1.
Tokyo
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Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
Tokyo
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Clockwise from top:
Nishi-Shinjuku,
Rainbow Bridge,
National Diet Building,
Shibuya,
Tokyo Skytree
Tokyo
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Satellite photo of Tokyo's 23 Special wards taken by
NASA 's
Landsat 7
Tokyo
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Tokugawa Ieyasu
Tokyo
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Ginza area in 1933
2.
Olympic sports
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Olympic sports are sports contested in the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. The 2016 Summer Olympics included 28 sports, with five additional sports due to be added to the 2020 Summer Olympics, the 2014 Winter Olympics included seven sports. The number and kinds of events may change slightly from one Olympiad to another, each Olympic sport is represented by an international governing body, namely an International Federation. The International Olympic Committee establishes a hierarchy of sports, disciplines, according to this hierarchy, the Olympic sports can be subdivided into multiple disciplines, which are often assumed to be distinct sports. Examples include swimming and water polo, or figure skating and speed skating, in their turn, disciplines can be subdivided into events, for which medals are actually awarded. The IOCs requirements reflect participation in the Olympic Games as well—more stringent toward men, previous Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. These sports, known as discontinued sports, were removed either because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body. Archery and tennis are examples of sports that were competed at the early Games and were dropped by the IOC. Demonstration sports have often included in the Olympic Games, usually to promote a local sport from the host country or to gauge interest. Some such sports, like baseball and curling, were added to the official Olympic program, baseball, however, was discontinued after the 2008 Summer Olympics. The term sport in Olympic terminology refers to all the events that are sanctioned by one international sport federation, one sport, by Olympic definition, may be divided into several disciplines, which are often regarded as separate sports in common language. Skating is a winter Olympic sport represented by the International Skating Union, and includes four disciplines, figure skating, speed skating, short track speed skating, and synchronized skating. The sport with the largest number of Olympic disciplines is skiing, with six, alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, ski jumping, nordic combined, snowboarding, other notable multi-discipline sports are gymnastics, cycling, volleyball, wrestling, canoeing, and bobsleigh. The disciplines listed here are only those contested in the Olympics—gymnastics has two disciplines, while cycling and wrestling have three each. It should also be noted that the IOC definition of a discipline may differ from that used by an international federation, for example, the IOC considers artistic gymnastics a single discipline, but the International Federation of Gymnastics classifies mens and womens artistic gymnastics as separate disciplines. An event, by IOC definition, is a competition that leads to the award of medals. The number of events per sport ranges from a minimum of two to a maximum of 47 in athletics, which despite its number of events and its diversity is not divided into disciplines. The only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program are athletics, aquatics, cycling, fencing, the only winter sports that were included in all Winter Olympic Games are skiing, skating, and ice hockey
Olympic sports
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Archery competition held during the
Athens 2004 Summer Olympics. Dropped from the Olympic program after the 1920
Antwerp games, it was reinstated in
1972.
Olympic sports
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Curling was promoted to official Olympic sport at the
Nagano 1998 Winter Olympics.
Olympic sports
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Tug of war was contested at the
1904 Summer Olympics. It was later dropped from the Olympic program but remains a recognized sport.
3.
Emperor of Japan
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The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and is the ceremonial head of state of Japans system of constitutional monarchy. According to the 1947 constitution, he is the symbol of the State, in Japanese, the Emperor is called Tennō, which means heavenly sovereign. In English, the use of the term Mikado for the Emperor was once common, currently, the Emperor of Japan is the only remaining monarch in the world reigning under the title of Emperor. The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world, in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, it is said that Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. He acceded the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father, Emperor Shōwa, the role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192, the Emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, Japanese Emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. In fact, between 1192 and 1867, the shoguns, or their shikken regents in Kamakura, were the de facto rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the Emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the Emperor was the embodiment of all power in the realm. His current status as a figurehead dates from the 1947 Constitution, since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called Kyūjō, later Kōkyo, and is located on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier, Emperors resided in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries, the Emperors Birthday is a national holiday. Unlike most constitutional monarchies, the Emperor is not the nominal Chief Executive, article 65 of the Constitution explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet, of which the Prime Minister is the leader. The Emperor is also not the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, the Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister. The Emperors powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions, article 4 of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government. It also stipulates that the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law. Article 6 of the Constitution delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles, Appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet. Dissolution of the House of Representatives, proclamation of general election of members of the Diet. Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights. Attestation of instruments of ratification and other documents as provided for by law
Emperor of Japan
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Emperor of Japan
Emperor of Japan
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Imperial Standard
Emperor of Japan
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The current empress,
Michiko
Emperor of Japan
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The current crown princess,
Masako
4.
Hirohito
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Emperor Shōwa was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from December 25,1926, until his death on January 7,1989. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Akihito, upon his death, although better known outside Japan by his personal name Hirohito, in Japan, he is now referred to primarily by his posthumous name Emperor Shōwa. The word Shōwa is the name of the era that corresponded with the Emperors reign, the name Hirohito means abundant benevolence. He was the head of state under the Constitution of the Empire of Japan during Japans imperial expansion, militarization, born in Tokyos Aoyama Palace, Hirohito was the first son of Crown Prince Yoshihito and Crown Princess Sadako. He was the grandson of Emperor Meiji and Yanagihara Naruko and his childhood title was Prince Michi. At the age of 3, Hirohito and his brother Chichibu were returned to court when Kawamura died – first to the mansion in Numazu, Shizuoka. In 1908, he began studies at the Gakushūin. When his grandfather, Emperor Meiji, died on July 30,1912, Hirohitos father, Yoshihito, assumed the throne, in 1914, he was promoted to the ranks of lieutenant in the army and sub-lieutenant in the navy, then to captain and lieutenant in 1916. He was formally proclaimed Crown Prince and heir apparent on November 2,1916, Hirohito attended Gakushūin Peers School from 1908 to 1914 and then a special institute for the crown prince from 1914 to 1921. In 1920, Hirohito was promoted to the rank of Major in the army, in 1921, Hirohito took a six-month tour of Western Europe, including the United Kingdom, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium. After his return to Japan, he became Regent of Japan on November 29,1921, in 1923, he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the army and Commander in the navy, and to army Colonel and Navy Captain in 1925. The Washington Naval Treaty was signed on February 6,1922, Japan withdrew troops from the Siberian Intervention on August 28,1922. The Great Kantō earthquake devastated Tokyo on September 1,1923, on December 27,1923, Daisuke Namba attempted to assassinate Hirohito in the Toranomon Incident but his attempt failed. During interrogation, he claimed to be a communist and was executed, the General Election Law was passed on May 5,1925, giving all men above age 25 the right to vote. Prince Hirohito married his distant cousin Princess Nagako Kuni, the eldest daughter of Prince Kuniyoshi Kuni and they had two sons and five daughters. On December 25,1926, Hirohito assumed the throne upon his father, Yoshihitos, the Crown Prince was said to have received the succession. The Taishō eras end and the Shōwa eras beginning were proclaimed, the deceased Emperor was posthumously renamed Emperor Taishō within days. Following Japanese custom, the new Emperor was never referred to by his name, but rather was referred to simply as His Majesty the Emperor
Hirohito
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Emperor Shōwa 昭和天皇
Hirohito
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Hirohito in 1902 as a baby
Hirohito
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Emperor Taishō 's four sons in 1921: Hirohito,
Takahito,
Nobuhito and
Yasuhito
Hirohito
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Prince Hirohito and British Prime Minister
Lloyd George, 1921
5.
