1.
World Sportscar Championship
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The World Sportscar Championship was the world series run for sports car racing by the FIA from 1953 to 1992. The official name of the series changed throughout the years, however it has generally been known as the World Sportscar Championship from its inception in 1953. The World Sportscar Championship was, with the Formula One World Championship, in 2012 the World Sportscar Championship was revived and renamed as the World Endurance Championship. Cars were split into Sports Car and GT categories and were divided into engine displacement classes. The Ferrari and Maserati works teams were fierce competitors throughout much of the decade, notably absent from the overall results were the Jaguar works team, who did not enter any events other than Le Mans, despite the potential of the C- and D-Types. In 1962, the calendar was expanded to include smaller races, the World Sportscar Championship title was discontinued, being replaced by the International Championship for GT Manufacturers. They group cars into three categories with specific sizes, less than one litre, less than two litres, and over two litres. Hillclimbs, sprint races and smaller races expanded the championship, which now had about 15 races per season, for 1963 the three engine capacity classes remained but a prototype category was added. For 1965 the engine classes became for cars under 1300 cc, under 2000 cc, in 1972 the Group 6 Prototype and Group 5 Sports Car classes were both replaced by a new Group 5 Sports Car class. These cars were limited to 3.0 L engines by the FIA, the new Group 5 Sports Cars, together with Group 4 Grand Touring Cars, would contest the FIAs newly renamed World Championship for Makes from 1972 to 1975. Prototypes returned in 1976 as Group 6 cars with their own series, the World Championship for Sports Cars, in 1981, the FIA instituted a drivers championship. While this change was unwelcome amongst some of the private teams, several of the old guard manufacturers returned to the WSC within the next two years, with each marque adding to the diversity of the series. Under the new rules, it was possible for normally aspirated engines to compete with the forced induction engines that had dominated the series in the 70s. In addition, most races ran for either 500 or 1000 km, Group B cars, which was a GT class, were also allowed to race, but entries in this class were sparse, and Group B cars disappeared from the series, with sports-prototypes dominating the championship. Porsche was the first constructor to join the series, with the 956, as costs increased, a C2 class was created for privateer teams and small manufacturers, with greater limits to fuel consumption. In this lower class, most cars used either the BMW M1 engine or the new Cosworth DFL, but, like in the main class, alba, Tiga, Spice and Ecurie Ecosse were among the most competitive in this class. While the Group C formula had brought back to the sport. For 1986, the World Endurance Championship became the World Sports-Prototype Championship, the new classification, known as Group C Category 1, was designed to mandate Formula One engines
2.
1963 World Sportscar Championship
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The 1963 World Sportscar Championship season was the 11th season of FIA World Sportscar Championship motor racing. The season ran from 17 February 1963 to 14 September 1963 over 22 events and this was the first World Sportscar Championship season to include hillclimb and rally events. Each of the following 22 events counted towards one or more of the FIA titles, all divisions did not compete in all events and some events were open to classes which were not contesting a championship or trophy round. 1963 World Sportscar Championship – Race results
3.
1965 World Sportscar Championship
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The 1965 World Sportscar Championship season was the 13th season of FIA World Sportscar Championship racing. It featured the 1965 International Championship of GT Manufacturers and the 1965 International Trophy for GT Prototypes, the season ran from 28 February 1965 to 19 September 1965 and comprised 20 races. The International Championship for GT Manufacturers was contested by Grand Touring Cars in three engine capacity divisions, the Over 2000cc division was won by Shelby ahead of Ferrari, while Porsche prevailed in the 2000cc division and Abarth-Simca took the 1300cc division. The International Trophy for GT Prototypes was won by Ferrari, ahead of Porsche, although composed of 20 races, each class did not compete in all events. Some events were for one class, while others were combined events
4.
Group 3 (racing)
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The Group 3 racing class referred to a set of regulations for Grand Touring Cars competing in sportscar racing and rallying events regulated by the FIA. These regulations were active, in forms, from 1957 to 1981 Regulations for Grand Touring Car racing were first defined when the FIA issued Appendix J for Touring Cars. The term Group 3 was in use by 1957 and by 1960 a minimum production of 100 units in 12 consecutive months was required to allow homologation into Group 3. An FIA GT Cup was instituted in 1960 and the GT category was featuring prominently in most rounds of the World Sports Car Championship. For 1962 the FIA replaced the World Sports Car Championship with an International Championship for GT Manufacturers, the FIA introduced a new Group 3 Grand Touring Car category in 1966 as part of a major revision of the Appendix J regulations. The International Championship for GT Manufacturers was discontinued for 1966 and replaced by the International Championship for Sports Cars, an International Cup for GT Cars was contested concurrently with the Makes Championship from 1968. The creation of a new Group 4 Special Grand Touring Car category in 1970 saw Group 3 renamed as Series Production Grand Touring Cars, Group 4, which allowed a greater degree of modification to the competing vehicles, had its minimum production requirement set at 500 units. Both GT categories were eligible to compete in the International Championship for Makes and then, from 1972, the International Cup for GT Cars also continued. In 1976 the World Championship of Makes was restricted to production derived cars, the Group 3 Series Production Grand Touring Car category remained valid through to 1981 with the FIA introducing a new Group B Grand Touring car category the following year. In rallying, there were classes for Group 1, Group 2, Group 3 and Group 4 cars. The Lancia Beta Coupe, was homologated into both Group 3 and Group 4, with the Group 3 car running the mass-produced 8-valve engine, and the Group 4 version running the more powerful 16-valve. World Rally Championship World Sportscar Championship FIA Historic Racing Regulations Historic Appendix J Regulations FIA1969 Appendix J1969 Group 3 homologation list at www. sovren. org
5.
