationalist forces defeating the republican forces, Franco becomes Head of State of Spain, President of Government and de facto dictator. The Republic gives way to the Spanish State, an authoritarian dictatorship, Hitler pulls Germany out of the League of Nations, but hosts the 1936 Summer Olympics to show his new reich to the world as well as the supposed superior athleticism of his Aryan troops/athletes. Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, attempts the appeasement of Hitler in hope of avoiding war by allowing the dictator to annex the Sudetenland, later signing the Munich Agreement and promising constituents Peace for our time. He was ousted in favor of Winston Churchill in May 1940, some 267 synagogues were destroyed, and thousands of homes and businesses were ransacked. Kristallnacht also served as the pretext for the confiscation of firearms from German Jews. Germany and Italy pursue territorial expansionist agendas, Germany demands the annexation of the Federal State of Austria and of other German-speaking territories in Europe. Between 1935 and 1936, Germany recovers the Saar and remilitarizes the Rhineland, Germany and Italy improve relations by forming an alliance against communism in 1936 with the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact. Germany annexes Austria in the event known as the Anschluss, the annexation of the Sudetenland followed negotiations which resulted in the Munich Agreement of 1938. The Italian invasion of Albania in 1939 succeeds in turning the Kingdom of Albania into an Italian protectorate, the vacant Albanian throne was claimed by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
7.
1940s
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The 1940s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1940, and ended on December 31,1949. Most of World War II took place in the first half of the decade, which had an effect on most countries and people in Europe, Asia. The decade also witnessed the beginnings of new technologies, often first developed in tandem with the war effort. World War II Nazi Germany invades Poland, Denmark, Norway, Benelux, Soviet Union invades Poland, Finland, occupies Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Romanian region of Bessarabia from 1939 to 1941. Germany faces the United Kingdom in the Battle of Britain and it was the first major campaign to be fought entirely by air forces, and was the largest and most sustained aerial bombing campaign up until that date. The United States enter World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7,1941 and it would face the Empire of Japan in the Pacific War. Germany and Japan suffer defeats at Stalingrad, El Alamein, the forces of the Western Allies land on the beaches of Normandy in Northern France. Yalta Conference, wartime meeting from 4 February 1945 to 11 February 1945 among the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, by this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is between 11 million and 17 million people. The German Instrument of Surrender signed, atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Surrender of Japan on August 15. World War II officially ends on September 2,1945, Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 Arab–Israeli conflict 1948 Arab–Israeli War – The war was fought between the newly declared State of Israel and its Arab neighbours. The war commenced upon the termination of the British Mandate of Palestine in mid-May 1948, in its conclusion, Israel managed to defeat the Arab armies. Establishment of the United Nations Charter effective, establishment of the defence alliance NATO April 4,1949. 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, Victory of Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong in the Chinese Civil War. Beginning of Greek Civil War, which extends from 1946 to 1949,1944 – Iceland declares independence from Denmark. 1945 – Indonesia declares independence from the Netherlands,1946 – The French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon dissolves to the independent states of Syria and Lebanon. The French settlers are forced to evacuate the French colony in Syria,1947 – The Partition of the Presidencies and provinces of British India into a secular Union of India and a predominantly Muslim Dominion of Pakistan. 1948 – British rule in Burma ends, the State of Israel is established. 1949 – The Peoples Republic of China is officially proclaimed, the Atanasoff-Berry computer is now considered one of the first electronic digital computing device built by John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry at Iowa State University during 1937–1942
8.
1950s
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The 1950s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1950, and ended on December 31,1959. Clashes between communism and capitalism dominated the decade, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, the conflicts included the Korean War in the beginnings of the decade and the beginning of the Space Race with the launch of Sputnik 1. Along with increased testing of weapons, this created a politically conservative climate. In the United States, the Second Red Scare caused Congressional hearings by both houses in Congress and anti-communism was the sentiment in the United States throughout the decade. The beginning of decolonization in Africa and Asia took place in this decade, when it began, North and South Korea existed as provisional governments competing for control over the Korean peninsula, due to the division of Korea by outside powers. On September 15, General Douglas MacArthur conducted Operation Chromite, a landing at the city of Inchon. The North Korean army collapsed, and within a few days and he then pushed north, capturing Pyongyang in October. Chinese intervention the following month drove UN forces south again, MacArthur then planned for a full-scale invasion of China, but this was against the wishes of President Truman and others who wanted a limited war. He was dismissed and replaced by General Matthew Ridgeway, the war then became a bloody stalemate for the next two and a half years while peace negotiations dragged on. The war left 33,742 American soldiers dead,92,134 wounded, estimates place Korean and Chinese casualties at 1,000, 000–1,400,000 dead or wounded, and 140,000 MIA or POW. The Vietnam War began in 1959, diệm instituted a policy of death penalty against any communist activity in 1956. The Viet Minh began a campaign in early 1957. An article by French scholar Bernard Fall published in July 1958 concluded that a new war had begun, the first official large unit military action was on September 26,1959, when the Viet Cong ambushed two ARVN companies. Arab–Israeli conflict Suez Crisis – The Suez Crisis was a war fought on Egyptian territory in 1956, following the nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956 by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the United Kingdom, France and Israel subsequently invaded. The operation was a success, but after the United States and Soviet Union united in opposition to the invasion. The war eventually led to the independence of Algeria from France, cuban Revolution – The 1959 overthrow of Fulgencio Batista by Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and other forces resulted in the creation of the first communist government in the Western hemisphere. The Mau Mau began retaliating against the British in Kenya and this led to concentration camps in Kenya, a British military victory, and the election of moderate nationalist Jomo Kenyatta as leader of Kenya. The wind of destruction began in Rwanda in 1959 following the assault of Hutu politician Dominique Mbonyumutwa by Tutsi forces and this was the beginning of decades of ethnic violence in the country, which culminated in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide
9.
1960s
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The 1960s was a decade that began on January 1,1960, and ended on December 31,1969. The term 1960s also refers to an era more often called the Sixties and this cultural decade is more loosely defined than the actual decade, beginning around 1963 with the Kennedy assassination and ending around 1972 with the Watergate scandal. The decade was also labeled the Swinging Sixties because of the fall or relaxation of social taboos especially relating to racism and sexism that occurred during this time and he charts the rise, success, fall/nightmare and explosion in the London scene of the 1960s. Several Western nations such as the United States, United Kingdom, France, by the end of the 1950s, war-ravaged Europe had largely finished reconstruction and began a tremendous economic boom. World War II had brought about a huge leveling of social classes in which the remnants of the old feudal gentry disappeared, the United States, after sluggish economic growth during the 1950s, also experienced a major 60s boom. Real GDP growth averaged 6% a year during the half of the decade. Thus, the worldwide economic trend in the 1960s was one of prosperity, expansion of the middle class. Kennedys assassination in 1963 was a shock, Liberal reforms were finally passed under Lyndon B. Johnson including civil rights for African Americans and healthcare for the elderly and the poor. Despite his large-scale Great Society programs, Johnson was increasingly reviled by the New Left at home, the heavy-handed American role in the Vietnam War outraged student protestors around the globe. The assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr, in Britain, the Labour Party gained power in 1964. In France, the protests of 1968 led to President Charles de Gaulle temporarily fleeing the country, for some, May 1968 meant the end of traditional collective action and the beginning of a new era to be dominated mainly by the so-called new social movements. Italy formed its first left-of-center government in March 1962 with a coalition of Christian Democrats, Social Democrats, socialists joined the ruling block in December 1963. In Brazil, João Goulart became president after Jânio Quadros resigned, in Africa the 1960s was a period of radical political change as 32 countries gained independence from their European colonial rulers. The Cold War, The Vietnam War 1961 – Substantial American advisory forces first arrive in Vietnam,1962 – By mid-1962, the number of U. S. military advisers in South Vietnam had risen from 900 to 12,000. The resolution gave U. S. President Lyndon B. Johnson authorization, without a declaration of war by Congress. The Johnson administration subsequently cited the resolution as legal authority for its rapid escalation of U. S. military involvement in the Vietnam War. 1966 – After 1966 with the draft in more than 500,000 troops were sent to Vietnam by the Johnson administration. Portuguese Colonial War – the war was fought between Portugals military and the emerging nationalist movements in Portugals African colonies and it was a decisive ideological struggle and armed conflict of the cold war in African and European scenarios
10.