Takashi Ono
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Takashi Ono is a retired Japanese gymnast. He competed at the 1952,1956,1960 and 1964 Olympics and won five gold, four silver, Ono was the flag bearer for Japan at the 1960 Olympics, and took the Olympic Oath at the 1964 Games. In 1998 he was inducted into the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame, in 1958 he married Kiyoko Ono, a fellow Olympic gymnast. They have two sons and three daughters, the first two children were born between 1961 and 1963 while both parents were actively competing, List of multiple Olympic medalists at a single Games List of multiple Olympic medalists List of Olympic medal leaders in mens gymnastics
Takashi Ono
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Takashi Ono at the 1964 Olympics
6.
List of people who have lit the Olympic Cauldron
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The first well-known athlete to light the cauldron was nine-time Olympic champion Paavo Nurmi at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. On other occasions, the people who lit the cauldron were not famous, japanese runner Yoshinori Sakai was born in Hiroshima on August 6,1945, the day the city was destroyed by an atomic bomb. He symbolized the rebirth of Japan after the Second World War when he lit the Olympic cauldron of the 1964 Summer Olympics, at the 1976 Games in Montreal, two teenagers—representing the French- and the English-speaking parts of the country—symbolized the unity of Canada. Norways Crown Prince Haakon lit the cauldron of the 1994 Winter Olympics, in honor of his father and grandfather, for the 2012 Games in London, seven aspiring young athletes—each nominated by a former British Olympic champion—had the honor of lighting the cauldron. Olympic Flame List of Olympic torch relays
List of people who have lit the Olympic Cauldron
–
Li Ning, a former Chinese gymnast, lit the Olympic Cauldron during the
opening ceremony of the
2008 Summer Olympics.
7.
Yoshinori Sakai
–
Yoshinori Sakai was the Olympic flame torchbearer who lit the cauldron at the 1964 Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo. Sakai was born on the day of the bombing of Hiroshima. He was chosen for the role to symbolize Japans postwar reconstruction, at the time he was a member of Waseda Universitys running club. The nineteen-year-old was coached in the duty by Teruji Kogake. He never actually competed in the Olympics, after the Olympic games, he won a gold medal in the 4×400 m relay and a silver in the 400 m at the 1966 Asian Games. He joined Fuji Television in 1968 as a journalist and worked mainly in the fields of news and he died of cerebral bleeding in Tokyo on September 10,2014
Yoshinori Sakai
–
Yoshinori Sakai at the 1964 Olympics
8.
Olympic Stadium
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Olympic Stadium is the name usually given to the main stadium of an Olympic Games. An Olympic stadium is the site of the opening and closing ceremonies, many, though not all, of these venues actually contain the words Olympic Stadium as part of their names. Olympic Stadium may also be named a stadium which hosts Olympic sports. In the case of the Summer Olympics, athletics competitions and the final are traditionally held in the Olympic Stadium. Exceptions to this have occurred though at the 1900,1996 and 2016 Summer Olympics as well as at the 2010 and 2018 Summer Youth Olympic Games, early Winter Games often used figure skating venues as focal points. These were often designated as the Olympic Stadium, usually hosting the opening and closing ceremonies, a number of stadiums have been used in more than one Olympics, in those cities that have held the Games more than once. Lysgårdsbakkene was the stadium of a Winter Olympics and a Winter Youth Olympic Games. Bergiselschanze was the stadium of two Winter Olympics and one Winter YOG. Olympiahalle jointly shared the Olympic Stadium role with Bergiselschanze during the two Winter Olympics, but not during the Winter YOG, only one stadium, the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, has been the main stadium of two Summer Olympics. In addition to the inaugural Summer Olympics, Panathinaiko Stadio was also the stadium of the only Intercalated Games held. A number, including both the Panathinaiko Stadio and the Vélodrome de Vincennes, have hosted events at subsequent Olympics. The London Games of 2012 were not opened and closed at the rebuilt Wembley Stadium, the site of the 1948 Olympic Stadium, Wembley was, however, the venue for some 2012 Olympic football matches. Likewise, the Melbourne Cricket Ground, which was the stadium for the 1956 games. Lake Placids 1930 Olympic Stadium was utilized in the 1980 Lake Placid games as the speed skating venue, olympiahalle hosted figure skating and short-track speed skating during the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics. Stockholm Olympic Stadium hosted equestrian events for the 1956 Summer Olympics, Olympic Past & Future Stadiums - BALLPARKS. com Summer Olympic Stadiums 1896 - on Google Maps
Olympic Stadium
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1896
Olympic Stadium
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1900
Olympic Stadium
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1904
Olympic Stadium
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1908
9.
Olympic Stadium (Tokyo)
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National Stadium was a multi-purpose stadium in Kasumigaoka, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan. The stadium served as the stadium for the opening and closing ceremonies, as well as being the venue for track. The Japan national football teams matches and major football club cup finals were held at the stadium. The stadiums official capacity was 57,363, but the capacity was only 48,000 seats. Demolition was completed in May 2015, and the site will be redeveloped with a new larger-capacity National Olympic Stadium, the new stadium is set to be the main venue for the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympic Games. The original plans for the new stadium were scrapped in July 2015 by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, as a result, the new design will not be ready for the 2019 Rugby World Cup, as originally intended. A new design created by architect Kengo Kuma was chosen in December 2015 to replace the original design and is to be completed in November 2019, the stadium was completed in 1958 as the Japanese National Stadium on the site of the former Meiji Shrine Outer Park Stadium. Its first major event was the 1958 Asian Games, the venue was unscathed by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. Yasuhiro Nakamori, international director for the Japanese Olympic Committee. Official website Satellite photo of the stadium from Google Maps Stadiums in Japan, Tokyo National Stadium National Stadium National Stadium, Tokyo
Olympic Stadium (Tokyo)
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National Stadium
10.