Sports prototype
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A sports prototype, sometimes referred to as simply a prototype, is a type of race car that is used in the highest level categories of sports car racing. These purpose-built racing cars, unlike street-legal and production-based racing cars, are not intended for purchase or production beyond that required to compete. Prototype racing cars have competed in car racing since before World War II. In historic racing, they are called sports racing cars. Sometimes, they are referred to as Le Mans cars. Since the 1960s, various championships have allowed prototypes to compete, however, most championships have had their own set of rules for their prototype classes. Listed here are some of the commonly known types of prototypes. Group 7 Group 6 Group C Grand Touring Prototype Le Mans Prototype Le Mans Prototype Challenge Daytona Prototype Sports 2000
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
24 Hours of Daytona
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It is run on a 3. 56-mile combined road course, utilizing portions of the NASCAR tri-oval and an infield road course. Since its inception, it has held the last weekend of January or first weekend of February, part of Speedweeks. It is also the first race of the season for the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship, the race has had several names over the years. Since 1991, the Rolex Watch Co. is the sponsor of the race under a naming rights arrangement. Winning drivers of all classes receive a steel Rolex Daytona watch, in 2006, the race moved one week earlier into January to prevent a clash with the Super Bowl, which had in turn moved one week later into February a few years earlier. The race has been known historically as a leg of the informal Triple Crown of endurance racing, shortly after the track opened, on April 5,1959, a six-hour/1000 kilometer USAC-FIA sports car race was held on the road course. Count Antonio Von Dory and Roberto Mieres won the race in a Porsche, the race utilized a 3. 81-mile layout, running counter-clockwise. In 1962, a few years after the track was built, known as the Daytona Continental, it counted towards the FIAs new International Championship for GT Manufacturers. The first Continental was won by Dan Gurney, driving a 2. 7L Coventry Climax-powered Lotus 19. Gurney was a factory Porsche driver at the time, but the 1600-cc Porsche 718 was considered too small, in 1964, the event was expanded to 2,000 km, doubling the classic 1000 km distance of races at Nürburgring, Spa and Monza. Starting in 1966, the Daytona race was extended to the same 24-hour length as Le Mans, unlike the Le Mans event, the Daytona race is conducted entirely over a closed course within the speedway arena without the use of any public streets. Most parts of the steep banking are included, interrupted with a chicane on the back straight, unlike Le Mans, the race is held in wintertime, when nights are at their longest. There are lights installed around the circuit for racing, although the infield section is still not as well-lit as the main oval. This was the case in the initial 1962 Daytona Continental, in which Dan Gurneys Lotus had established a lead when the engine failed with just minutes remaining. Gurney stopped the car at the top of the banking, just short of the finish line and this led to the international rule requiring a car to cross the line under its own power in order to be classified. The first 24 Hour event in 1966 was won by Ken Miles, after having lost in 1966 at Daytona, Sebring and Le Mans to the Fords, the Ferrari P series prototypes staged a 1–2–3 side-by-side parade finish at the banked finish line in 1967. The Ferrari 365 GTB/4 road car was given the unofficial name Ferrari Daytona in celebration of this victory, Porsche repeated this show in their 1–2–3 win in the 196824 Hours. After the car of Gerhard Mitter had a big crash caused by tire failure in the banking, his teammate Rolf Stommelen supported the car of Vic Elford and Jochen Neerpasch
8.
Daytona International Speedway
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Daytona International Speedway is a race track in Daytona Beach, Florida, United States. Since opening in 1959, it has been the home of the Daytona 500, in addition to NASCAR, the track also hosts races of ARCA, AMA Superbike, USCC, SCCA, and Motocross. The tracks 180-acre infield includes the 29-acre Lake Lloyd, which has hosted powerboat racing, the speedway is owned and operated by International Speedway Corporation. The track was built in 1959 by NASCAR founder William Bill France and his banked design permitted higher speeds and gave fans a better view of the cars. Lights were installed around the track in 1998, and today it is the third-largest single lit outdoor sports facility, the speedway has been renovated three times, with the infield renovated in 2004 and the track repaved in 1978 and 2010. On January 22,2013, the track unveiled artist depictions of a renovated speedway, on July 5,2013, ground was broken on the project that removed backstretch seating and completely redevelop the frontstretch seating. The renovation to the speedway was constructed by Design-Builder Barton Malow Company in partnership with Rossetti Architects, after the renovations were completed, the tracks grandstands include 101,000 permanent seats with the ability to increase permanent seating to 125,000. The project was finished before the start of Speedweeks in 2016, NASCAR founder William France Sr. began planning for the track in 1953 as a way to promote the series, which at the time was racing on the Daytona Beach Road Course. France met with Daytona Beach engineer Charles Moneypenny to discuss his plans for the speedway and he wanted the track to have the highest banking possible to allow the cars to reach high speeds and to give fans a better view of the cars on track. Moneypenny traveled to Detroit, Michigan to visit the Ford Proving Grounds which had a high-speed test track with banked corners, Ford shared their engineering reports of the track with Moneypenny, providing the needed details of how to transition the pavement from a flat straightaway to a banked corner. France took the plans to the Daytona Beach city commission, who supported his idea, the city commission agreed to lease the 447-acre parcel of land adjacent to Daytona Beach Municipal Airport to Frances corporation for $10,000 a year over a 50-year period. France then began working on building funding for the project and found support from a Texas oil millionaire, Murchison loaned France $600,000 along with the construction equipment necessary to build the track. France was also able to secure funding from Pepsi-Cola, General Motors designer Harley Earl, ground broke on construction of the 2. 5-mile speedway on November 25,1957. To build the high banking, crews had to excavate over a million yards of soil from the tracks infield. 22 tons of lime mortar had to be brought in to form the tracks binding base, because of the extreme degree of banking, Moneypenny had to come up with a way to pave the incline. He connected the paving equipment to bulldozers anchored at the top of the banking and this would allow the paving equipment to pave the banking without slipping or rolling down the incline. Moneypenny subsequently patented his method and later designed Talladega Superspeedway. By December 1958, France had begun to run out of money, the first practice run on the new track began on February 6,1959
9.