1970s
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The 1970s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1970, and ended on December 31,1979. In the 21st century, historians have portrayed the 1970s as a pivot of change in world history focusing especially on the economic upheavals. In the Western world, social values that began in the 1960s, such as increasing political awareness and economic liberty of women. In the United Kingdom, the 1979 elections resulted in the victory of its Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher, industrialized countries, except Japan, experienced an economic recession due to an oil crisis caused by oil embargoes by the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries. Novelist Tom Wolfe coined the term Me decade in his essay The Me Decade, the term describes a general new attitude of Americans towards atomized individualism and away from communitarianism, in clear contrast with the 1960s. Despite facing an oil crisis due to the OPEC embargo, the economy of Japan witnessed a boom in this period. The United States withdrew its forces from their previous involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, which led to a war for ten years. Anwar El Sadat, President of Egypt, was instrumental in the event and consequently became extremely unpopular in the Arab world, Africa saw further decolonization in the decade, with Angola and Mozambique gaining their independence in 1975 from the Portuguese Empire after the restoration of democracy in Portugal. The continent was, however, plagued by military coups, with the long-reigning Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie being removed, civil wars. The economies of much of the world continued to make steady progress in the early 1970s because of the Green Revolution. The following year, Vietnam was officially declared reunited, Soviet war in Afghanistan - Although taking place almost entirely throughout the 1980s, the war officially started on December 27,1979. The Israelis were taken by surprise and suffered losses before they rallied. In the end, they managed to repel the Egyptians and crossed the Suez Canal into Egypt proper, in 1978, Egypt signed a peace treaty with Israel at Camp David in the United States, ending outstanding disputes between the two countries. Sadats actions would lead to his assassination in 1981, Indian emergency Lebanese Civil War - A civil war in the Middle East which at times also involved the PLO and Israel during the early 1980s. Western Sahara War - A regional war pinning the rebel Polisario Front against Morocco, Ugandan–Tanzanian War - the war which was fought between Uganda and Tanzania was based on an expansionist agenda to annex territory from Tanzania. The war resulted in the overthrow of Idi Amins regime, the Ogaden War was another African conflict between Somalia and Ethiopia over control of the Ogaden region. In 1976 peaceful student protests in the Soweto township of South Africa lead to the Soweto Uprising when more than 700 black school children were killed by South Africas Security Police, Rise of separatism in the province of Quebec in Canada
11.
1980s
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The 1980s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1980, and ended on December 31,1989. The decade saw great socioeconomic change due to advances in technology, Japan and West Germany saw large economic growth during this decade. The AIDS epidemic became recognized in the 1980s and has killed an estimated 39 million people. Global warming became well known to the scientific and political community in the 1980s, the final decade of the Cold War opened with the US-Soviet confrontation continuing largely without any interruption. Superpower tensions escalated rapidly as President Reagan scrapped the policy of détente and adopted a new, islamism became a powerful political force in the 1980s and many terrorist organizations, including Al Qaeda started. The Cold War ended in the early 1990s with the successful Reunification of Germany, the 1980s saw great advances in genetic and digital technology. The 1980s saw the advent of the practice of sex-selective abortion in China. By 1989 the Internet and the networks linked to it were a system with extensive transoceanic satellite links. Based on earlier work from 1980 onwards Tim Berners Lee formalized the concept of the World Wide Web by 1989, television viewing became commonplace in the Third World, with the number of TV sets in China and India increasing by 15 and 10 times respectively. The Rome and Vienna airport attacks took place on December 27,1985, the attack was done by militants loyal to Abu Nidal, backed by the government of Libya. The 1983 Beirut barracks bombing – during the Lebanese Civil War two truck bombs struck separate buildings housing United States and French military forces killing 299 American, the organization Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the bombing. The 1984 anti-Sikh riots in India, committed by Hindu militants against Sikhs in response to the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi by a Sikh militant, thousands of people are killed and tens of thousands of Sikhs became displaced persons. Air India Flight 182 was destroyed on June 23,1985 and it was the biggest mass murder involving Canadians in Canadas history. On December 21,1988, Pan Am Flight 103 was blown up over the village of Lockerbie, Scotland, the bombing killed all 243 passengers,16 crew members and 11 people on the ground, totaling 270 fatalities who were citizens of 21 nationalities. The bombing was and remains the worst terrorist attack on UK soil, invasion of Grenada – a 1983 U. S. -led invasion of Grenada, triggered by a military coup which ousted a brief revolutionary government. Salvadoran Civil War – part of the war conflicts, reached its peak in the 1980s,70,000 Salvadorans died. Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, sparking the Falklands War and it occurred from 2 April to 14 July 1982 between the United Kingdom and Argentina as British forces fought to recover the islands. Britain emerged victorious and its stance in international affairs and its long decaying reputation as a colonial power received an unexpected boost
12.
1990s
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The 1990s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1990, and ended on December 31,1999. Culturally, the 1990s are characterized by the rise of multiculturalism and alternative media, movements such as grunge, the rave scene and hip hop spread around the world to young people during that decade, aided by then-new technology such as cable television and the World Wide Web. The United States also saw a revival in the use of the death penalty in the 1990s. The dot-com bubble of 1997–2000 brought wealth to some entrepreneurs before its crash between 2000 and 2001, New ethnic conflicts emerged in Africa, the Balkans, and the Caucasus, the former two which led to the Rwandan and Bosnian genocides, respectively. Zaire is renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Second Congo War starts in 1998 in central Africa and includes 50 different cultures and 7 different nations. The Gulf War – Iraq was left in debt after the 1980s war with Iran. President Saddam Hussein accused Kuwait of flooding the market with oil, as a result, on 2 August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and conquered Kuwait. The UN immediately condemned the action, and a force led by the United States was sent to the Persian Gulf. Aerial bombing of Iraq began in January 1991, and a month later, in the aftermath of the war, the Kurds in the north of Iraq and the Shiites in the south rose up in revolt, and Saddam Hussein barely managed to hold onto power. Until the US invasion in 2003, Iraq was cut off much of the world. The Chechen wars break out in the 1990s, The First Chechen War – the conflict was fought between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, during the war Russian forces largely recaptured the separatist region of Chechnya. The campaign largely reversed the outcome of the First Chechen War, the Kargil War – In May 1999, Pakistan sent troops covertly to occupy strategic peaks in Kashmir. A month later the Kargil War with India results in a fiasco for Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. The incident leads to a coup in October, in which Sharif is ousted by Army Chief Pervez Musharraf. This conflict remains the only war fought between two declared nuclear powers, the Kosovo War, War between Albanian separatists and Yugoslav military and Serb paramilitary forces in Kosovo begin in 1996 and escalates in 1998 with increasing reports of atrocities taking place. After weeks of bombing, Yugoslavia submits to NATOs demands and NATO forces occupy Kosovo, the Yugoslav Wars would become notorious for numerous war crimes and human rights violations such as ethnic cleansing and genocide committed by all sides. Ten-Day War – a brief conflict between Slovenian TO and the Yugoslav Peoples Army following Slovenias declaration of independence. Bosnian War – the war involved several ethnically defined factions within Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats as well as a smaller Bosniak faction led by Fikret Abdić
13.
1957
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January 1 The Saarland joins West Germany. An Irish Republican Army attack on the Brookeborough police barracks in Northern Ireland leads to the deaths of Seán South, italian conductor Arturo Toscanini suffers the stroke that leads to his death a little over two weeks later in the United States. January 2 – The San Francisco and Los Angeles stock exchanges merge to form the Pacific Coast Stock Exchange, January 3 – Hamilton Watch Company introduces the first electric watch. January 4 – After 69 years the last issue of Colliers Weekly magazine is published in the United States, January 5 – Russell Endean becomes the first batsman to be dismissed for having handled the ball in Test cricket. January 6 – Elvis Presley appears on The Ed Sullivan Show for the 3rd and he is shown only from the waist up, even during the gospel segment, singing Peace In The Valley. Ed Sullivan describes Elvis thus, This is a real decent, weve never had a pleasanter experience on our show with a big name than weve had with you. January 9 – British Prime Minister Anthony Eden resigns, January 10 – Harold Macmillan becomes the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. January 11 – The African Convention is founded in Dakar, January 13 – Wham-O Company produces the first Frisbee. January 14 Kripalu Maharaj is named fifth Jagadguru after giving seven days of speeches before 500 Hindu scholars, American screen actor Humphrey Bogart dies aged 57 in California after a long battle with cancer. January 15 – Release, in Japan, of the film Throne of Blood, January 16 – The Cavern Club opens in Liverpool as a jazz club. January 20 Dwight D. Eisenhower is privately sworn in for a term as President of the United States. Israel withdraws from the Sinai Peninsula, the New York City Mad Bomber, George P. Metesky, is arrested in Waterbury, Connecticut, and charged with planting more than 30 bombs. January 21 – President Dwight D. Eisenhower is publicly sworn in, January 23 – Ku Klux Klan members force truck driver Willie Edwards to jump off a bridge into the Alabama River, he drowns as a result. January 26 – The Ibirapuera Planetarium is inaugurated in the city of São Paulo, february 2 – President Iskander Mirza of Pakistan lays the foundation-stone of the Guddu Barrage across the Indus River near Sukkur. February 4 France prohibits U. N. involvement in Algeria and it is decommissioned on March 3,1980. A coal gas explosion at the giant Bishop coal mine in Bishop, Virginia, february 6 – The Soviet Union announces that Swedish envoy Raoul Wallenberg had died in a Soviet prison possibly of a heart attack on July 17,1947. February 10 – The Confederation of African Football is founded at a meeting in Khartoum, february 15 – Andrei Gromyko becomes foreign minister of the Soviet Union. February 16 The Toddlers Truce, a controversial television closedown between 6.00 p. m. and 7.00 p. m. is abolished in the United Kingdom, ingmar Bergmans film The Seventh Seal opens at cinema in Sweden
14.