1960 Summer Olympics
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The 1960 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVII Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event held from August 25 to September 11,1960, in Rome, Italy. Rome had been awarded the organization of the 1908 Summer Olympics, on June 15,1955, at the 50th IOC Session in Paris, France, Rome beat out Lausanne, Detroit, Budapest, Brussels, Mexico City and Tokyo for the rights to host the Games. Tokyo and Mexico City would eventually host the following 1964 and 1968 Summer Olympics, Toronto was initially interested in the bidding, but appears to have been dropped during the final bid process. This is the first of five attempts by Toronto from 1960 to 2001, swedish sprint canoeist Gert Fredriksson won his sixth Olympic title. Fencer Aladár Gerevich of Hungary won his sixth gold medal in the team sabre event The Japanese mens gymnastics team won the first of five successive golds. The United States mens national basketball team—led by future Basketball Hall of Famers Walt Bellamy, Jerry Lucas, Oscar Robertson, danish sailor Paul Elvstrøm won his fourth straight gold medal in the Finn class.2 seconds. Wilma Rudolph, US, a polio patient, won three gold medals in sprint events on the track. She was acclaimed as the fastest woman in the world, jeff Farrell, US, won two gold medals in swimming. He underwent an emergency appendectomy six days before the Olympic Trials, abebe Bikila of Ethiopia won the marathon bare-footed to become the first black African Olympic champion. Cassius Clay, US, later known as Muhammad Ali, won boxings light-heavyweight gold medal, ramon Buddy Carr was one of the coaches that led this team to winning gold. Herb Elliott, AUS, won the mens 1500 meters in one of the most dominating performances in Olympic history, rafer Johnson, US, defeated his rival and friend C. K. Yang in one of the greatest Decathlon events in Olympic history. The future Constantine II, last King of Greece won his country a gold in sailing, the Pakistani Mens Field Hockey team broke a run of Indian teams victories since 1928, defeating India in the final and winning Pakistans first Olympic gold medal. Singapore competed for the first time under its own flag, which was to become its national flag after independence, coincidentally, it was the first time an athlete from Singapore won an Olympic medal when Tan Howe Liang won silver in the Weightlifting lightweight category. Wrestlers Shelby Wilson, and Doug Blubaugh, US, won medals in their respective weight classes. South Africa appeared in the Olympic arena for the last time under its apartheid regime and it would not be allowed to return until 1992, after which apartheid in sport had been abolished. Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed during his race under the influence of Roniacol and it was the second time an athlete died in competition at the Olympics, after the death of Portuguese marathon runner Francisco Lázaro at the 1912 Summer Olympics. Finnish Vilho Ylönen, a shooter, shot a bullseye to a wrong target. Peter Camejo, a 2004 American vice-presidential candidate for the Green Party, the future Queen Sofía of Spain represented her native Greece in sailing events
1960 Summer Olympics
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Opening Ceremony in 1960 Summer Olympics in
Stadio Olimpico in
Rome, Italy
1960 Summer Olympics
–
Games of the XVII Olympiad
11.
1968 Summer Olympics
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The 1968 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIX Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event held in Mexico City, Mexico, in October 1968. These were the first Olympic Games to be staged in Latin America and they were also the first Games to use an all-weather track for track and field events instead of the traditional cinder track. The 1968 Games were the third to be held in the last quarter of the year, after the 1956 Games in Melbourne, the Mexican Student Movement of 1968 happened concurrently and the Olympic Games were correlated to the governments repression. On October 18,1963, at the 60th IOC Session in Baden-Baden, West Germany, Mexico City finished ahead of bids from Detroit, Buenos Aires and Lyon to host the Games. The 1968 torch relay recreated the route taken by Christopher Columbus to the New World, journeying from Greece through Italy and Spain to San Salvador Island, Bahamas, and then on to Mexico. American sculptor James Metcalf, an expatriate in Mexico, won the commission to forge the Olympic torch for the 1968 Summer Games, the Australian Peter Norman, who had run second, wore an American civil rights badge as support to them on the podium. As punishment, the IOC banned Smith and Carlos from the Olympic Games for life, American George Foreman won the gold medal for boxing by defeating Soviet Ionas Chepulis via a second-round TKO. After the victory, Foreman waved a small American flag as he bowed to the crowd, the high elevation of Mexico City, at 2,240 m above sea level, influenced many of the events, particularly in track and field. No other Summer Olympic Games before or since have been held at high elevation, as a reminder of this fact, one of the promotional articles of these Olympics was a small metallic box labeled Aire de México, that was Especial para batir récords. The tracks at previous Olympics were conventional cinder, for the first time, East and West Germany competed as separate teams, after being forced by the IOC to compete as a combined German team in 1956,1960, and 1964. Beethovens Ode to Joy was played when East and West Germany arrived in the stadium. Al Oerter of the U. S. won his fourth gold medal in the discus to become only the second athlete to achieve this feat in an individual event. Bob Beamon of the U. S. leapt 8.90 m in the long jump and it remained the Olympic record and stood as the world record for 23 years, until broken by American Mike Powell in 1991. American athletes Jim Hines, Tommie Smith and Lee Evans also set long-standing world records in the 100 m,200 m and 400 m, in the triple jump, the previous world record was improved five times by three different athletes. Viktor Saneev won the first of three gold medals in this event. Dick Fosbury of the U. S. won the medal in the high jump using his unconventional Fosbury flop technique. Věra Čáslavská of Czechoslovakia won four medals in gymnastics. Debbie Meyer of the U. S. became the first swimmer to win three gold medals, in the 200,400 and 800 m freestyle events
1968 Summer Olympics
–
Closing of the 1968 Summer Olympic Games at the Estadio Olímpico Universitario in Mexico City
12.