12 Hours of Sebring
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The event is the second round of the United SportsCar Championship and in the past has been a round of the now defunct World Sportscar Championship, IMSA GT Championship and American Le Mans Series. In 2012, the race was the event of the FIA World Endurance Championship. The track opened in 1950 on an airfield and is a racing course styled after those used in European Grand Prix motor racing. The first race was a race on New Years Eve 1950. The race is famous for its once around the action, starting during the day. In its early years, the Sebring circuit combined former airport runways with narrow service roads. The 1966 event was a point in Sebring history, as the facilities. Five people were killed during the race, which was more people killed than in the races prior 15-year history combined, bob McLean crashed while approaching the hairpin, his car rolled several times, struck a utility pole and then exploded, landing in a ditch and killing McLean. The circuit was made safer and there were no fatalities until 1980 and it is known as preparation for the 24 Hours of Le Mans, as the tracks extremely bumpy surface, combined with south-central Floridas perennial hot weather, is a test of a cars reliability. In recent years, six victories have been achieved by the Audi R8. Tom Kristensen has won the more times than anyone else, with six victories – in 1999–2000, 2005–2006,2009. The 1966 race had Dan Gurney leading at the last lap, Gurney pushed his car over the finish line, beaten only by Ken Miles and Lloyd Ruby. However, his actions were ultimately determined to be against the rules, Corvette had dominated the class the past three years with its previous generation C5R. The all-new Audi R10 TDI won the 2006 edition of the race, the victory set the stage for an even more momentous win by the R10 in its next race, the Le Mans 24 Hours later in the year. The much-hyped Porsche RS Spyder campaigned by Penske Racing dropped to take 2nd place in its LMP2 class, behind the Intersport Lola car. The GT1 Corvette C6R team got their revenge against the Aston Martin, in addition to an overall win, Audi also set a track record in 2007 with Marco Werner behind the wheel in qualifying. ^A The car was in fact, a Porsche 935 K3 that has been modified with a single cylinder head. ^B These races were stopped for a period of due to heavy rain and/or accidents
10.
Sebring International Raceway
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Sebring International Raceway is a road course auto racing facility located near Sebring, Florida. Sebring Raceway is one of the oldest continuously operating tracks in the United States. Sebring is one of the race tracks in North American sports car racing. Sebring raceway occupies the site of Hendricks Army Airfield, a United States Army Air Forces training base for Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress pilots in operation from 1941 to 1946, Sebrings first race was held on New Years Eve of 1950, attracting thirty race cars from across North America. The Sam Collier 6 Hour Memorial race was won by Fritz Koster, the first 12 Hours of Sebring was held on March 15,1952, shortly growing into a major international race. In 1959, the hosted the U. S. first Formula One race. However poor attendance and high costs relocated the next U. S, Grand Prix to Riverside International Raceway in Southern California. For much of Sebrings history, the followed a 5.2 miles layout. This was closer to the hairpin and allowed a run through a very fast corner to the top of the track. In 1983 the circuit was changed to allow use of the track. In 1987 more changes allowed use of another runway, in 1997, the hairpin was removed due to a lack of run-off, and replaced with what became known as the safety pin. Gendebien Bend was also re-profiled to slow the entry to the Ullman straight. The track is often recognized for its famous, high-speed Turn 17, the corner can fit up to 3 cars wide. Skip Barber Racing School holds numerous programs at the facility, including a Scholarship opportunity for young racers, Sebring International Raceway consist of three tracks, the Full Circuit, the Short Circuit, and the Club Circuit. The course of the track itself is 3.74 miles long and it is a seventeen-turn road course with long straights, several high-speed corners, and very technical slower corners. Many of the turns and points along the track are named for the early teams, there is very little elevation change around the track and little camber on the surface, providing a challenging track for drivers, especially when it rains. Sebring is renowned for its rough surface, the course still runs on old sections of World War II-era landing fields that were constructed of concrete sections with large seams. The transitions between sections are quite rough and often, sparks fly from the undercarriages of the cars as they traverse them, much of the track has intentionally been left with its original concrete runway surface
11.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
12.
Targa Florio
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The Targa Florio was an open road endurance automobile race held in the mountains of Sicily near Palermo. Founded in 1906, it was the oldest sports car racing event, after 1973, it was a national sports car event until it was discontinued in 1977 due to safety concerns. It has since run as a rallying event, and is part of the Italian Rally Championship. The race was created in 1906 by the wealthy pioneer race driver and automobile enthusiast, Vincenzo Florio, alessandro Cagno won the inaugural 1906 race in nine hours, averaging 30 miles per hour. By the mid-1920s, the Targa Florio had become one of Europes most important races, Grand Prix races were still isolated events, not a series like todays F1. The wins of Mercedes in the 1920s made a big impression in Germany, especially that of German Christian Werner in 1924, rudolf Caracciola repeated a similar upset win at the Mille Miglia a couple of years later. In 1926, Eliska Junkova, one of the female drivers in Grand Prix motor racing history. In 1953, the FIA World Sportscar Championship was introduced, the Targa became part of it in 1955, when Mercedes had to win 1-2 with the Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR in order to beat Ferrari for the title. They had missed the first two of the 6 events, Buenos Aires and the 12 Hours of Sebring, where Ferrari, Jaguar, Maserati and Porsche scored. Mercedes appeared at and won in the Mille Miglia, then pulled out of Le Mans as a sign of respect for the victims of the 1955 Le Mans disaster, stirling Moss/Peter Collins and Juan Manuel Fangio/Karl Kling finished minutes ahead of the best Ferrari and secured the title. Several versions of the track were used and it started with a single lap of a 148 km circuit from 1906-1911 and 1931. From 1912 to 1914 a tour around the perimeter of Sicily was used, with a lap of 975 kilometres. The 148 km Grande circuit was shortened twice, the first time to 108 km, the version used from 1919-1930. From 1951-1958, the coastal island tour variant was used for a separate event called the Giro di Sicilia. The start and finish took place at Cerda, the second version of the track also went south through Caltavuturo and took a shortcut starting right before Castellana to Collesano via the town of Polizzi Generosa. There was a circuit called Favorita Park used from 1937-1940. To put that in perspective, most purpose built circuits have between 12 and 18 corners, and the longest purpose built circuit in the world, the 13-mile Nurburgring, has about 180 corners. Like a rally event, the cars were started one by one every 15 seconds for a time trial, as a start from a full grid was not possible on the tight
13.