1958
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January 1 The European Economic Community comes into being. The first Carrefour store opens, in Annecy, January 3 – Edmund Hillarys Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition completes the third overland journey to the South Pole, and the first to use powered vehicles. January 4 – Sputnik 1 falls to Earth from its orbit, January 8 – 14-year-old Bobby Fischer wins the United States Chess Championship. January 18 Armed Lumbee Indians confront a handful of Klansmen in Maxton, the first of Leonard Bernsteins Young Peoples Concerts with the New York Philharmonic is telecast by CBS. The Emmy-winning series will run for more than fourteen years and it will make Bernsteins name a household word, and the most famous conductor in the U. S. January 20 – Dutch author Anne de Vries releases the fourth and final volume of Journey Through the Night, January 28 Hall of Fame baseball player Roy Campanella is involved in an automobile accident that ends his career and leaves him paralyzed. Godtfred Kirk Christiansen files a patent for the iconic plastic Lego brick, from its foundation, his company will make 400 billion Lego elements. January 31 – The first successful American satellite, Explorer 1, is launched into orbit, february 1 – Egypt and Syria unite to form the United Arab Republic. February 2 – The word Aerospace is coined, from the words Aircraft and Spacecraft, taking into consideration that the Earths atmosphere and outerspace is to be one, february 5 Gamal Abdel Nasser is nominated as the first president of the United Arab Republic. The Tybee Bomb, a 7,600 pound Mark 15 hydrogen bomb, is lost in the waters off Savannah, Georgia. February 6 – Seven Manchester United footballers are among the 21 people killed in the Munich air disaster in West Germany,23 people survive, but four of them, including manager Matt Busby and players Johnny Berry and Duncan Edwards, are in a serious condition. Busby and Berry would pullthrough although Berry would never play again, february 11 The strongest ever known solar maximum is recorded. Marshal Chen Yi succeeds Zhou Enlai as Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs, ruth Carol Taylor is the first African American woman hired as a flight attendant. Hired by Mohawk Airlines, her career only six months. February 14 – The Hashemite Kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan unite in the Arab Federation with King Faisal II of Iraq as head of state, february 17 – Pope Pius XII declares Saint Clare the patron saint of television. February 20 – A test rocket explodes at Cape Canaveral, february 21 – A peace symbol is designed and completed by Gerald Holtom, commissioned by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, in protest against the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment. February 23 Cuban rebels kidnap five-time world driving champion Juan Manuel Fangio, Arturo Frondizi is elected president of Argentina. February 24 – In Cuba, Fidel Castros Radio Rebelde begins broadcasting from Sierra Maestra, february 25 – Bertrand Russell launches the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
15.
1959
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January 1 Cultivars of plants named after this date must be named in a modern language, not in Latin. Cuba, Fulgencio Batista flees Havana when the forces of Fidel Castro advance, january 2 CBS Radio discontinues four soap operas, Backstage Wife, Our Gal Sunday, The Road of Life, and This is Nora Drake. The Soviet Union successfully launches the Luna 1 spacecraft from Baikonur Cosmodrome, january 3 The island of Addu in the Maldives declares independence. Alaska is admitted as the 49th U. S. state, january 4 In Cuba, rebel troops led by Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos enter the city of Havana. In Léopoldville, at least 49 people are killed during clashes between the police and participants of a meeting of the Abako Party, january 6 Fidel Castro arrives in Havana. The International Maritime Organization is inaugurated, january 7 – The United States recognizes the new Cuban government of Fidel Castro. January 8 – Charles de Gaulle is inaugurated as the first president of the French Fifth Republic, january 10 – The Soviet government recognizes the new Castro government. January 11 – The Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques is founded in Monaco, january 12 The Caves of Nerja are discovered in Spain. Motown Records is founded by Berry Gordy, Jr, january 13 – Cuban communists execute 71 supporters of Fulgencio Batista. January 15 – The Soviet Union conducts its first census after World War II, january 21 – The European Court of Human Rights is established. January 22 – Knox Mine Disaster, Water breaches the River Slope Mine in Port Griffith, Pennsylvania near Pittston, january 25 – Pope John XXIII announces that the Second Vatican Council will be convened in Rome. January 29 – Walt Disney releases his 16th animated film, Sleeping Beauty in Beverly Hills and it is Disneys first animated film to be shown in 70mm and modern 6-track stereophonic sound. Also on the program is Disneys new live-action short subject Grand Canyon, Grand Canyon wins an Oscar for Best Documentary Short. February 1 – A referendum in Switzerland turns down female suffrage, february 2 – Nine ski hikers mysteriously perish in the northern Ural Mountains in the Dyatlov Pass incident and are all found dead a few weeks later. The tragedy is later termed The Day the Music Died, popularized in Don McLeans 1971 song American Pie. American Airlines Flight 320, a Lockheed L-188 Electra from Chicago crashes into the East River on approach to New York Citys LaGuardia Airport, february 6 – At Cape Canaveral, Florida, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile is accomplished. February 9 – Yugoslavia and Spain set trade relations, february 13 – TAT-2, AT&Ts second transatlantic telephone cable goes into operation. February 16 Fidel Castro becomes Premier of Cuba, a blizzard causes a massive power outage in Newfoundland
16.
1960
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January – The state of emergency is lifted in Kenya, officially ending the Mau Mau Uprising. January 1 – Cameroon gains its independence from French-administered U. N. trusteeship, senator John F. Kennedy announces his candidacy for the Democratic presidential nomination. January 6 – The Associations Law comes into force in Iraq, January 9–11 – Aswan High Dam construction begins in Egypt. January 10 – British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan makes the Wind of Change speech for the first time, January 14 – The Reserve Bank and Commonwealth Bank are created in Australia. January 15 – The first televised anime, Three Tales, debuts on NHK, January 19 – The Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan is signed in Washington, D. C. January 21 – A coal mine collapses at Coalbrook, South Africa, January 22 In France, President Charles de Gaulle fires Jacques Massu, the commander-in-chief of the French troops in Algeria. Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh descend into the Mariana Trench in the bathyscaphe Trieste, reaching the depth of 10,911 meters, January 24 – A major insurrection occurs in Algiers against French colonial policy. January 25 – In Washington, D. C. the National Association of Broadcasters reacts to the scandal by threatening fines for any disc jockeys who accepted money for playing particular records. January 28 – The National Football League announces expansion teams for Dallas to start in the 1960 NFL season, paul for the 1961 NFL season. January 30 – The African National Party is founded in Chad, february 1 – In Greensboro, North Carolina, four black students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University begin a sit-in at a segregated Woolworths lunch counter. Although they are refused service, they are allowed to stay at the counter, the event triggers many similar non-violent protests throughout the Southern United States, and six months later the original four protesters are served lunch at the same counter. February 3 – Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Harold Macmillan makes the Wind of Change speech to the South African Parliament in Cape Town, february 5 – The first CERN particle accelerator becomes operational in Geneva, Switzerland. February 9 Joanne Woodward receives the first star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, adolph Coors III, the chairman of the board of the Coors Brewing Company, is kidnapped, and his captors demand a ransom of $500,000. Coors is later murdered, and Joseph Corbett, Jr. is indicted for the crime. February 10 – A conference about the independence of the Belgian Congo begins in Brussels. February 11 The N-class blimp ZPG-3W of the U. S. Navy is destroyed during a storm over Massachusetts, twelve Indian soldiers die in clashes with Red Chinese troops along their small common border. February 13 – France tests its first atomic bomb in the Sahara Desert of Algeria, february 18 – The 1960 Winter Olympics begin at the Squaw Valley Ski Resort, in Placer County, California. February 26 – A New York-bound Alitalia airliner crashes into a cemetery at Shannon, Ireland, shortly after takeoff, killing 34 of the 52 persons on board
17.
1961
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The next such year will be 6009. January 3 United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower announces that the United States has severed diplomatic, cuba–United States relations are later restored in 2015. At the National Reactor Testing Station near Idaho Falls, atomic reactor SL-1 explodes and it remains the deadliest air disaster to occur in the country. Erwin Schrödinger died January 41961 January 5 Italian sculptor Alfredo Fioravanti marches into the U. S, consulate in Rome, and confesses that he was part of the team that forged the Etruscan terracotta warriors in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cemal Gürsel forms the new government of Turkey, January 7 – Following a four-day conference in Casablanca, five African chiefs of state announce plans for a NATO-type African organization to ensure common defense. The Charter of Casablanca involves the Casablanca Group, Morocco, the United Arab Republic, Ghana, Guinea, January 8 – In France, a referendum supports Charles de Gaulles policies on independence for Algeria. January 9 – British authorities announce that they have discovered a large Soviet spy ring in London, January 17 President Dwight Eisenhower gives his final State of the Union Address to Congress. In a Farewell Address the same day, he warns of the power of a military–industrial complex. Patrice Lumumba of Republic of Congo is assassinated, January 20 – John F. Kennedy is sworn in as President of the United States. January 24 – A B-52 Stratofortress, with two bombs, crashes near Goldsboro, North Carolina. President John F. Kennedy delivers the first live news conference. In it, he announces that the Soviet Union has freed the two surviving crewmen of a USAF RB-47 reconnaissance plane shot down by Soviet flyers over the Barents Sea July 1,1960, One Hundred and One Dalmatians is released in cinemas. Acting to halt leftist excesses, a composed of two army officers and four civilians takes over El Salvador, ousting another junta that had ruled for three months. Jânio Quadros is elected president of Brazil and he later resigns on August 25. January 26 – President John F. Kennedy appoints Janet G. Travell to be his physician, January 28 – Supercar, the first family sci-fi TV series filmed in Supermarionation debuts on ATV. January 30 – President John F. Kennedy delivers his first State of the Union Address. January 31 – Ham the Chimp, a 37-pound male, is rocketed into space aboard Mercury-Redstone 2, in a test of the Project Mercury capsule, February 1 – The United States tests its first Minuteman I intercontinental ballistic missile. February 3 – China buys grain from Canada for $60 million, February 4 – The Portuguese Colonial War begins in Angola
18.