1964 Winter Olympics
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The 1964 Winter Olympics, officially known as the IX Olympic Winter Games, was a winter multi-sport event which was celebrated in Innsbruck, Austria, from January 29 to February 9,1964. The Games included 1091 athletes from 36 nations, and the Olympic Torch was carried by Joseph Rieder, Innsbruck had to compete with Calgary, Canada, and Lahti, Finland for the right to host the 1964 Winter Olympics. Here is the vote count that occurred at the 55th IOC Session in Munich, West Germany. The games was opened by a concert performed by Vienna Philharmonic, beethovens 7th Symphony and Mozarts 40th Symphony were performed in the opening concert. Normally snowy Innsbruck was threatened by a lack of snow, the Austrian army carved out 20,000 ice bricks from a mountain top and transported them to the bobsled and luge runs. They also carried 40,000 cubic meters of snow to the Alpine skiing courses, the army packed down the slopes by hand and foot. Lidia Skoblikova won all of the speed skating events, an achievement not matched by a man until Eric Heiden at the 1980 Lake Placid Games. Italian bobsleigh pilot Eugenio Monti distinguished himself by helping Britains Tony Nash, the Italians took bronze, but Monti was honored as the first recipient of the Pierre de Coubertin medal for sportsmanship. Egon Zimmermann of Austria took the medal in the mens downhill alpine skiing event. In the 4 man bobsled, the Canadian team won the medal with a total winning time of 4,14.46. Norways Knut Johannesen won the mens 5, 000m speed skating event in an Olympic record time of 7,38.40, in alpine skiing, French sisters Christine and Marielle Goitschel finished first and second in both the slalom and the giant slalom. Ski jumping gained a second event, and the sport of luge made its Olympic debut, politically, the Games were notable because East and West Germany entered a combined team. The USSR won the most medals and the most gold medals at the Games, for the first time the Closing Ceremonies were held at a different place than the Opening Ceremonies. Medals were awarded in 34 events contested in 6 sports, india, Mongolia, and North Korea participated in the Winter Games for the first time. Athletes from West Germany and East Germany competed together as the United Team of Germany from 1956 to 1964, the organising committee said that Ross crashed into a tree during a training run. His brother Malcolm Milne competed at the 1968 and 1972 Winter Olympics and this tragedy sent the US skating program into a period of rebuilding. The loss of the U. S. team was considered so catastrophic for the sport that the 1961 World Championships were cancelled,1964 Summer Paralympics 1964 Summer Olympics Winter Olympic Games Olympic Games International Olympic Committee List of IOC country codes Innsbruck 1964. Official Report of the 1964 Winter Olympics, the program of the 1964 Innsbruck Winter Olympics Map of the surrounding area Australia and the Olympic Games by Harry Gordon
1964 Winter Olympics
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Awards of the Soviet athletes at the IX Winter Olympics (Innsbruck, Austria). Post of USSR, 1964.
1964 Winter Olympics
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The emblem represents the coat of arms of Innsbruck, which shows the bridge on the Inn River that connects the old town and the Hötting district.
13.
1968 Winter Olympics
–
The 1968 Winter Olympics, officially known as the X Olympic Winter Games, were a winter multi-sport event which was celebrated in 1968 in Grenoble, France and opened on 6 February. Norway won the most medals, the first time a country other than the USSR had done so since the USSR first entered the Winter Games in 1956, frenchman Jean-Claude Killy won three gold medals in all the alpine skiing events. In womens figure skating, Peggy Fleming won the only United States gold medal, the year 1968 marked the first time the IOC first permitted East and West Germany to enter separately, and the first time the IOC ever ordered drug and gender testing of competitors. The application was given to the IOC during a meeting between IOC executives and representatives of international sport agencies in Lausanne in February 1963. Between 1946 and 1962 the number of inhabitants in Grenoble increased from 102,000 to 159,000, the development of the infrastructure could not keep up with this rapid increase and was for the most part at the same level as before the Second World War. The 61st IOC session, where the awarding of the Olympic Games should have been voted for and this session was moved to Baden-Baden because Kenya refused entry to IOC members from Portugal and South Africa for political reasons. Due to a lack of time only the Summer Games of 1968 could be voted for, the vote finally took place in Innsbruck on 28 January 1964, one day before the start of the 1964 Winter Olympic Games. After Grenoble was voted as the host city the French National Olympic Sports Committee decided the foundation of the organisation committee. The Comité d’Organisation des dixièmes Jeux Olympiques, the committee for the organisation of the 10th Olympic Games, albert Michallon, alongside being the former mayor of Grenoble, was also president of COJO. The upper panel was made up of the assembly with its 340 members and the supervisory board conduct business with 39 members,19 of which were appointed. The general secretary consisted of five departments and 17 subordinate departments. The number of employees grew to 1920 in February 1968, minister for Youth and Sport Francois Missoffe formed an interministerial committee for the coordination of the work commissioned by prime minister Georges Pompidou. Just over 7000 soldiers of the French armed forces and also employees of the ministries for Youth and Sport, Finance, Social Building, Education, Post, Culture, the sum of the investments contributed to 1.1 billion Francs. The government contributed 47. 08%, the Isere Department 3. 65%, the city of Grenoble 20. 07% and the surrounding communities 1. 37%. Different institutions, such as the train company SNCF, the television broadcaster ORTF, the government housing association, to test the new sport complex and to improve organisational processes they organized International Sports Weeks. From 20 January to 19 February 1967 speed skating competitions and ski races took place, from 12 to 15 October 1967 an ice hockey tournament, on 16 December 1967, the olympic torch was lit in ancient Olympia in Greece. The route of the relay at first led over Mount Olympus to Athens. From there, the torch was flown by an Air France Boeing 707 to the Paris-Orly airport
1968 Winter Olympics
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Arrival of Jean-Claude Killy
1968 Winter Olympics
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The emblem represents a snow crystal and three red roses, the symbol of Grenoble, and the Olympic rings.
1968 Winter Olympics
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Site of Chamrousse (1968)
1968 Winter Olympics
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Olympic Village today
14.
1964 Summer Paralympics
–
The 1964 Summer Paralympics, originally known as the 13th International Stoke Mandeville Games, were the 2nd Paralympic Games to be held. They were held in Tokyo, Japan, they were the last Summer Paralympics to take place in the city as the Summer Olympics until the 1988 Summer Paralympics. The term Paralympic Games was approved by the International Olympic Committee first in 1984, in contrast with the 1960 Games, many events had more than three participants, meaning that athletes were no longer guaranteed a medal upon completing their event. Also originally known as Paralympic Tokyo 1964, Tokyo will host the Summer Paralympic Games again in 2020. Nine sports were competed at the 1964 games, in athletics, a wheelchair racing event in the form of a 60 m dash was added, previously the athletics program had included only field events. Wheelchair racing has become one of the most prominent Paralympic events. Archery Athletics Dartchery Snooker Swimming Table tennis Weightlifting Wheelchair basketball Wheelchair fencing Athletes from 17 of the 19 National Paralympic Committees won at least one medal, by default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won. The number of medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If nations are tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically by IPC country code. With a few exceptions, each event contributed one medal of each type to the table, two bronze medals were awarded in the dartchery, snooker and table tennis events. Some swimming events did not award silver or bronze medals, host country First-time Paralympic appearance To sort this table by nation, total medal count, or any other column, click on the icon next to the column title. Fiji also made their debut Paralympic appearance, dick Thompson of the United Kingdom won two individual golds, one silver and one bronze in athletics. The United States Ron Stein won six golds and South Africas Daniel Erasmus won two golds and two silvers in athletics, nineteen delegations participated in the Tokyo Paralympics. The 1964 Games marked South Africas Paralympic Games début, the country had just been banned from taking part in the Olympic Games, due to its policy of apartheid, and was thus absent from the 1964 Summer Olympics. It was not, however, banned from the Paralympics until 1980, the Opening ceremony was organized in the Oda Field, and the Closing Ceremony at Yoyogi National Gymnasium. About 5000 spectators were present at both of the ceremonies, then Crown Prince Akihito and Crown Princess Michiko were present in both of them. Earlier it was thought that the Games might not get media coverage, due to the focus on the Olympic Games. Yoshisuke Kasai was the chairman of the Board of directors, the board had 3 vice-chairmen, namely T. Azuma, H. Dazai and I
1964 Summer Paralympics
–
Members of the Australian Team march at the Opening Ceremony of the Tokyo 1964 Summer Paralympic Games
1964 Summer Paralympics
–
II Paralympic Games
15.