Palermo
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Palermo is a city of Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence, Palermo is located in the northwest of the island of Sicily, right by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city was founded in 734 BC by the Phoenicians as Ziz, Palermo then became a possession of Carthage, before becoming part of the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire and eventually part of the Byzantine Empire, for over a thousand years. The Greeks named the city Panormus meaning complete port, from 831 to 1072 the city was under Arab rule during the Emirate of Sicily when the city first became a capital. The Arabs shifted the Greek name into Balarme, the root for Palermos present-day name, eventually Sicily would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860. The population of Palermo urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 855,285, in the central area, the city has a population of around 676,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Palermitani or, poetically, panormiti, the languages spoken by its inhabitants are the Italian language, Sicilian language and the Palermitano dialect. Palermo is Sicilys cultural, economic and touristic capital and it is a city rich in history, culture, art, music and food. Palermo is the main Sicilian industrial and commercial center, the industrial sectors include tourism, services, commerce. Palermo currently has an airport, and a significant underground economy. In fact, for cultural, artistic and economic reasons, Palermo was one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean and is now among the top tourist destinations in both Italy and Europe. It is the seat of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Arab-Norman Palermo. The city is going through careful redevelopment, preparing to become one of the major cities of the Euro-Mediterranean area. Roman Catholicism is highly important in Palermitano culture, the Patron Saint of Palermo is Santa Rosalia whose Feast Day is celebrated on 15 July. The area attracts significant numbers of each year and is widely known for its colourful fruit, vegetable and fish markets at the heart of Palermo, known as Vucciria, Ballarò. Palermo lies in a basin, formed by the Papireto, Kemonia, the basin was named the Conca dOro by the Arabs in the 9th century. The city is surrounded by a range which is named after the city itself. These mountains face the Tyrrhenian Sea, Palermo is home to a natural port and offers excellent views to the sea, especially from Monte Pellegrino
14.
Autodromo Nazionale Monza
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The Autodromo Nazionale Monza is a race track located near the city of Monza, north of Milan, in Italy. Built in 1922, it is the worlds third purpose-built motor racing circuit after those of Brooklands, the circuits biggest event is the Formula One Italian Grand Prix. With the exception of 1980, the race has been hosted there since the seriess inception, the circuit is generally flat, but has a gradual gradient from the second Lesmos to the Variante Ascari. Since both maximum power and minimal drag are keys for speed on the straights, only competitors with enough power or aerodynamic efficiency at their disposal are able to challenge for the top places. In addition to Formula One, the hosts a endurance event, the 1000 km Monza, which has been run as part of the World Sportscar Championship. Current major events are races of the World Touring Car Championship, the Monza circuit has been the site of many fatal accidents, especially in the early years of the Formula One world championship, and has claimed the lives of 52 drivers and 35 spectators. The first track was built from May to July 1922 by 3,500 workers, the initial form was a 3.4 square kilometres site with 10 kilometres of macadamised road – comprising a 4.5 kilometres loop track, and a 5.5 kilometres road track. The track was opened on 3 September 1922, with the maiden race the second Italian Grand Prix held on 10 September 1922. In 1928, the most serious Italian racing accident to date ended in the death of driver Emilio Materassi and 27 spectators at that years Grand Prix, the accident led to further Grand Prix races confinement to the high-speed loop until 1932. The 1933 race was marked by the deaths of three drivers and the Grand Prix layout was changed, with two chicanes added and the longer straights removed. There was major rebuilding in 1938–39, constructing new stands and entrances, resurfacing the track, moving portions of the track, the resulting layout gave a Grand Prix lap of 6.300 kilometres, in use until 1954. The outbreak of World War II meant racing at the track was suspended until 1948, Monza was renovated over a period of two months at the beginning of 1948 and a Grand Prix was held on 17 October 1948. In 1954, work began to revamp the circuit, resulting in a 5.750 kilometres course. The two circuits could be combined to re-create the former 10 kilometres long circuit, with cars running parallel on the main straight, the track infrastructure was also updated and improved to better accommodate the teams and spectators. The Automobile Club of Italy held 500-mile Race of Two Worlds exhibition competitions, intended to pit United States Auto Club IndyCars against European Formula One and sports cars. The races were held on the oval at the end of June in 1957 and 1958, ecurie Ecosses three Jaguar D-type sports cars used their Le Mans-specification tyres with no ill-effects, but were completely out paced. Two heats in 1957 were won by Jimmy Bryan in his Kuzma-Offenhauser Dean Van Lines Special, Formula One used the 10 kilometres high speed track in the 1955,1956,1960 and 1961 Grands Prix. Stirling Moss and Phil Hill both won twice in this period, with Hills win at Monza making him the first American to win a Formula One race
15.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
16.
Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps
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The Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit is the venue of the Formula One Belgian Grand Prix, and of the Spa 24 Hours and 1000 km Spa endurance races. It is also home to the all Volkswagen club event,25 Hours of Spa and it is one of the most challenging race tracks in the world, mainly due to its fast, hilly and twisty nature. Spa is a circuit of many racing drivers and fans. Despite its name, the circuit is not in Spa but lies in the vicinity of the town of Francorchamps within the boundaries of the municipality of Stavelot, with a part in the boundaries of Malmedy. Designed in 1920 by Jules de Thier and Henri Langlois Van Ophem, the track was intended to have hosted its inaugural race in August 1921, however this event had to be cancelled as there was only one entrant. The first car race was held at the circuit in 1922, the circuit was first used for Grand Prix racing in 1925. The old Spa circuit was essentially a speed course with drivers managing higher average speeds than on other race tracks, until 2000, it was possible to travel over the race track when it was still a public road. Near Malmedy, the Masta straight began, which was interrupted by the fast Masta Kink between farm houses before arriving at the town of Stavelot. Before 1970, there were no safety modifications of any kind done to the circuit, former Formula One racing driver and team owner Jackie Oliver was quoted as saying if you went off the road, you didnt know what you were going to hit. The old Spa circuit was unique in that speeds were high with hardly any let-up at all for 3–4 minutes. This made it a difficult mental challenge, because most of the corners were taken at 180+ mph and were not quite flat- every corner was as important as the one before it. If a driver lifted just that bit more, then whole seconds. Even the slightest error of any kind was punished very harshly in more ways than one, but this reality also worked inversely- huge advantages could be gained if a driver came out of a corner slightly faster. When Armco crash barriers were added to the track in 1970, deaths became less frequent there but the track was still notorious for other factors. The Ardennes Forest had very unpredictable weather and there were parts where it was raining and the track was wet, and other parts where the sun was shining, in 1969, the Belgian Grand Prix was boycotted by F1 because of the extreme danger of Spa. There had been 10 racing fatalities in total at the track in the 1960s, the drivers demanded changes made to Spa which were not possible on short notice, so the Belgian Grand Prix was dropped that year. Armco was added to the track and sections of it were improved, for the 1971 race, the track owners and authorities had not brought the track up to date with mandatory safety measures, and the race was cancelled. Formula One would not return to Spa until 1983 on the modern track, the Masta Kink was one of the most fearsome sections on any race track in the world, requiring skill and bravery in equal measure to get it right
17.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
18.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
19.