1962
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January 1 Western Samoa became independent from New Zealand. The United States Navy SEALs, elite special forces, are activated, SEAL Team One is commissioned in the Pacific Fleet and SEAL Team Two in the Atlantic Fleet. The Beatles audition for Decca Records but are rejected, NBC introduces the Laramie peacock before a midnight showing of the series Laramie in the United States. January 2 – NAACP Executive Secretary Roy Wilkins praises U. S. President John F. Kennedys personal role in advancing civil rights, january 3 – Pope John XXIII excommunicates Fidel Castro. January 4 – New York City introduces a train that operates without a crew on board. January 5 – The first album on which The Beatles play, My Bonnie, credited to Tony Sheridan, january 8 – Harmelen train disaster,93 die in the worst Dutch rail disaster. January 9 – Cuba and the Soviet Union sign a trade pact, january 10 – An avalanche on Nevado Huascarán in Peru causes 4,000 deaths. January 12 – The Indonesian Army confirms that it has operations in West Irian. January 13 – Albania allies itself with the Peoples Republic of China, january 15 – Portugal abandons the U. N. General Assembly due to the debate over Angola. January 16 – A military coup occurs in the Dominican Republic, january 19 – A counter-coup occurs in the Dominican Republic, the old government returns except for the new president Rafael Filiberto Bonnelly. January 22 – The Organization of American States suspends Cubas membership, the suspension is lifted in 2009. January 24 The East German government readopts conscription, the Organisation armée secrète bombs the French Foreign Ministry. January 26 – Ranger 3 is launched to study the Moon, january 27 – The Soviet government changed all place names honoring Molotov, Kaganovich and Georgy Malenkov. January 30 – Two of the high-wire Flying Wallendas are killed, january – Stena Line established as a ferry operator by Sten A. Olsson in Gothenburg, Sweden. February 3 – The United States embargo against Cuba is announced, february 4 – The Sunday Times in the United Kingdom became the first paper to print a colour supplement. February 4–February 5 – During a new moon and solar eclipse, february 5 – French President Charles de Gaulle calls for Algeria to be granted independence. February 6 – Negotiations between U. S. Steel and the United States Department of Commerce begin, february 7 The United States embargo against Cuba comes into effect, prohibiting all U. S. -related Cuban imports and exports. Luisenthal Mine Disaster, A coal mine explosion in Saarland, West Germany kills 299, february 9 – The Taiwan Stock Exchange Corporation opens
19.
1963
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January 1 Osamu Tezukas Tetsuwan Atomu, Japans first serialized animated series based on the popular manga, debuts on Japanese television station Fuji Television. January 2 – Vietnam War, The Viet Cong win their first major victory in the Battle of Ap Bac. January 8 – Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa is exhibited in the United States for the first time, at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, january 14 George Wallace becomes governor of Alabama. In his inaugural speech, he defiantly proclaims segregation now, segregation tomorrow, the steam locomotive Flying Scotsman makes its last scheduled run, before going into the hands of Alan Pegler for preservation. January 18 – Due to severe winter conditions the twelfth elfstedentocht skating tour in the Netherlands turns into an almost total disaster, of the 9,294 participants only 69 manage to finish, making this the heaviest elfstedentocht ever held. January 22 – France and West Germany sign the Élysée Treaty, january 26 – The Australia Day shootings rock Perth,2 people are shot dead and 3 others injured by Eric Edgar Cooke. January 28 – Black student Harvey Gantt enters Clemson University in South Carolina, january 29 – French President Charles de Gaulle vetoes the United Kingdoms entry into the European Common Market. February 8 – Travel, financial and commercial transactions by United States citizens to Cuba are made illegal by the John F. Kennedy Administration. February 10 – Five Japanese cities located on the northernmost part of Kyūshū are merged and become the city of Kitakyūshū, february 11 The Central Intelligence Agencys Domestic Operations Division is created in the United States. The Beatles record their debut album Please Please Me in a day at the Abbey Road Studios in London. American-born poet Sylvia Plath commits suicide in London, february 12 – Northwest Airlines Flight 705 crashes in the Florida Everglades, killing all 43 aboard. February 14 – Harold Wilson becomes leader of the opposition Labour Party in the United Kingdom, february 21 – An earthquake destroys the village of Marj, Libya, killing 900. February 27 Juan Bosch takes office as the 41st president of the Dominican Republic, female suffrage is enacted in Iran. February 28 – Dorothy Schiff resigns from the New York Newspaper Publishers Association and her paper, the New York Post, resumes publication on March 4. March The divorce case of The Duke and Duchess of Argyll causes scandal in the United Kingdom, March 4 – In Paris, six people are sentenced to death for conspiring to assassinate President Charles de Gaulle. De Gaulle pardons five, but the other conspirator, Jean Bastien-Thiry, is executed by firing squad several days later, March 17 – Mount Agung erupts on Bali, killing approximately 1,500. March 22 – The Beatles release their first album, Please Please Me, March 23 – Dansevise by Grethe & Jørgen Ingmann wins the Eurovision Song Contest 1963 for Denmark. March 27 – In Britain, Dr. Richard Beeching issues a report, The Reshaping of British Railways, March 28 – Director Alfred Hitchcocks film The Birds is released in the United States
20.
History of Canada
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The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first European arrivals and have discovered through archaeological investigations. Starting in the late 15th century, French and British expeditions explored, colonized, the colony of New France was established in 1534 and was ceded to the United Kingdom in 1763 after the French defeat in the Seven Years War. The now British Province of Quebec was divided into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, in 1867, the Province of Canada was joined with two other British colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia through Confederation, forming a self-governing entity named Canada. The new dominion expanded by incorporating parts of British North America, finishing with Newfoundland. Although responsible government had existed in Canada since 1848, Britain continued to set its foreign, with the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, Canada became co-equal with the United Kingdom. After the Constitution was repatriated in 1982, the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament were removed. Canada currently consists of ten provinces and three territories and is a democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. Since the conclusion of the Second World War, Canadians have supported multilateralism abroad, archeological and Aboriginal genetic evidence indicate that North and South America were the last continents into which humans migrated. During the Wisconsin glaciation,50, 000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge, from Siberia into northwest North America. At that point, they were blocked by the Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, confining them to Alaska. The exact dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas are the subject of an ongoing debate, by 16,000 years ago the glacial melt allowed people to move by land south and east out of Beringia, and into Canada. The Queen Charlotte Islands, Old Crow Flats, and Bluefish Caves contain some of the earliest Paleo-Indian archaeological sites in Canada, ice Age hunter-gatherers of this period left lithic flake fluted stone tools and the remains of large butchered mammals. The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE, climatic conditions were similar to modern patterns, however, the receding glacial ice sheets still covered large portions of the land, creating lakes of meltwater. Most population groups during the Archaic periods were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers, however, individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, thus with the passage of time, there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization. The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2000 BCE to 1000 CE and includes the Ontario, Quebec, the introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the previous Archaic-stage inhabitants. The Laurentian-related people of Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada, the Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System connected cultures and societies to the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario, Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Laurel complexes
21.
Battle of the Plains of Abraham
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The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, also known as the Battle of Quebec, was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years War. The culmination of a siege by the British, the battle lasted about 15 minutes. In the wake of the battle, the French evacuated the city, their military force in Canada. France ceded most of its possessions in eastern North America to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, the decisive success of the British forces and the subsequent capture of Quebec City formed part of what became known as the Annus Mirabilis in Great Britain. As the Seven Years War entered its later stages through 1758 and 1759, in 1758 after defeat in July at the Battle of Carillon, the British took Louisbourg in August, causing Atlantic Canada to fall into British hands, and opening the sea route to attack Quebec. Fort Frontenac fell to the British in the month, costing the French supplies for the Ohio Valley campaign. When some of the Indian supporters of the French made peace with the British, French leadership, specifically Governor de Vaudreuil and General Montcalm, were unsettled by the British successes. However, Quebec was still able to protect itself as the British prepared an attack for 1759. James Wolfe expected to lead 12,000 men, but was greeted by only approximately 7,000 regular troops,400 officers, Wolfes troops were supported by a fleet of 49 ships and 140 smaller craft led by Admiral Charles Saunders. In preparation for the approach to Quebec, James Cook surveyed a large portion of the river. Cooks ship was one of the first ships up the river, sounding the channel and guiding the fleet as it moved up, eventually landing Wolfe and his men on the Île dOrléans on 28 June. Despite an air of defeatism among the leadership, the professional French troops, prior to the arrival of the British, a small fleet of supply ships had arrived in Quebec with much needed supplies. Those supplies, along with 500 reinforcements, were likely behind the lengthened siege, in addition, a screen of trees along the Montmorency River made an approach on that route dangerous. On 31 July, the first serious attempt by Wolfes troops to land on the northern shore led to the Battle of Beauport, approximately 3,500 troops, supported by a heavy bombardment, attempted to land, but were caught under fire in the river shallows. Some French officers felt the Montmorency defeat would be the last British attack, Wolfe, I assure you, will make no progress… He contented himself with losing about five hundred of his best soldiers. He predicted another attack would come within days, others in the French camp felt the campaign was over. For the remainder of the summer, Wolfes focus changed, possibly due to frustration with Montcalms tactics and his troops, along with American Rangers, attacked and destroyed small French settlements along the St. Lawrence. An estimated 1,400 stone houses and manors were destroyed, the effort was likely an attempt to force Montcalms army out of its fortifications, but was unsuccessful
22.