International Olympic Committee
–
The International Olympic Committee is the supreme authority of the worldwide Olympic movement. It is an international, non-profit, non-governmental organization based in Lausanne and its mission is enshrined in the Olympic Charter, to support the development of competitive sport by ethical and environmentally sustainable means. The IOC was created by Pierre de Coubertin, on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president, today its membership consists of 100 active members,32 honorary members, and 1 honour member. The IOC is the authority of the worldwide modern Olympic movement. The IOC organises the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games, held in summer and winter, the first Summer Olympics organised by the IOC was held in Athens, Greece, in 1896, the first Winter Olympics was in Chamonix, France, in 1924. Until 1992, both Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same year, the first Summer Youth Olympics were in Singapore in 2010 and the first Winter Youth Olympics were held in Innsbruck in 2012. In 2009, the UN General Assembly granted the IOC Permanent Observer status and this decision enables the IOC to be directly involved in the UN Agenda and to attend UN General Assembly meetings where it can take the floor. This has provided the possibility to promote sport at a new level, during each proclamation at the Olympics, announcers speak in different languages, French is always spoken first followed by an English translation and the dominant language of the host nation. The stated mission of the International Olympic Committee is to promote Olympic throughout the world and it is the IOC’s supreme organ and its decisions are final. Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members, among others, the powers of the Session are, To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter. To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President, to elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board. To elect the host city of the Olympic Games, the Olympic Laurel is awarded to individuals for promoting education, culture, development, and peace through sport. For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were selected by other members, countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members. When named, they did not become the representatives of their countries to the IOC. The membership of IOC members ceases in the circumstances, Resignation. Non re-election, any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if they are not re-elected, age limit, any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which they reach the age of 80. Failure to attend Sessions or take part in IOC work for two consecutive years. Transfer of domicile or of main center of interests to an other than the country which was theirs at the time of their election
International Olympic Committee
–
The headquarters of the International Olympic Committee in
Lausanne,
Switzerland.
International Olympic Committee
–
The first IOC, at the
1896 Athens Games
International Olympic Committee
–
1985
German Democratic Republic stamp
16.
Japanese Olympic Committee
–
The Japanese Olympic Committee is the national Olympic committee in Japan for the Olympic Games movement, based in Tokyo, Japan. It is an organisation that selects teams and raises funds to send Japanese competitors to Olympic events organised by the International Olympic Committee. The Japanese Olympic Committee has helped organise every bid for an Olympic Games by a Japanese city to date, Japan has held the Olympic Games three times, the Summer Olympics once and the Winter Olympics twice. Japan will be hosting its fourth Olympic Games and the second Summer Olympics in 2020, Japan at the Olympics Onishi Tetsunosuke Japan Paralympic Committee Official website
Japanese Olympic Committee
–
Japanese Olympic Committee logo
17.
Multi-sport event
–
A multi-sport event is an organized sports event, often held over multiple days, featuring competition in many different sports between organized teams of athletes from nation states. The first major, modern, multi-sport event of significance is the modern Olympic Games. Many regional multi-sport events have since founded and modeled after the Olympics. Most have the basic structure. Games are held over the course of days in and around a host city. Countries send national teams to each competition, consisting of individual athletes, athletes or teams are awarded gold, silver or bronze medals for first, second and third place respectively. The games are held every four years, though some are annual competitions. Instead, the Greek sports of racing and wrestling, as well as the Etruscan sport of gladiatorial combat. In the late 19th and early 20th century, athletes at events were almost exclusively male. As international womens sport began to develop, events such as the Womens World Games, though short-lived, events such as these led to greater inclusion of women at multi-sport events over the course of the 20th century. Since the establishment of the Olympics, most serial multi-sport events have been organized for specific audiences, after some celebrations, the Olympics became very popular nowadays. The number of sports, initially only a few, is still growing, the Paralympic Games is the largest multi-sport event involving athletes with physical disabilities, and is organised by the International Paralympic Committee. Arranged for the first time in 1960 in Rome, Italy, the number of sports, initially only a few, is still growing. The first Special Olympics International Summer Games were held in Chicago, the most recent Special Olympics World Summer Games in Los Angeles, United States, involved 25 sports and approximately 6,500 athletes from 177 countries. At the beginning of the 20th century, another multi-sport event and these Games were held in Scandinavia, and the sports conducted were winter sports such as cross-country skiing and speed skating. The Nordic Games were last held in 1926, after which the 1924 Winter Sports Week in Chamonix was declared the first Olympic Winter Games, in the 1920s, all kinds of other multi-sport events were set up. These were usually directed for a group of athletes, rather than everybody. Regional games were another kind of event that was established, such as the Far Eastern Championship Games
Multi-sport event
–
The
Pan American Games is one of the largest multi-sport events and involves athletes from the Americas.
18.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
Japan
–
The
Golden Hall and
five-storey pagoda of
Hōryū-ji, among the oldest wooden buildings in the world,
National Treasures, and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Japan
Japan
–
Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the
Mongol invasions of Japan. The
Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japan from Mongol fleets.
Japan
–
Samurai could
kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population.
Edo period, 1798
19.