24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 24 Hours of Le Mans is the worlds oldest active sports car race in endurance racing, held annually since 1923 near the town of Le Mans, France. It is one of the most prestigious races in the world and is often called the Grand Prix of Endurance. The event represents one leg of the Triple Crown of Motorsport, other events being the Indianapolis 500, since 2012, the 24 Hours of Le Mans has been a part of the FIA World Endurance Championship. In 2017, it will be the round of the season. The race has over the years inspired imitating races all over the globe, popularizing the 24-hour format at places like Daytona, Nürburgring, Spa-Francorchamps, and Bathurst. The American Le Mans Series and Europes Le Mans Series of multi-event sports car championships were spun off from 24 Hours of Le Mans regulations. At a time when Grand Prix motor racing was the dominant form of motorsport throughout Europe, Le Mans was designed to present a different test. Instead of focusing on the ability of a car company to build the fastest machines and this encouraged innovation in producing reliable and fuel-efficient vehicles, because endurance racing requires cars that last and spend as little time in the pits as possible. At the same time, the layout of the track necessitated cars with better aerodynamics, while this was shared with Grand Prix racing, few tracks in Europe had straights of a length comparable to the Mulsanne. Additionally, because the road is public and thus not as meticulously maintained as permanent racing circuits, racing puts more strain on the parts, increasing the importance of reliability. The oil crisis in the early 1970s led organizers to adopt a fuel economy formula known as Group C that limited the amount of each car was allowed. Although it was abandoned, fuel economy remains important as new fuel sources reduced time spent during pit stops. Such technological innovations have had an effect and can be incorporated into consumer cars. This has also led to faster and more exotic supercars as manufacturers seek to develop road cars in order to develop them into even faster GT cars. Additionally, in recent years hybrid systems have been championed in the LMP category as rules have changed to their benefit. The race is held in June, leading at times to very hot conditions for drivers, particularly in closed vehicles with poor ventilation, the race begins in mid-afternoon and finishes the following day at the same hour the race started the previous day. Over the 24 hours, modern competitors often cover distances well over 5,000 km, the record is 2010s 5,410 km, six times the length of the Indianapolis 500, or approximately 18 times longer than a Formula One Grand Prix. Drivers and racing teams strive for speed and avoiding damage, as well as managing the cars consumables, primarily fuel, tires
20.
Circuit de la Sarthe
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The Circuit des 24 Heures du Mans, also known as Circuit de la Sarthe located in Le Mans, Maine, France, is a semi-permanent race course most famous as the venue for the 24 Hours of Le Mans auto race. The track also includes roads that remain open to the public most of the year. The circuit, in its present configuration, is 13.629 kilometres long, making it one of the longest circuits in the world, capacity of the race stadium, where the short Bugatti Circuit is situated, is 100,000. Le Mans is a race where up to 85% of the time is spent on full throttle, meaning immense stress on engine. Even with the modifications put in place over the years, the Sarthe circuit is known for being very fast. This classic configuration was 8.369 miles long and remained almost unaltered even after the 1955 tragedy and its frighteningly narrow pit straight was narrowed off to make room for the pits and was part of the road itself, without the road becoming wider just for the pits. The pit straight was about 12 feet wide and the race track, the pit area was modified at a cost of 300 million francs, the signalling area was even moved to the exit of the slow Mulsanne corner, and the track was resurfaced. With cars getting ever faster in the 1960s, criticism rose, especially when drivers were killed. Since 1965, a smaller but permanent Bugatti Circuit was added which shares the pit lane facilities, for the 1968 race, the Ford chicane was added before the pits to slow down the cars. The circuit was fitted with Armco for the 1969 race, one of the Porsche Curves was affectionately named Maison Blanche and a short straight with a slight kink and two chicanes before the pits named the Ford chicanes were all added. In 1979, due to the construction of a new public road and this redesign led to a faster double-apex corner as well as requiring the removal of the second Dunlop Bridge. In 1986, because of construction of a new roundabout at the Mulsanne corner and this created a right hand kink prior to Mulsanne corner. In 1987, a chicane was added to the very fast Dunlop curve where cars would go under the Dunlop bridge at 180 mph, the Le Mans circuit was changed between the Dunlop Bridge and Esses, with the straight now becoming a set of fast sweeping turns. This layout allowed for a transition from the Le Mans circuit to the Bugatti circuit. This layout change would require the tracks infamous carnival to be relocated because the area it had once occupied became runoff. As part of the development, a new extended pit lane exit was created for the Bugatti Circuit and this second pit exit re-enters the track just beyond the Dunlop Chicane and before the Dunlop Bridge. Following the fatal crash of Danish driver Allan Simonsen at the 2013 race at the exit of Tertre Rouge into D338, the radius will be moved in approximately 200m for safety reasons with new tyre barriers at the exit. Le Mans was most famous for its 6 km long straight, called Ligne Droite des Hunaudières, a part of the route départementale D338
21.
Reims-Gueux
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The triangular layout of public roads formed three sectors between the villages of Thillois and Gueux over the La Garenne / Gueux intersection of Route nationale 31. The circuit became known to be among the fastest of the era for its two long straights allowing maximum speed, resulting in many famous slipstream battles. Motor racing started in 1926 with the second Grand Prix de la Marne, the original 7.816 km circuit placed the start/finish line on road D27, approximately 1.6 km east of the Gueux village center, where it would remain for the duration of the circuit. Organizational changes prior to the 1938 GP de France saw extensive widening of the Thillois-Gueux straight, racing at Reims-Gueux resumed in 1947 with the 16th Grand Prix de Reims, effectively ending the Grand Prix de la Marne series except for a last edition in 1952. 1948 and 1949 saw the first Formula 1 cars at Reims-Gueux for two non-championship rounds, the last year for Formula One at Reims came in 1966, final sports car competitions were held in 1969 and Motorcycle racing continued for another 3 years. In 1972, Reims-Gueux closed permanently due to financial difficulties, today, the old RN31 straight between Muizon and Thillois is a wider dual carriageway, although it does follow the same line as the original two-lane road of the former circuit. It is still possible to drive a lap around the original 1926 version and it is no longer possible to complete a lap of the circuit used from 1953 onwards as the tarmac between Bretelle Nord and Muizon has been removed. Legend Grand Prix de la Marne 12 Hours of Reims Amis du Circuit de Gueux Circuit Reims-Gueux on Google Maps
22.