Benjamin West
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Benjamin West PRA was an Anglo-American painter of historical scenes around and after the time of the American War of Independence and the Seven Years War. He was the president of the Royal Academy in London. He was offered a knighthood by the British Crown, but declined it and he said that Art is the representation of human beauty, ideally perfect in design, graceful and noble in attitude. West was born in Springfield, Pennsylvania, in a house that is now in the borough of Swarthmore on the campus of Swarthmore College, as the child of an innkeeper. The family later moved to Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, where his father was the proprietor of the Square Tavern, Benjamin West was an autodidact, while excelling at the arts, he had little education and, even when president of the Royal Academy, could scarcely spell. From 1746 to 1759, West worked in Pennsylvania, mostly painting portraits, while West was in Lancaster in 1756, his patron, a gunsmith named William Henry, encouraged him to paint a Death of Socrates based on an engraving in Charles Rollins Ancient History. His resulting composition, which differs from the source, has been called the most ambitious. During this time West met John Wollaston, a painter who had immigrated from London. West was a friend of Benjamin Franklin, whose portrait he painted. Franklin was the godfather of Wests second son, Benjamin, in common with many artists architects and lovers of the fine arts at that time he conducted a Grand Tour. West expanded his repertoire by copying works of Italian painters such as Titian, in Rome he met a number of international neo-classical artists including German-born Anton Rafael Mengs, Scottish Gavin Hamilton, and Austrian Angelica Kauffman. In August 1763, West arrived in England, on what he intended as a visit on his way back to America. In fact, he never returned to America and he stayed for a month at Bath with William Allen, who was also in the country, and visited his half-brother Thomas West at Reading at the urging of his father. In London he was introduced to Richard Wilson and his student Joshua Reynolds and he moved into a house in Bedford Street, Covent Garden. In 1765 he married Elizabeth Shewell, an American to whom he engaged in Philadelphia. All three prelates commissioned work from him, in 1766 West proposed a scheme to decorate St Pauls Cathedral with paintings. It was rejected by the Bishop of London, but his idea of painting an altarpiece for St Stephen Walbrook was accepted, at around this time he also received acclaim for his classical subjects, such as Orestes and Pylades and The Continence of Scipio. Benjamin West was known in England as the American Raphael and his Raphaelesque painting of Archangel Michael Binding the Devil is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge
23.
The Death of General Wolfe
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It is an oil on canvas of the Enlightenment period. West made an additional and nearly identical painting of the scene for King George III in 1771. The Death of General Wolfe depicts the Battle of Quebec, also known as the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and this was a pivotal event in the Seven Years War and decided the fate of Frances colonies in North America. The battle was fought between the British Navy and Army and the French Army lasting only fifteen minutes, the British Army was commanded by General Wolfe. Though successful in holding the British line against the French and winning the battle, in death, General Wolfe gained fame as a national hero and became an icon of the Seven Years War and British dominance in late eighteenth century North America. West depicts General Wolfe as a Christ-like figure and this painting has a triangular composition, made by the top of the flag and the positions of the men. It resembles Christian Lamentation scenes, where Christ is held in the embrace of the Virgin Mary, captain Hervey Smythe is pictured holding Wolfes right arm. The depiction of the Indigenous warrior in the painting—kneeling with his chin on his fist, in art, the touching of ones face with ones hand is a sign of deep thought and intelligence. Some consider it an inspired by the noble savage concept. Original items of clothing that were used as a model for portraying the warrior in the painting can be found in the British Museums collection, on the ground in front of Wolfe are his musket, cartridge box, and bayonet. Wolfe went into battle armed as his men were, although his musket was of higher quality and his dress is also of note. He is wearing a red coat, a red waistcoat, red breeches, such dress was rather simple, especially for a commanding officer. Next to Wolfe, in the jacket, is Dr Thomas Hinde. The general later died in the doctors hands, in the background, and to the left of the men surrounding Wolfe, an approaching runner is depicted. In the painting, Fraser wears the Fraser tartan, which was worn by officers in that regiment. All in all four of the fourteen men depicted were actually at the battleground. The clothing West depicted in this scene was controversial at the time. Although the event was relatively recent—only eleven years prior—its subject matter made it an example of the genre of history painting
24.
Indigenous peoples in Canada
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Aboriginal peoples in Canada, are the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present-day Canada. They comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis, although Indian is a term still commonly used in legal documents, the descriptors Indian and Eskimo have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada and are pejorative. Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-date current indigenous peoples of the Americas, projectile point tools, spears, pottery, bangles, chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing cultural periods, traditions and lithic reduction styles. The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal culture included permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies, the Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada, Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first peoples communities. National Aboriginal Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples to the history of Canada, First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Aboriginal community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity. The terms First Peoples and First Nations are both used to refer to peoples of Canada. The terms First Peoples or Aboriginal peoples in Canada are normally broader terms than First Nations, as they include Inuit, Métis, First Nations has come into general use for the indigenous peoples of North America in Canada, and their descendants, who are neither Inuit nor Métis. On reserves, First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnical identity, in conversation this would be I am Haida, or we are Kwantlens, in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities. In this Act, Aboriginal peoples of Canada includes the Indian, Inuit, Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution. Its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive, Aboriginal peoples is more commonly used to describe all indigenous peoples of Canada. It also refers to self-identification of Aboriginal people who live within Canada claiming rights of sovereignty or Aboriginal title to lands, the term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit, the Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people. They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo, the Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages. Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people across the area inhabited by the Inuit. Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are divided into legal categories based on their relationship with the Crown
25.
New France
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The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
26.
Canada under British rule
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Canada first came under British rule with the Treaty of Paris which ceded New France, of which Canada was a part, to the British Empire. Gradually, other territories, colonies, and provinces that were part of British North America would be added to Canada. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 enlarged the colony of Canada under the name of the Province of Quebec, with the Act of Union 1840 Upper and Lower Canada were joined to become the United Province of Canada. A number of other British colonies, such as Newfoundland and British Columbia, in North America, the Seven Years War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10,1763. As part of the treaty, France ceded all North American lands to Britain, except Louisiana, the Quebec Act became one of the Intolerable Acts that infuriated the thirteen British colonies in what would become the United States of America. In Acadia, the British had expelled French-speaking populations in 1755 from Acadia to Louisiana, creating the Cajun population, in the former French territory of Acadia, the British were confronted by a relatively large and well-established Catholic Mikmaq and Wabanaki Confederacy. The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710, much earlier than in what would become the rest of modern-day Canada, the Mikmaq never ceded land to either France or England. The first immigration of Protestants happened in the province with the founding of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax sparked Father Le Loutres War, which, in turn, led to the British expelling the Acadians from the region during the French and Indian War. As they later captured Cape Breton Island and Prince Edward Island, the few Acadians who managed to return to the area have created the contemporary Acadian society. Once the land was emptied, other settlements were formed by New England Planters, in 1775, American revolutionaries attempted to push their insurrection into Quebec. The habitants were divided, in areas, there was significant support. The Patriots laid siege to Fort Saint-Jean, capturing it and Montreal in November 1775 and they then marched on Quebec City, where an attempt to take the city on December 31,1775, failed. Following an ineffectual siege, the arrival of British troops in May 1776 sent the Patriots into retreat back toward Montreal, an attempt against British troops at Trois-Rivières failed, and the Patriots were driven from the province in June. Leaving with the army were about 250 Québécois in two regiments, James Livingstons 1st Canadian Regiment, and Moses Hazens 2nd Canadian Regiment. Quebeckers living in the forts of the Great Lakes region also massively sided with the Patriots and were instrumental in the taking of the fort by the Patriots. The only major event of their resistance was the Battle of Fort Cumberland, when Eddy and a force of Massachusetts Patriots, Acadians. The siege was broken and Eddys forces were scattered when British reinforcements arrived, Eddy and Allan continued to make trouble on the frontier between what are now Maine and New Brunswick from a base in Machias for several years. The Maritime provinces were affected by privateering, and raids on settlements by privateers in violation of their letters of marque
27.