1940 Summer Olympics
–
The 1940 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XII Olympiad, were originally scheduled to be held from 21 September to 6 October 1940, in Tokyo, Japan. They were rescheduled for Helsinki, Finland, to be held from July 20 to August 4,1940, the campaign to choose a city for 1940 began in 1932, with Barcelona, Rome, Helsinki, and Tokyo participating. Tokyo city officials suggested a campaign as a means of international diplomacy following Japans alienation from the League of Nations due to the Mukden Incident, in 1936, Tokyo was chosen in a surprise move, making it the first non-Western city to win an Olympic bid. During the 1930 Far Eastern Games in Tokyo, Indian participants were spotted flying the flag of their independence movement rather than the flag of British India and this caused a complaint from the British Olympic Association. In 1934 Japan attempted to invite European colonies to the Far Eastern Games, the main stadium was to be Meiji Jingu Stadium, later used at the 1964 Summer Olympics. The Olympic Village was to be built on the present sites of Kinuta Park or Todoroki Gorge, a schedule was drawn up, and guidelines were printed in four languages. Monthly magazines and posters were printed and distributed internationally, construction began on some buildings, and arrangements were made with hotels, travel agents, and airlines for easy access. When the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out on July 7,1937, Kono Ichiro, the 1938 Far Eastern Games were also cancelled, but Japans IOC delegates persisted under a belief that the war would soon be over. In March 1938, the Japanese provided reassurances to the IOC at the organizations Cairo conference that Tokyo would still be able to serve as the host city. In July, a session was held to decide the matters of the Summer and Winter Olympics. The Worlds Fair was only postponed, under a belief that Japan would be able to wrap up the war, kōichi Kido, who would later be instrumental in the surrender of Japan in 1945, announced the forfeiture on July 16,1938. He closed his speech saying, When peace reigns again in the Far East, we can then invite the Games to Tokyo and this would come to pass in 1964. Despite the cancellation of the 1940 Olympics, the Tokyo organizing committee released its budget for the Games, in a departure from standard practice, the budget included all capital outlays as well as direct organizing costs. The total budget was ¥20.1 million, one-third of which would have been paid by the Tokyo metropolitan government, the IOC then awarded the Games to Helsinki, Finland, the city that had been the runner-up in the original bidding process. The Games were then scheduled to be staged from July 20 to August 4,1940, the Olympic Games were suspended indefinitely following the outbreak of World War II and did not resume until the London Games of 1948. Gliding was due to be an Olympic sport in the 1940 Games after a demonstration at the Berlin Games in 1936. The sport has not been featured in any Games since, though the glider designed for it, meanwhile, Japan hosted the 1940 East Asian Games in Tokyo, with six participating nations. Helsinki eventually held the 1952 Summer Olympics, while Tokyo held the 1964 Summer Olympics, during August 1940, prisoners of war celebrated a special Olympics called International Prisoner-of-War Olympic Games
1940 Summer Olympics
–
Poster for the 1940 Summer Olympics
20.
Helsinki
–
Helsinki is the capital and largest city of Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. Helsinki has a population of 629,512, a population of 1,231,595. Helsinki is located some 80 kilometres north of Tallinn, Estonia,400 km east of Stockholm, Sweden, Helsinki has close historical connections with these three cities. The Helsinki metropolitan area includes the core of Helsinki, Espoo, Vantaa, Kauniainen. It is the worlds northernmost metro area of one million people. The Helsinki metropolitan area is the fourth largest metropolitan area in the Nordic countries, Helsinki is Finlands major political, educational, financial, cultural, and research center as well as one of northern Europes major cities. Approximately 75% of foreign companies operating in Finland have settled in the Helsinki region, the nearby municipality of Vantaa is the location of Helsinki Airport, with frequent service to various destinations in Europe and Asia. In 2009, Helsinki was chosen to be the World Design Capital for 2012 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, the city was the venue for the 1952 Summer Olympics and the 52nd Eurovision Song Contest 2007. In 2011, the Monocle magazine ranked Helsinki the most liveable city in the world in its Liveable Cities Index 2011, in the Economist Intelligence Units August 2015 Liveability survey, assessing the best and worst cities to live in globally, Helsinki placed among the worlds top ten cities. Helsinki is used to refer to the city in most languages, the Swedish name Helsingfors is the original official name of the city. The Finnish name probably comes from Helsinga and similar names used for the river that is known as the Vantaa River. Helsingfors comes from the name of the parish, Helsinge and the rapids, which flowed through the original village. As part of the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire, one suggestion for the origin of the name Helsinge is that it originated with medieval Swedish settlers who came from Hälsingland in Sweden. Others have proposed that the name derives from the Swedish word helsing, other Scandinavian cities located at similar geographic locations were given similar names at the time, for example Helsingør and Helsingborg. The name Helsinki has been used in Finnish official documents and in Finnish language newspapers since 1819, the decrees issued in Helsinki were dated with Helsinki as the place of issue. This is how the form Helsinki came to be used in written Finnish, in Helsinki slang the city is called Stadi. Hesa, is not used by natives to the city, helsset is the Northern Sami name of Helsinki
Helsinki
–
Clockwise from top:
Helsinki Cathedral, view of central Helsinki, Headquarters of
Sanoma, Helsinki city centre at night, beaches at
Aurinkolahti,
Parliament House and
Suomenlinna.
Helsinki
–
Coat of arms
Helsinki
–
Central Helsinki in 1820 before rebuilding. Illustration by
Carl Ludvig Engel.
Helsinki
–
Construction of
Suomenlinna began in the 18th century.
21.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7,1937 to September 9,1945. The First Sino-Japanese War was fought from 1894 to 1895, China fought Japan, with some economic help from Germany, the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged into the conflict of World War II as a major front of what is broadly known as the Pacific War. Many scholars consider the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. The war was the result of a decades-long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to access to raw material reserves, food. The period after World War One brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity, leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production, the Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction and this faction was led at its height by the Imperial Rule Assistance Associations Hideki Tojo cabinet under the edict from Emperor Shōwa. Before 1937, China and Japan fought in small, localized engagements, the last of these incidents was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, which is traditionally seen as the beginning of total war between the two countries. Since 2017 the Chinese Government has regarded the invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army in 1931, initially the Japanese scored major victories, such as the Battle of Shanghai, and by the end of 1937 captured the Chinese capital of Nanjing. After failing to stop the Japanese in Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior, by 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japans lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, on December 7,1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China via airlift matériel over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road, in 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi-Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces, in 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook the west Hunan, the remaining Japanese occupation forces formally surrendered on September 9,1945 with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29,1946. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of Allies during the war, in the Chinese language, the war is most commonly known as the War of Resistance Against Japan, and also known as the Eight Years War of Resistance, simply War of Resistance. It is also referred to as part of the Global Anti-Fascist War, which is how World War 2 is perceived by the Communist Party of China, in Japan, nowadays, the name Japan–China War is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. In Japan today, it is written as 日中戦争 in shinjitai, the word incident was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
The dead bodies of victims massacred in the
Rape of Nanking on the shore of the
Qinhuai River, with a Japanese soldier standing nearby.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Allied Commander-in-Chief in the China theatre from 1942 to 1945.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Japanese troops entering
Shenyang during the Mukden Incident
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek announced the
Kuomintang policy of resistance against Japan at
Lushan on July 10, 1937, three days after the
Marco Polo Bridge Incident.
22.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
23.
South Africa under apartheid
–
Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991. Apartheid as a policy was embraced by the South African government shortly after the ascension of the National Party during the countrys 1948 general elections, with the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony in the nineteenth century, racial policies and laws became increasingly rigid. Cape legislation that discriminated specifically against black Africans began appearing shortly before 1900, the policies of the Boer republics were also racially exclusive, for instance, the Transvaal constitution barred nonwhite participation in church and state. Places of residence were determined by racial classification, from 1960 to 1983,3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods, in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the population to ten designated tribal homelands, also known as bantustans. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans, Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations, some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed in appeasing most activist groups. In 1990, prominent ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela were released from detention, Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending multiracial elections set for April 1994. Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning separateness, or the state of being apart and its first recorded use was in 1929. The governors and assemblies that governed the process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters, in 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. Ordinance No.49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other Africans, the United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835 and this was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The Glen Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold, in 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to fixed areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System. The Asiatic Registration Act required all Indians to register and carry passes, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts United Party government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill, which banned land sales to Indians. The United Party government began to move away from the enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II. Amid fears integration would lead to racial assimilation, the legislature established the Sauer Commission to investigate the effects of the United Partys policies
South Africa under apartheid
–
Daniel François Malan, the first apartheid prime minister (1948–1954)
South Africa under apartheid
–
Cape Coloured children in
Bonteheuwel.