Freiburg im Breisgau
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Freiburg im Breisgau is a city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany with a population of about 220,000. In the south-west of the country, it straddles the Dreisam river, historically, the city has acted as the hub of the Breisgau region on the western edge of the Black Forest in the Upper Rhine Plain. The city is known for its medieval minster and Renaissance university, as well as for its standard of living. The city is situated in the heart of the major Baden wine-growing region, according to meteorological statistics, the city is the sunniest and warmest in Germany and held the all-time German temperature record of 40.2 °C from 2003 to 2015. Freiburg was founded by Konrad and Duke Berthold III of Zähringen in 1120 as a market town, hence its name. Frei means free, and Burg, like the modern English word borough, was used in those days for a city or town. The German word Burg also means a town, as in Hamburg. Thus, it is likely that the name of place means a fortified town of free citizens. This town was located at a junction of trade routes between the Mediterranean Sea and the North Sea regions, and the Rhine and Danube rivers. In 1200, Freiburgs population numbered approximately 6,000 people, at about that time, under the rule of Bertold V, the last duke of Zähringen, the city began construction of its Freiburg Münster cathedral on the site of an older parish church. Begun in the Romanesque style, it was continued and completed 1513 for the most part as a Gothic edifice, in 1218, when Bertold V died, then Egino V von Urach, the count of Urach assumed the title of Freiburgs count as Egino I von Freiburg. The city council did not trust the new nobles and wrote down its established rights in a document, at the end of the thirteenth century there was a feud between the citizens of Freiburg and their lord, Count Egino II of Freiburg. Egino II raised taxes and sought to limit the freedom, after which the Freiburgers used catapults to destroy the counts castle atop the Schloßberg. The furious count called on his brother-in-law the Bishop of Strasbourg, Konradius von Lichtenberg, the bishop responded by marching with his army to Freiburg. According to an old Freiburg legend, a butcher named Hauri stabbed the Bishop of Strasbourg to death on 29 July 1299. It was a Pyrrhic victory, since henceforth the citizens of Freiburg had to pay an annual expiation of 300 marks in silver to the count of Freiburg until 1368, in 1366 the counts of Freiburg made another failed attempt to occupy the city during a night raid. Eventually the citizens were fed up with their lords, and in 1368 Freiburg purchased its independence from them, the city turned itself over to the protection of the Habsburgs, who allowed the city to retain a large measure of freedom. Most of the nobles of the city died in the battle of Sempach, the patrician family Schnewlin took control of the city until the guildsmen revolted
23.
Schauinsland
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The Schauinsland, is a mountain in the Black Forest with an elevation of 1,284 m above sea level. It is a destination for day trips. Due to the amount of silver mining, it was previously known as “Erzkasten”. The mountain is located ten kilometres south-east of Freiburg’s city centre. The summit of the Schauinsland is located in the district of Freiburg, the mountain is surrounded by towns such as Oberried, Munstertal, Bollschweil, and Horben. The closest village to the summit is Hofsgrund, in Autumn especially, during a temperature inversion, there is a clear view of the Vosges mountains from the top of the Schauinsland. Under appropriate weather conditions there is a view of a portion of the Swiss Alps. Since 2003, the Holzschlägermatte on the Schauinsland has been home to a number of very controversial wind turbines, due to conservation issues, they were constructed at an elevation of roughly 1,000 m above sea level instead of on the summit. Therefore, the view to and from the summit is slightly restricted. During the lawsuit against the company, the Freiburg-based artist Richard Schindler wrote an expert report which is considered the first of its kind. For over 700 years, silver, lead and zinc were mined from the Schauinsland. In the Middle Ages, mining was very productive, so much so that in the 14th century a number of contractors of the Dieselmuot mine could afford to donate glass windows to the Freiburg Minster. The miners lived right next to the mines on the Schauinsland in two settlements, which were abandoned during the 16th century, the silver obtained was traded and used for minting coins. The mining tunnels are spread over 22 levels and amount to a total of about 100 kilometers, at the beginning of the 20th century, about 250 miners were employed in the Schauinsland mines. Production ceased in 1954 due to the mine not yielding enough economy, there is a tunnel, the so-called Kapplerstollen, which connects the villages Kappel and Hofsgrund. It is also referred to as midwifes tunnel due to the fact that around the end of the 19th century midwives, as well as the children of Kappel, the tunnel still exists, however, its entries are no longer accessible. Since 1975, the Barbarastollen, a part of the mine, has been used by the Federal Office for Civil Protection. The tunnel is Europes largest long-term archive, the research team Steiber, founded in 1976, cleared and surveyed several old parts of the mine
24.
Autodromo di Pergusa
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The Autodromo di Pergusa is an automobile and motorcycle circuit that encircles the only Sicilian natural lake, Pergusa Lake. The circuit is known as Enna-Pergusa, as the lake is located near the city of Enna. During the 1960s, the track hosted various events such as the Coppa Citta di Enna. It also played host to a non-championship Formula One event known as the Mediterranean Grand Prix, in 1989 the Italian round of the World Superbike Championship was held here. In the 1990s, the track was upgraded and hosted events for the FIA Sportscar Championship, FIA GT Championship, in 1997 the track was also the location of the Ferrari festival. The circuit played host to rounds 7 and 8 of the FIA European Touring Car Championship in 2013, the dust and the abrasive nature of the track tended to make the surface very slippery. The Formula 3000 races in particular were known for very poor standards of organization. Media related to Autodromo di Pergusa at Wikimedia Commons Autodromo di Pergusa Trackpedias guide to racing Pergusa
25.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
26.