Post-Confederation era
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Post-Confederation Canada is the history of a new nation from its formation to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Canada had a population of 3.5 million, residing in the expanse from Cape Breton to just beyond the Great Lakes. One in three Canadians was French, and about 100,000 were aboriginal and it was a rural country composed of small farms. With a population of 115,000, Montreal was the largest city, followed by Toronto, pigs roamed the muddy streets of Ottawa, the small new national capital. Besides subsistence agriculture, the economy was based on exports of lumber, fish and grain, factories were small, except for those making farm implements. Economic growth of total GNP averaged only 2.4 percent per year,1870 to 1896, then surged to 6.2 percent, part of that increase was due to population growth. The rate of growth of GNP per capita was 1. 3%,1870 to 1896, then surged to 2.6 percent, 1897-1913. The growth rate was respectable, but lower than that of the United States, politically, the Father of Confederation, John A. Macdonald and his Conservative Party dominated national politics until his death. The Liberals under Wilfrid Laurier were in power 1896 to 1911, Francophones had a distinct and traditionalistic culture, led by the landholders and the priests. The Anglophones took pride in their Britishness and in their refusal to be swallowed up by the United States, baseball and lacrosse were favorite sports. There were only two libraries in the entire new country, half the adults in Quebec could not read. Hard drinking in all ranks was the norm, in fact, politically, the new nation was defined by its practicality, realism, and stoicism, it had little interest in theory or aesthetics. Much more important was loyalty to family, church, political party, historians later emphasized the iconic phrase Peace, Order and Good Government as founding constitutional principles, but at the time it was rarely quoted. On the eve of the war in 1914, the national population had reached 8.1 million. Most of the growth had taken place in the new provinces, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta. The great national achievement was the building of railways that opened the prairies to settlement. The rich new farmlands made Canada a major exporter of wheat, issues of nationalism versus loyalty to the British Crown continued. So too did increasingly bitter disputes on issues, especially the role of the French language outside Québec
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Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
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During the World wars and Interwar Years Canada experienced economic gain, more freedom for women and new technological advancements. On June 28,1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated, at the time, Canadians were more concerned with events within their own country than European affairs, specifically in the Balkans where crises and wars had been brutal perennials for generations. Canada was facing its worst depression since the 1890s, Canadians hoped the Great Powers of Europe could keep the peace as they had done many times before in earlier disputes of the century. On July 29,1914, Britain warned its colonies to take precautions in case of war, most recent wars had begun with surprise attacks such as the Russo-Japanese War. Soldiers and Canadas few sailors manned Halifax fortifications and brought guns to command the St. Lawrence river, on August 2 armed militia mounted guard on bridges, canals, tunnels and railway stations in preparation. Canada got the news and Hughes was ecstatic, Britain was at war with Germany, Canada was then automatically at war, as she did not yet have control over her foreign policy — not that there were many dissenters. The war was popular even among French Canadians, including Henri Bourassa. Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier created a party truce for as long as Canada was in danger and had those dissenters in the liberal caucus hold their tongues, in no way was Canada prepared for this scale of war. Its economy could not support it for more than a few months before being hit hard by its cost, no one expected it to last longer than a few months though, many claiming it would be over by Christmas. Mass recruiting for the war began on August 6 with hundreds of telegrams notifying Militia colonel to begin recruiting men between the ages of 18 and 45. Hordes of British immigrants and the unemployed answered the call, ontario, hard hit by the depression, accounted for third of the recruits, while two thirds of the recruits were British born. Few recruits came from the Maritimes and just over 1,000 were French, the cities of Toronto, Winnipeg and Montreal sent enough men each for two battalions. By September 4 there were 32,000 men and 8,000 horses in camp, there was an immediate demand for equipment, uniforms and weapons. The Ross Rifle Company worked overtime as did the textile mills, with a force of 32,000 equipped and ready, it soon became apparent that Embarkation from the docks would be a nightmare. Extra ships had to be chartered to carry the additional men, battalions were marched on to ships only to be marched back off when they didnt fit. Units ignored orders and schedules and crowded the docks not wishing to wait. When it was all done, the last of 30 ships had cleared the harbour, leaving 863 horses,4,512 tons of baggage, vehicles and ammunition behind, the first Canadian casualties of the war occurred before these troops arrived in Europe. Sir Christopher Cradocks squadron was sunk at the Battle of Coronel off the coast of Chile, by the time that the First Contingent reached England on October 14 it became apparent the war would not be over by Christmas
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Outline of Canada
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Canada, Canada /ˈkænədə/ is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The lands have been inhabited for millennia by various groups of aboriginal peoples, beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years War, in 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. Canada is a federation that is governed as a parliamentary democracy and it is a bilingual and multicultural country, with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. ca International rankings of Canada Canada is. Unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent jurisdiction, note, Canada did not acquire any new land to create Yukon, Alberta, Saskatchewan, or Nunavut. UN Human Development Program, Country Fact Sheet, Canada, Statistics — Country Sheet, Canada Canada travel guide from Wikivoyage Canada from The Canadian Encyclopedia
30.
Culture of Canada
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The culture of Canada is a term that embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canada and Canadians. Throughout Canadas history, its culture has influenced by European culture and traditions, especially British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canadas immigrant populations have incorporated into mainstream Canadian culture. The population has also influenced by American culture because of a shared language, proximity. Canada is often characterized as being progressive, diverse. Canadas federal government has often described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. Canadas culture draws from its range of constituent nationalities. Canadians identify with the institutions of health care, military peacekeeping, the National park system. The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions and it has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. For tens of thousands of years, Canada was inhabited by Aboriginal peoples from a variety of different cultures, although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful. Combined with late economic development in many regions, this comparably nonbelligerent early history allowed Aboriginal Canadians to have an influence on the national culture. Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an part of Canadian language. Many places in Canada, both features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The name Canada itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning village or settlement, the name of Canadas capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term adawe meaning to trade. The French originally settled New France along the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of French Canadian culture. The British conquest of New France during the century brought 70,000 Francophones under British rule, creating a need for compromise. The migration of 40,000 to 50,000 United Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution brought American colonial influences, following the War of 1812 a large wave of Irish, Scottish and English settlers arrived in Upper Canada and Lower Canada. As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive, Canada until the 1940s saw itself in terms of English and French cultural, linguistic and political identities, and to some extent aboriginal
31.
Constitutional history of Canada
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The constitutional history of Canada begins with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, in which France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. Canada was the colony along the St Lawrence River, part of present-day Ontario and its government underwent many structural changes over the following century. In 1867 Canada became the name of the new federal Dominion extending ultimately from the Atlantic to the Pacific, Canada obtained legislative autonomy from the United Kingdom in 1931, and had its constitution patriated in 1982. Canadas constitution includes the amalgam of constitutional law spanning this history, on February 10,1763, France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the cession of Canada, including all its dependencies, Acadia, a year before, France had secretly signed a treaty ceding Louisiana to Spain to avoid losing it to the British. At the time of the signing, the French colony of Canada was already under the control of the British army since the capitulation of the government of New France in 1760. The policy of Great Britain regarding its newly acquired colonies of America was revealed in a Royal Proclamation, the proclamation renamed Canada The Province of Quebec, redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. Although not an act of Parliament, the proclamation expressed the will of the British Crown to govern its new possessions, the proclamation was thus considered constitution of Quebec until the passing of the Quebec Act, by which the colony was granted a legislature. The application of British laws such as the penal Laws caused numerous administrative problems, the requirements of the Test Act also effectively excluded Catholics from administrative positions in the British Empire. When James Murray was commissioned as general and governor in chief of the Province of Quebec, a four-year military rule ended. He believed that, over time, the Canadians would recognize the superiority of British civilization and willingly adopt its language, its religion and he officially recommended to retain French civil law and to dispense the Canadians from taking the Oath of Supremacy. Nevertheless, Murray followed his instructions and British institutions began to be established, on September 17,1764, the Courts of the Kings Bench and Common Pleas were constituted. Tensions quickly developed between the British merchants or old subjects, newly established in the colony, and Governor Murray and they were very dissatisfied with the state of the country and demanded that British institutions be created immediately. They demanded that common law be enforced to protect their business interests, Murray did not think very highly of these tradesmen. In a letter to the British Lords of Trade, he referred to them as licentious fanatics who would not be satisfied, the conciliatory approach of Murray in dealing with the demands of the Canadians was not well received by the merchants. In May 1764, they petitioned the king for Murrays removal, the merchants succeeded in having him recalled to London. He was vindicated, but did not return to the Province of Quebec, in 1768, he was replaced by Sir Guy Carleton, who would contribute to the drafting of the 1774 Quebec Act. On October 29,1764,94 Canadian subjects submitted a petition demanding that the orders of the king be available in French, in May 1774 the British merchants trading in Quebec responded by submitting their case to the king
32.