South Africa under apartheid
–
Rural area in
Ciskei, one of the apartheid era
homelands
24.
South Africa at the 1964 Summer Paralympics
–
South Africa made its Paralympic Games début at the 1964 Summer Paralympics in Tokyo, Japan. It sent nine athletes to compete in archery, athletics, swimming and weightlifting and they finished sixth on the medal table with nineteen medals, of which eight were gold. Paradoxically, South Africa thus began to compete at the Paralympics just after being barred from competing at the Olympics, South Africa had been banned from the Olympic Games following the passing of United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1761 which, in 1962, condemned the countrys policy of apartheid. South Africa was not, however, banned from the Paralympics, the winners of its eight gold medals were G. P. Marinowitz in archery, Daniel Erasmus in athletics, M, forty in discus, A. Somerset in swimming, and B
South Africa at the 1964 Summer Paralympics
25.
Syncom
–
Syncom started as a 1961 NASA program for active geosynchronous communication satellites, all of which were developed and manufactured by Hughes Space and Communications. Syncom 2, launched in 1963, was the worlds first geosynchronous communications satellite, Syncom 3, launched in 1964, was the worlds first geostationary satellite. In the 1980s, the series was continued as Syncom IV with some much larger satellites and they were leased to the United States military under the Leasat program. The three early Syncom satellites were experimental spacecraft built by Hughes Aircraft Companys facility in Culver City, California, by a led by Harold Rosen, Don Williams. All three satellites were cylindrical in shape, with a diameter of about 71 centimeters and a height of about 39 centimeters, pre-launch fueled masses were 68 kilograms, and orbital masses were 39 kilograms with a 25-kilogram payload. They were capable of emitting signals on two transponders at just 2 W. Thus, Syncom satellites were only capable of carrying a single two-way telephone conversation, as of 25 June 2009, all three satellites are still in orbit, although no longer functioning. Syncom 1 was intended to be the first geosynchronous communications satellite and it was launched on February 14,1963 with the Delta B #16 launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral, but was lost on the way to geosynchronous orbit due to an electronics failure. Seconds after the kick motor for circularizing the orbit was fired. Later telescopic observations verified the satellite was in an orbit with a period of almost 24 hours at a 33° inclination, Syncom 2 was the first geosynchronous communications satellite. Its orbit was inclined rather than geostationary, the satellite was launched by NASA on July 26,1963 with the Delta B #20 launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral. The satellite successfully kept station at the altitude calculated by Herman Potočnik Noordung in the 1920s. During the first year of Syncom 2 operations, NASA conducted voice, teletype, the Kingsport acted as a control station and uplink station. Syncom 2 also relayed a number of test television transmissions from Fort Dix, New Jersey to a station in Andover, Maine. Although it was low-quality video with no audio, it was the first successful television transmission through a geosynchronous satellite, Syncom 3 was the first geostationary communication satellite, launched on August 19,1964 with the Delta D #25 launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral. The satellite, in orbit near the International Date Line, had the addition of a channel for television and was used to telecast the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo to the United States. Turned off in 1969, Syncom 3 remains in orbit as of December 2012. In 40 years it has drifted 8 degrees to the west, the five satellites of the 1980s Leasat program were alternatively named Syncom IV-1 to Syncom IV-5 and called HS381 by the manufacturer. These satellites were considerably larger than Syncoms 1 to 3, weighing 1.3 tonnes each, at 4.26 meters, the satellites were the first to be designed for launch from the Space Shuttle payload bay, and were deployed like a Frisbee
Syncom
–
First generation Syncom satellite.
Syncom
–
Syncom IV, Hughes owned US Military Leasat
26.
Geostationary orbit
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A geostationary orbit, geostationary Earth orbit or geosynchronous equatorial orbit is a circular orbit 35,786 kilometres above the Earths equator and following the direction of the Earths rotation. An object in such an orbit has a period equal to the Earths rotational period and thus appears motionless, at a fixed position in the sky. Using this characteristic, ocean color satellites with visible and near-infrared light sensors can also be operated in geostationary orbit in order to monitor sensitive changes of ocean environments, the notion of a geostationary space station equipped with radio communication was published in 1928 by Herman Potočnik. The first appearance of an orbit in popular literature was in the first Venus Equilateral story by George O. Smith. Clarke acknowledged the connection in his introduction to The Complete Venus Equilateral, the orbit, which Clarke first described as useful for broadcast and relay communications satellites, is sometimes called the Clarke Orbit. Similarly, the Clarke Belt is the part of space about 35,786 km above sea level, in the plane of the equator, the Clarke Orbit is about 265,000 km in circumference. Most commercial communications satellites, broadcast satellites and SBAS satellites operate in geostationary orbits, a geostationary transfer orbit is used to move a satellite from low Earth orbit into a geostationary orbit. The first satellite placed into an orbit was the Syncom-3. A worldwide network of operational geostationary meteorological satellites is used to provide visible and infrared images of Earths surface, a geostationary orbit can only be achieved at an altitude very close to 35,786 km and directly above the equator. This equates to a velocity of 3.07 km/s and an orbital period of 1,436 minutes. This ensures that the satellite will match the Earths rotational period and has a footprint on the ground. All geostationary satellites have to be located on this ring. 85° per year, to correct for this orbital perturbation, regular orbital stationkeeping manoeuvres are necessary, amounting to a delta-v of approximately 50 m/s per year. A second effect to be taken into account is the longitude drift, there are two stable and two unstable equilibrium points. Any geostationary object placed between the points would be slowly accelerated towards the stable equilibrium position, causing a periodic longitude variation. The correction of this effect requires station-keeping maneuvers with a maximal delta-v of about 2 m/s per year, solar wind and radiation pressure also exert small forces on satellites, over time, these cause them to slowly drift away from their prescribed orbits. In the absence of servicing missions from the Earth or a renewable propulsion method, hall-effect thrusters, which are currently in use, have the potential to prolong the service life of a satellite by providing high-efficiency electric propulsion. This delay presents problems for latency-sensitive applications such as voice communication, geostationary satellites are directly overhead at the equator and become lower in the sky the further north or south one travels. At latitudes above about 81°, geostationary satellites are below the horizon, because of this, some Russian communication satellites have used elliptical Molniya and Tundra orbits, which have excellent visibility at high latitudes
Geostationary orbit
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A 5 × 6 degree view of a part of the geostationary belt, showing several geostationary satellites. Those with inclination 0 degrees form a diagonal belt across the image; a few objects with small inclinations to the
Equator are visible above this line. The satellites are pinpoint, while stars have created small trails due to the
Earth's rotation.