Royal Automobile Club
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The Royal Automobile Club is a British private club and is not to be confused with RAC, an automotive services company, which it formerly owned. It has two houses, one in London at 89–91 Pall Mall, and the other in the countryside at Woodcote Park, Surrey. Like many other clubs in London today, the Royal Automobile Club welcomes women as members. It was founded on 10 August 1897 as the Automobile Club of Great Britain, the headquarters was originally in a block of flats at 4 Whitehall Court, moving to 119 Piccadilly in 1902. In the face of considerable opposition a speed limit of 20 mph was retained in addition to the creation of the offence of driving recklessly, dangerously or negligently, in 1905, the Club organised the first Tourist Trophy motorcycle race, the oldest regularly run motor race. The Club became the body for motor sport in Britain. King Edward VIIs interest in motoring led to the command in 1907 that the Automobile Club of Great Britain and it cost over a quarter of a million pounds and is described in the Survey of London as a polished essay in the late French Renaissance manner. In September 1914, a group of RAC members put themselves and their cars at the disposal of the British Red Cross. The RAC was responsible for organising the first British Grand Prix motor race at Brooklands, Surrey in 1926 and also runs its sister organisation, in 1978 during a re-organisation the Associate Section was established as a separate company RAC Motoring Services Ltd, which was owned by the organisation. In 1991 the RAC Foundation was split off as the arm of RAC Motoring Services. In September 1999 members sold RAC Motoring Services to Lex Service plc, RAC Plc was then acquired by Aviva plc in March 2005 for around £1.1 billion. As of 2009, the subscription is £1,125 per year. The entrance fee is on a scale, ranging from an additional £940 to £1,600. The patrolmen had a rank structure with corporals, sergeants. Mounted on Matchless motorbikes with sidecars containing a tool kit, fanbelts, engine hoses, until around 1930 control could only contact the mobile patrolmen by telephone, so they waited by public telephone boxes for the callout. From 1957 onwards they were equipped with sets for two way contact with their local headquarters. Although they were never as numerous as AA boxes there was a measure of cooperation between the two motoring clubs—keys fitted both types of box and members messages were passed on. The telephones were installed in locked boxes painted in blue with the RAC logo badge mounted on the top of the box
27.
Goodwood Circuit
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Goodwood Circuit is a historic venue for both two- and four-wheeled motorsport in the United Kingdom. The 3.8 kilometres circuit is situated near Chichester, West Sussex, close to the south coast of England, on the estate of Goodwood House, and completely encircles Chichester/Goodwood Airport. This is the racing circuit dating from 1948, not to be confused with the separate hillclimb course located at Goodwood House, the racing circuit began life as the perimeter track of RAF Westhampnett airfield, which was constructed during World War II as a relief airfield for RAF Tangmere. The first race meeting took place on 18 September 1948, organised by the Junior Car Club and sanctioned by the Duke of Richmond, the winner of the first race was P. de F. C. Stirling Moss won the 500cc race, followed by Eric Brandon and Curly Dryden, the cars that raced in those events can be seen recreating the endurance races at the Goodwood Revival each year in the Sussex trophy and the Royal Automobile Club Tourist Trophy. The accident that ended Stirling Mosss International career happened at St. Marys Corner in 1962, the car was a 30-foot-long Bristol Siddeley turbine-powered 4,500 hp streamliner, with a theoretical top speed of 450 to 500 miles per hour. The laps of Goodwood were effectively at tick-over speed, because the car had four degrees of steering lock. Goodwood saw its last race meeting for over 30 years in 1966, the last event was a club meeting organised by the British Automobile Racing Club on 2 July 1966. The circuit claimed the life of McLaren-founder Bruce McLaren in an accident on 2 June 1970. Goodwood is noted for its annual Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival events, the Goodwood Festival of Speed is an annual hill climb, held in late June or early July not on the circuit, but in the nearby grounds of Goodwood House. It features historic and modern motor-racing vehicles, in 2010, the event had over 176,000 visitors over four days. Following the success of the Festival of Speed hill climb, racing returned to the Goodwood circuit in 1998, the Goodwood Revival is a three-day festival held each September for the types of cars and motorcycles that would have competed during the circuits original period, 1948–1966. Historic aircraft help to complete the vintage feel, in 2008, a crowd of 68,000 people attended the event on the main Sunday -9,000 more than in 2007. The track is now used for races, track days. Nearly everyone dresses up in vintage outfit from mods and rockers to racing drivers, in 2009, the Mongol Rally, a charity fundraising car rally to Mongolia, moved its starting point from Hyde Park, London to Goodwood. Entrants are on show to the public in the paddock before beginning the rally with a lap of the circuit. The National Finals of the Greenpower schools electric car racing takes place at Goodwood each year. The Greenpower challenge is a series of electric vehicle endurance races for schools
28.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
29.
Sierre
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Sierre is the capital of the district of Sierre in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. It has a population of 16,332 and it is the last official French speaking city in Valais before the French–German language border of the canton located at the forêt de Finges, few kilometres after the town. A German-speaking minority lives in Sierre, as it counts around 8% of the population, Sierre is first mentioned about 800 as Sidrium, though a 12th-century document refers to the village being founded in 515. In 1179 it was mentioned as Sirro and in 1393 as Syder, the area around the modern town, especially Gerunden hill, was settled very early. Archeological sites on Gerunden hill have produced neolithic objects and grave goods, Bronze Age weapons and jewelry, Early Iron Age objects and Roman era inscriptions, jars, jewelry and coins. A soapstone pot from the Early Middle Ages and a signet ring with the name Graifarius from the 6th century have also been found. In Grands-Prés there is a pit from the beginning of the Late Iron Age. During the Roman era it appears there was no major population center. Under the chapel of Saint-Ginier, the remains of a Roman era house or estate have been discovered, five altars were found in Saint-Ginier, along with another two in the scattered settlements, one of which was dedicated to Mercury. During the early period, the duumvir or mayor of the Civitas Vallensium, Caius Cominus Chiu. In the late period, the family of the senator of Vinelia Modestina also lived in the area. The chapel of Saint-Félix was built in the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century on Gerunden hill, in 515 the estate at Sierre was given by the King of Burgundy Sigismund to the Abbey of Saint-Maurice to hold as a fief. By the 11th century, the fief of Sierre was owned by the Bishop of Sion, the aristocratic families and the residents of the fief lived on the Gerunden, Vieux-Sierre and Plantzette hills. On each of these there was a castle that served as the residence for the Bishops representatives. The castles were razed in the century when the noble families stood with the Bishop in his war with the Zenden of the Upper Valais. The demolished castles and villages were abandoned and most residents settled farther north, the only castle that survived the wars of the 14th century was Goubing Castle, southeast of Sierre, which belonged to the lords of Granges. The Contrée of Sierre was originally a group the managed the commons, as vassals of the Bishop, they had the right to assemble twice a year to regulate the management of the common lands and the affairs of the local police. Eventually this grew into the Noble Contrée which then formed the core of Sierre Zenden from which the city of Sierre later developed, the town of Plan-Sierre soon took over the leadership role in the Noble Contrée
30.