Economic history of Canada
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Canadian historians until the 1980s tended to focus on economic history, including labour history. In part this is because Canada has had far fewer political or military conflicts than other societies and this was especially true in the first half of the twentieth century when economic history was overwhelmingly dominant. Many of the most prominent English Canadian historians from this period were economic historians, such as Harold Innis, Donald Creighton, scholars of Canadian history were heirs to the traditions that developed in Europe and the United States, but frameworks that worked well elsewhere often failed in Canada. The heavily Marxist influenced economic history that dominates Europe has little relevance to most of Canadian history, a focus on class, urban areas, and industry fails to address Canadas rural and resource based economy. Similarly, the monetarist school that is dominant in the United States also has been difficult to transfer north of the border, the study of economic history in Canada became highly focused on economic geography, and for many years the dominant school of thought has been the staples thesis. This school of thought bases the study of the Canadian economy on the study of natural resources and this approach has since also become used outside of Canada in Australia and in many developing nations. Before the arrival of Europeans, the First Nations of what would become Canada had a large, furs, tools, decorative items, and other goods were often transported thousands of kilometres, mostly by canoe throughout the many rivers and lakes of the region. The earliest European settlements in Canada were the fisheries of the East Coast, boats from France, Portugal, Spain, and Great Britain would traverse the Atlantic, fish for a summer and then return laden with fish. The trade was dominated by fishers from southern Europe. In Catholic countries, demand for fish was much greater and it was from the northern nations of Britain and France that the first settlers came, however. Spain, Portugal and the south of France had abundant supplies of salt because in the warm climates it was a matter to evaporate seawater. They would thus bring barrels of salt with them to the grounds, salt the fish aboard ship. In the colder and wetter climate of the British Isles and northern France, to preserve the fish, they were dried by hanging them on large fish racks on the coast of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. These drying stations were active for months of the year, and this economic idea sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of imperial investment in the colony itself. It was in turn replaced by La Compagnie des Cent-Associés created in 1627, by the King of France, Louis XIII and these were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada. Harold Innis, based in the department at the University of Toronto. They argued that the Canadian Economy was primarily based on exports of a series of staples—fish, fur, timber, wheat—that shipped to Britain, the thesis explains Canadian economic development as a lateral, east-west conception of trade. Innis argued that Canada developed as it did because of the nature of its staple commodities, raw materials, such as fish, fur, lumber, agricultural products and this trading link cemented Canadas cultural links to Britain
33.
Former colonies and territories in Canada
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A number of states and polities formerly claimed colonies and territories in Canada prior to the evolution of the current provinces and territories under the federal system. The colonization of Canada by Europeans began in the 10th century, France relinquished nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years War to the British Empire. Britains imperial government over a century later then ceded the land to Canadian control in 1867 after confederation, since then, Canadas external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999. The Mikmaq in todays Maritimes were governed as seven districts with their own district chiefs. To the west around the Great Lakes Council of Three Fires was formed in 796 CE according to oral history, the five tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy, was united in 1142 CE according to their oral traditions. There was also the four or possibly five tribes of the Huron Confederacy, the Iron Confederacy of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan consisted of numerous bands of mixed Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux people. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and peoples of the Northwest Plateau developed highly structured cultures from relatively dense populations, some cultures in this region were very similar and share certain elements, such as the importance of fishing to their communities. Vinland – Markland – Helluland are the given to three lands possibly in Canada, discovered by Norsemen as described in the Eiríks saga rauða. LAnse aux Meadows – settlement Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas the Portuguese Crown claimed it had rights in the Atlantic waters visited by explorer John Cabot in 1497 and 1498. In 1498 to 1500, the Portuguese mariner João Fernandes Lavrador visited the north Atlantic coast, in 1501 and 1502 Miguel and Gaspar Corte-Real explored present day Newfoundland claiming the land in the name of Portuguese Empire. The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of Francis I of France. In 1600, a trading post was established at Tadoussac, but only five of the sixteen settlers survived the winter, in 1604, the first year round permanent settlement was founded by Samuel de Champlain at Île-Saint-Croix on Baie Française which was moved to Port-Royal in 1605. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded the city of Quebec with 28 men of whom 20 died from lack of food, the Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada, New France. British America – – List of Hudsons Bay Company trading posts St and this was in response to intelligence that the Russians had begun to explore the Pacific Coast of North America, which the Spanish considered part of New Spain. Santa Cruz de Nuca and Fort San Miguel at Nootka Sound – The first colony in British Columbia, in 1799, Tsar Paul I proclaimed Russian title and established the Russian American Companys trade monopoly and rule in the North Pacific through the creation of Russian America. The stated southward limit of Russian claims was 51 degrees north latitude, though no Russian settlements were established in what is now British Columbia, Russian trade and scientific expeditions frequented the North Coast. Canada became a semi-independent federated grouping of provinces and a dominion after the Constitution Act of 1867, originally three provinces of British North America, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada united to form the new nation. Full independence came with the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the Canada Act in 1982, since 1867, Canadas external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999
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History of immigration to Canada
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The history of immigration to Canada extends back thousands of years. Anthropologists continue to argue over various possible models of migration to modern-day Canada, the Inuit are believed to have arrived entirely separately from other indigenous peoples around 1200 CE. Indigenous peoples contributed significantly to the culture and economy of the early European colonies, statistics Canada has tabulated the effect of immigration on population growth in Canada from 1851 to 2001. On average, censuses are taken every 10 years, which is how Canadian censuses were first incremented between 1871 and 1901, beginning in 1901, the Dominion Government changed its policy so that census-taking occurred every 5 years subsequently. This was to document the effects of the campaign initiated by Clifford Sifton. In 2006, Canada received 236,756 immigrants. The top ten sending countries, by state of origin, were Peoples Republic of China, India, Philippines, Pakistan, United States, United Kingdom, Iran, South Korea, Colombia 5,382, and Sri Lanka. The top ten source countries were followed closely by France, and Morocco, with Romania, Russia, in 1828, during the Great Migration of Canada, Britain passed the first legislative recognition that it was responsible for the safety and well-being of immigrants leaving the British Isles. It was called An Act to Regulate the Carrying of Passengers in Merchant Vessels, the 1828 Act is now recognized as the foundation of British colonial emigration legislation. Canadian citizenship was created under the Immigration Act,1910. All other British subjects required permission to land, after the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution. Because of this, Canadians—and others living in countries that became known as Commonwealth realms—were known as subjects of the Crown, however, in legal documents, the term British subject continued to be used. Canada was the nation in the then British Commonwealth to establish its own nationality law in 1946. This took effect on January 1,1947, a British subject at that time was anyone from the UK or its colonies, or a Commonwealth country. Acquisition and loss of British subject status before 1947 was determined by United Kingdom law, on February 15,1977, Canada removed restrictions on dual citizenship. Many of the provisions to acquire or lose Canadian citizenship that existed under the 1946 legislation were repealed, Canadian citizens are in general no longer subject to involuntary loss of citizenship, barring revocation on the grounds of immigration fraud. There are a number of reports of contact made before Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. The presence of Basque cod fishermen and whalers, just a few years after Columbus, has also cited, with at least nine fishing outposts having been established on Labrador
35.
Military history of Canada
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For thousands of years, the area that would become Canada was the site of sporadic intertribal conflicts among Aboriginal peoples. In 1763, after the final colonial war—the Seven Years War—the British emerged victorious and the French civilians, the Americans launched invasions in 1775 and 1812. On both occasions, the Americans were rebuffed by Canadian forces, however, this threat would remain well into the 19th century, after Confederation, and amid much controversy, a full-fledged Canadian military was created. Canada, however, remained a British dominion, and Canadian forces joined their British counterparts in the Second Boer War and the First World War. While independence followed the Statute of Westminster, Canadas links to Britain remained strong, and the British once again had the support of Canadians during the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been committed to multilateralism and has gone to war within large multinational coalitions such as in the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and the Afghan war. Canada has also played an important role in United Nations peacekeeping operations worldwide and has committed more troops than any other country. The causes of aboriginal warfare tended to be over tribal independence, resources, before European colonization, aboriginal warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, and entailed relatively few casualties. Warfare was also common among indigenous peoples of the Subarctic with sufficient population density, inuit groups of the northern Arctic extremes generally did not engage in direct warfare, primarily because of their small populations, relying instead on traditional law to resolve conflicts. Those captured in fights were not always killed, tribes often adopted captives to replace warriors lost during raids and battles, slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants. Slave-owning tribes of the societies, such as the Tlingit and Haida. Among indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, about a quarter of the population were slaves, according to Norse sagas, the skraelings of Vinland responded so ferociously that the newcomers eventually withdrew and gave up their plans to settle the area. Prior to French settlements in the St. Lawrence River valley, the Iroquois League was established prior to major European contact. Most archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed sometime between 1450 and 1600, existing aboriginal alliances would become important to the colonial powers in the struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries. By the end of the 17th century, First Nations from the woodlands, eastern subarctic. The adoption of firearms significantly increased the number of fatalities, the bloodshed during conflicts was also dramatically increased by the uneven distribution of firearms and horses among competing aboriginal groups. Two years after the French founded Port Royal in 1605, the English began their first settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, by 1706, the French population was around 16,000 and grew slowly due to a multitude of factors. This lack of immigration resulted in New France having one-tenth of the British population of the Thirteen Colonies by the mid 1700s, La Salles explorations had given France a claim to the Mississippi River valley, where fur trappers and a few colonists set up scattered settlements
36.