Geostationary orbit
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To an observer on the rotating Earth, both satellites appear stationary in the sky at their respective locations.
27.
Relay 1
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The Relay program consisted of Relay 1 and Relay 2, two early American satellites in Low Earth orbit. Both were primarily experimental communications satellites funded by NASA and developed by RCA, as of December 2,2016, both satellites were still in orbit. Relay 1 provided the first American television transmissions across the Pacific Ocean, Relay 1 was launched atop a Delta B rocket on December 13,1962 from LC-17A at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Its payload included radiation experiments designed to map the Earths radiation belts, the spin-stabilized spacecraft had an initial spin rate of 167.3 rpm and an initial spin axis orientation with a declination of -68.3 deg and a right ascension of -56 deg. Its orbital period was 185.09 minutes, shortly after launch, two basic problems evolved. One was the response to spurious commands, and the other was the leakage of a high-power regulator. This leakage caused the first two weeks of operation to be useless. After this period, satellite operation returned to normal, the satellite carried one transmitter for tracking and one for telemetry. The telemetry system was PCM at 1152 bit/s, each 128 words per telemetry frame used 113 words for the particle experiment. The leakage problem caused the spacecraft to revert to a low voltage state early in 1965, sporadic transmission occurred until February 10,1965, after which no usable scientific data was obtained. Relay 1 was the first satellite to broadcast television from the United States to Japan, on orbit 2678, this satellite carried a broadcast titled Record, Life of the Late John F. Kennedy, the first television program broadcast simultaneously in the U. S. and Japan. In later orbits, NBC transmitted coverage of the procession from the White House to the cathedral. In the three following the Kennedy assassination, Relay 1 handled a total of 11 spot broadcasts, eight to Europe. All the useful passes of the satellite were made available to permit immediate coverage of the tragic events. In August 1964, this satellite was used as the United States-Europe link for the broadcast of the 1964 Summer Olympics from Tokyo and this marked the first time that two satellites were used in tandem for a television broadcast. COSPAR satellite ID, Relay 1 1962-Beta-Upsilon 1 Relay 2 was launched atop a Delta B rocket on January 21,1964 from LC-17B at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, design changes in this satellite improved its performance to the point where response to spurious commands was essentially eliminated. One of the two onboard transponders operated normally until November 20,1966, from that time until its failure on January 20,1967, it required a longer time than normal to come on. The other transponder continued to operate until June 9,1967, when it too failed to operate normally
Relay 1
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Illustration of Relay
28.
Tokyo Olympiad
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Tokyo Olympiad is a 1965 documentary film directed by Kon Ichikawa which documents the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Like Leni Riefenstahls Olympia, which documented the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, however, Tokyo Olympiad keeps its focus more on the atmosphere of the games and the human side of the athletes instead of concentrating only on the winners and the results. It is one of the few sports documentaries included in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, the 1964 Summer Olympics were seen as vitally important to the Japanese government. However, Kurosawas famous tendency for complete control - he demanded to not only direct the film and this led to the bringing in of Ichikawa, who had a reputation of coming into productions where events hadnt followed the initial plans. Ichikawas vision of the Tokyo Olympics was controversial at the time as it was the opposite of what the Japanese government wanted and expected of the film, Tokyo Olympiad was released theatrically in Japan on 20 March 1965 where it was distributed by Toho. It had a 169 minute runtime that included an intermission, the film was released in the United States by American International Pictures, Pan-World Film Exchange and Jack Douglas Enterprises with an English narration. It was released on 20 October 1965 with a 93 minute runtime, the film was reissued in 1984 by Janus Films and Night Kitchen, Inc. with English subtitles at a 169 minute runtime. The film is held in high regard and is seen, alongside Leni Riefenstahls Olympia, as one of the best films about the Olympics. Based on 11 reviews collected by the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. The film is difficult to find in the west, with the Criterion Collection DVD version out of print. It can be found on eBay fairly regularly, however, often fetching prices of between £35/$70. It can also be found on video from Homevision in the US and Tartan Video in the UK, though these too are out of print, in 2013, the official Olympic YouTube channel made an 125-minute version available in its entirety on the internet
Tokyo Olympiad
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North American release poster
29.
Kon Ichikawa
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Kon Ichikawa was a Japanese film director. Ichikawa was born in Ise, Mie Prefecture as Giichi Ichikawa and his father died when he was four years old, and the family kimono shop went bankrupt, so he went to live with his sister. He was given the name Kon by an uncle who thought the characters in the kanji 崑 signified good luck, as a child he loved drawing and his ambition was to become an artist. He also loved films and was a fan of chambara or samurai films, in his teens he was fascinated by Walt Disneys Silly Symphonies and decided to become an animator. He attended a school in Osaka. Upon graduation, in 1933, he found a job with a rental film studio, J. O Studio. Decades later, he told the American writer on Japanese film Donald Richie, Im still a cartoonist and he moved to the feature film department as an assistant director when the company closed its animation department, working under such luminaries as Yutaka Abe and Nobuo Aoyagi. In the early 1940s J. O Studio merged with P. C. L. and his first film was a puppet play short, A Girl at Dojo Temple, which was confiscated by the interim U. S. Occupation authorities under the pretext that it was too feudal, though sources suggest the script had not been approved by the occupying authorities. Thought lost for years, it is now archived at the Cinémathèque Française. It was at Toho that he met Natto Wada, Wada was a translator for Toho. They agreed to marry sometime after Ichikawa completed his first film as director, Natto Wadas original name was Yumiko Mogi, the couple both had failed marriages behind them. She graduated with a degree in English Literature from Tokyo Womans Christian University and she married Kon Ichikawa on April 10,1948, and died on February 18,1983 of breast cancer. It was after Ichikawas marriage to Wada that the two began collaborating, first on Design of a Human Being and Endless Passion in 1949, the period 1950–1965 is often referred to as Ichikawas Natto Wada period. After Tokyo Olympiad Wada retired from screenwriting, and it marked a significant change in Ichikawas films from that point onward and his final film, 2006s Inugamis, a remake of Ichikawas own 1976 film of the same name, was entered into the 29th Moscow International Film Festival. Also in 2006, Ichikawa was the subject of a documentary, The Kon Ichikawa Story. Ichikawa died of pneumonia on February 13,2008 in a Tokyo hospital, the Magic Hour marked Ichikawas last appearance and was dedicated to his memory. In this film, a director played by Ichikawa is shooting Kuroi Hyaku-ichi-nin no Onna
Kon Ichikawa
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Kon Ichikawa
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