History of monarchy in Canada
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The history of monarchy in Canada stretches from pre-colonial times through to the present day. Through both these lineages, the present Canadian monarchy can trace back to the Anglo-Saxon period and ultimately to the kings of the Angles. Kings and queens reigning over Canada have included the monarchs of France, those of the United Kingdom, throughout the 18th century, via war and treaties, the Canadian colonies of France were ceded to King George III. The colonies were confederated by Queen Victoria in 1867 to form the Dominion of Canada, Canada later became a fully independent country through the Constitution Act of 1982 proclaimed by Elizabeth II, the Queen of Canada. The French monarch also moved quickly and it was in 1602 that Aymar de Chaste was appointed as Viceroy of Canada to represent King Henry IV, the Acadians refused, and were subsequently deported from the area in what became known as the Great Upheaval. This was regarded by American colonists as one of the Intolerable Acts that together led to the outbreak of the American Revolution. This conflict led some 46,000 people loyal to the Crown—dubbed United Empire Loyalists—to flee north from the United States, continuing today, Ontario residents descended from these original refugees retain the post-nominals UE, standing for United Empire. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent, Prince William arrived in Canada in July 1786, when he stated of the country, and more specifically, St. Johns, truly deplorable. A most dreadful, inhospitable and barren country, though, he changed his opinion after meeting the local women. He also became, in 1787, the first member of the Royal Family to visit Quebec, the Prince lived at Quebec City, where he oversaw the establishment of the Holy Trinity Anglican Cathedral, a project of personal interest to his father, the King. In 1792, when the first elections for the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada took place, Prince Edward was said to have climbed up to where he could be heard and addressed the crowd, stating, Part then in peace. I urge you to unanimity and accord, let me hear no more of the odious distinctions of English and French. You are all His Britannic Majestys beloved Canadian subjects and it was reportedly the first time the word Canadian, which had previously been reserved only for Francophones, was used in a manner that included all colonialists. Almost twenty years later, Prince Edwards only legitimate daughter, Victoria, was born on 24 May 1819, at Kensington Palace. However, Edward died shortly thereafter, leaving Victoria as heir to the throne until, upon the death of William IV, at the 1864 Charlottetown Conference, the deligates agreed unanimously that the new federation should be a constitutional monarchy. By the mid-1860s, neither the nor the location of the capital of the hypothetical new union had been settled. The proposal, however, caused worries in the Foreign and Colonial Office in London that such a title would provoke the republican United States, the new constitution vested in the Queen responsibility for peace, order, and good government, as DArcy McGee had desired. In practice, though, the Second Reform Act,1867, in the same year, Ruperts Land was ceded to the Crown in Right of Canada from the Hudsons Bay Company, pulling it into the jurisdiction of the Northwest Territories
37.
National Historic Sites of Canada
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Parks Canada, a federal agency, manages the National Historic Sites program. As of 2016, there are 976 National Historic Sites,171 of which are administered by Parks Canada, the sites are located across all ten provinces and three territories, with two sites located in France. There are related federal designations for National Historic Persons and National Historic Events, Sites, Events, and Persons are each typically marked by a federal plaque, but the markers do not indicate which designation a subject has been given. The Rideau Canal is a National Historic Site, while the Welland Canal is a National Historic Event, emerging Canadian nationalist sentiment in the late 19th century and early 20th century led to an increased interest in preserving Canadas historic sites. There were galvanizing precedents in other countries, in the United Kingdom, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty was created in 1894 to protect that countrys historic and natural heritage. Domestically, Lord Dufferin, the Governor General from 1872 to 1878, initiated some of the earliest, high-profile efforts to preserve Canadas historic sites. He was instrumental in stopping the demolition of the fortifications of Quebec City, at the same time, the federal government was looking for ways to extend the National Park system to Eastern Canada. In 1914, the Parks Branch undertook a survey of sites in Canada. Fort Howe in Saint John, New Brunswick was designated a historic park in 1914. The fort was not a site of significant national historic importance, Fort Anne in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia was also designated in 1917. At the same time, the Department of Militia and Defence was anxious to transfer old forts, harkin, the first Commissioner of Dominion Parks, to develop a departmental heritage policy. On Harkins recommendation, the government created the Advisory Board for Historic Site Preservation in 1919 in order to advise the Minister on a new program of National Historic Sites. Brigadier General Ernest Alexander Cruikshank, an authority on the War of 1812 and the history of Ontario, was chosen as the Boards first chairman. Due to a lack of resources, the HSMBC limited itself to recommending sites for designation, of the 285 National Historic Sites designated by 1943,105 represented military history,52 represented the fur trade and exploration, and 43 represented famous individuals. There was also a strong bias in favour of commemorating sites in Ontario over other parts of the country, at one point, some members of the HSMBC concluded that there were no sites at all in Prince Edward Island worthy of designation. Lawrence, and in Niagara, promoting a loyalist doctrine of unity with Britain. Proposals to designate sites related to the immigration of Jews, Blacks and Ukrainians to Canada were rejected, such was the view of Canadian history by the Board in the first half of the 20th century. As time passed and the system grew, the scope of the program, by the 1930s, the focus of the heritage movement in Canada had shifted from commemoration to preservation and development
38.
Population of Canada
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The historical growth of Canadas population is complex and has been influenced in many different ways, such as indigenous populations, expansion of territory, and human migration. Being a new country, Canada has been predisposed to be a very open society with regards to immigration. Canadians comprise about 0. 5% of the total population. The 2016 Canadian census counted a population of 35,151,728. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, despite the fact that Canadas population density is low, many regions in the south such as Southern Ontario, have population densities higher than several European countries. The large size of Canadas north which is not arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, therefore, the population density of the habitable land in Canada can be modest to high depending on the region. Scholars vary on the size of the aboriginal population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact. During the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canadas Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. Although not without conflict, European Canadians early interactions with First Nations, roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot, who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France. In 1871 there was an enumeration of the population within the limits of Canada at the time. According to the 2011 Canadian Census, Aboriginal peoples numbered at 1,400,685, the European population grew slowly under French rule, thus remained relatively low as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by immigration. Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among the settlers themselves was very high, the women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France. Yves Landry says, Canadians had a diet for their time. The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in North America and it was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666. According to Talons census there were 3,215 people in New France, the census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women. By the early 1700s the New France settlers were established along the Saint Lawrence River. Mainly due to increase and modest immigration from Northwest France the population of New France increased to 55,000 according to the last French census of 1754. This was an increase from 42,701 in 1730, during the late 18th and early 19th century Canada under British rule experienced strong population growth
39.
Territorial evolution of Canada
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The Dominion of Canada was formed on July 1,1867, when the British colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were merged to form a single Dominion within the British Empire. Canada continued to expand across North America as other British colonies joined with or were ceded to Canada, eventually growing from four provinces to ten provinces, politically, Canada gained increasing independence in the 20th century, eventually becoming a fully sovereign state in 1982. The Northwest Territories have been made up of districts, but one of these. Because of this status, it is handled separately from the NWT on this list. After 1905 it no longer had any special status, and it was dissolved in 1999 when Nunavut was created. The maps used on this page, for simplicity, use the version of the borders of Labrador. For much of its history, Canada claimed Labrador extended only along the coast and it is Newfoundlands claim that is used. Matthews, Geoffrey J. Historical atlas of Canada, Volume 1, maps, 1667-1999 - Library and Archives Canada Territorial Evolution, 1670-2001 - Historical Atlas of Canada
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History of Canadian women
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The history of Canadian women covers half the population, but until recent years only comprised a tiny fraction of the historiography. In the 1660s the French government sent about 850 young women called Kings Daughters and they quickly found husbands among the predominantly male settlers, as well as a new life for themselves. They came mostly from families in the Paris area, Normandy. A handful were ex-prostitutes, but only one is known to have practiced that trade in Canada, as farm wives with very good nutrition and high birth rates they played a major role in establishing family life and enabling rapid demographic growth. They had about 30% more children than comparable women who remained in France, landry says, Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time. This was due to the abundance of meat, fish, and pure water, the good food conservation conditions during the winter. Besides household duties, some women participated in the fur trade and they worked at home alongside their husbands or fathers as merchants, clerks and provisioners. Some were widowed, and took over their husbands roles, a handful were active entrepreneurs in their own right. The elite young women were trained in intelligent philanthropy and civic responsibility and they seldom connected with the reform impulses of the middle class women, and for and were paternalistic in their views of the needs of working-class women. Outside the home, Canadian women had few domains which they controlled, an important exception came with Roman Catholic nuns, especially in Québec. Stimulated by the influence in France of The popular religiosity of the Counter Reformation, in the next three centuries women opened dozens of independent religious orders, funded in part by dowries provided by the parents of young nuns. The orders specialized in works, including hospitals, orphanages, homes for unwed mothers. In the first half of the century, about 2-3% of Québecs young women became nuns, there were 6600 in 1901. In Québec in 1917,32 different teaching orders operated 586 boarding schools for girls, at that time there was no public education for girls in Québec beyond elementary school. Hospitals were another specially, the first of which was founded in 1701, in 1936, the nuns of Québec operated 150 institutions, with 30,000 beds to care for the long-term sick, the homeless, and orphans. On a smaller scale, Catholic orders of nuns operated similar institutions in other provinces, the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s combined declericalization with the dramatic reforms of Vatican II. There was a change in the role of nuns. Many left the convent while very few young women entered, the Provincial government took over the nuns traditional role as provider of many of Quebecs educational and social services