Crans-Montana
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Crans-Montana is a municipality in the district of Sierre in the canton of Valais, Switzerland. On 1 January 2017 the former municipalities of Chermignon, Mollens, Montana, Chermignon is first mentioned in 1228 as Chermenon and Chirminon. It became an independent municipality in 1905 when it separated from Lens, Mollens is first mentioned about 1250 as Molaen. In 1286 it was mentioned as Moleing, the municipality was formerly known by its German name Molei, however, that name is no longer used. Montana is first mentioned in 1243 as Montana, in 1905 it separated from Lens to form an independent municipality. Randogne is first mentioned in 1224 as Randonni, the resort is located in the heart of the Swiss Alps in the French-speaking part of the canton of Valais. It is located on a plateau above Sierre at an elevation of about 1,500 m above sea level, allowing good view over the Valais Alps, the resort is a fusion of the two centers of Crans and Montana and belongs to 6 municipalities. The skiing area of Crans-Montana is composed of 140 km of pistes and it is topped by the Pointe de la Plaine Morte at 2,927 m. Crans-Montana is famous in alpine ski racing for the 1987 World Championships and is often on the World Cup schedule and it also hosts the only winter mountain pop rock festival Caprices Festival and the second largest European golf event Omega European Masters, which takes place each September. The resort has also frequently used for bicycle racing, hosting stage finishes of the Tour de Suisse seven times. In addition Crans-Montana also hosted the finish of the 20th stage of the 1984 Tour de France, won by Laurent Fignon, Crans-Montana has an area, as of 2009, of 59.66 km2. The new municipality has a population of 10,931, the historical population is given in the following chart, The Roches des Fées and the Hotel Bella Lui are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. Between 1961 and 1990 Montana had an average of 110.5 days of rain or snow per year, the wettest month was December during which time Montana received an average of 120 mm of rain or snow. During this month there was precipitation for an average of 9.9 days, the month with the most days of precipitation was January, with an average of 10.4, but with only 108 mm of rain or snow. The driest month of the year was September with an average of 51 mm of precipitation over 6.8 days, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Montana has a Tundra climate, abbreviated ET on climate maps. Grand-Duke Henri of Luxembourg, French chef and restaurateur Michel Roux, golfers Adam Scott, Ángel Gallardo, Sergio García along with Francesco and Edoardo Molinari also have homes there
31.
Tour de France Automobile
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Tour de France Automobile was a sports car race held on roads around France regularly – mostly annually – between 1899 and 1986. The first edition was held in 1899 at speeds of 30 mph, the first event was won by René de Knyff driving a Panhard et Levassor. Out of 49 starters,21 vehicles finished, the 1908 event was won by Clément-Bayard. The 1951 event was won by Pagnibon-Barracquet in a 2. 6-litre Ferrari, the event visited La Turbie Hill Climb, near Nice. In 1954 the event was won by the 2.5 litre Gordini of Jacques Pollet and M. Gauthier, the 1956 event was won by de Portago/Nelson in a Ferrari 2502.9 with Moss/Houel in second place. The 1960 Tour de France took place between September 15 and 23 that year, starting at Nice it visited Mont Ventoux, Nurburgring, Spa, Montlhéry, Rouen and Le Mans with the finish at Clermont Ferrand. The event was won overall by the Ferrari 250 G. T. of Willy Mairesse/Georges Berger, the Jaguar 3.8 litre Mk. II of Bernard Consten/J. Renel won the Touring category with the BMW700 coupé of Metternich/Hohenlohe winning the Index of Performance, the 1964 event was won by Lucien Bianchi/Georges Berger in a Ferrari GTO, entered by Ecurie Nationale Belge. The event started at Lille, visiting Reims, Rouen, Le Mans, Clermont-Ferrand, Monza, the Touring car category was won by Peter Procter/Andrew Cowan in a Ford Mustang, entered by Alan Mann Racing. The A. C. Shelby Cobras of Maurice Trintignant, Bob Bondurant, the 1980s saw the event incorporated into the European Rally Championship which saw an influx of new competitors. The last event was held in 1986, also known as Tour Auto, it was revived in 1992 for historic cars, with both a competition and a regularity class. The format is a 5-day event combining about 2,500 km of roads,4 or 5 circuit races and 6 to 8 hillclimbs, patrick Peter of Agence Peter is the organiser. The start of the International event with some 300 entrants is in Paris, the winning cars over the years, Ford Shelby Mustang 350GT, Ford GT40, AC Cobra 289, Lotus Elan, Ferrari Daytona Gr IV
32.
Porsche 904
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The Porsche 904 is an automobile which was produced by Porsche in Germany in 1964 and 1965. It was officially called Porsche Carrera GTS due to the naming rights problem that required renaming the Porsche 901 to Porsche 911. After having withdrawn from Formula One at the end of the 1962 season, the 904 debuted late in 1963, for the 1964 racing season, as a successor to the 718, which had been introduced in 1957. Porsche designed the GTS variant to compete in the FIA-GT class at various racing events. The street-legal version debuted in 1964 in order to comply with group 3 appendix J homologation regulations requiring a number of road-going variants be sold by the factory. Porsche produced one-hundred six 904s at four or five a day with a list price of US$7245, orders far exceeded the one hundred car requirement to satisfy homologation rules and more cars could have been sold. The 904 marked the beginning of a series of sportscars that culminated in the dominant 917, the 904s mid-engine layout was inherited from the 718, also known as the RSK, the factorys leading race car. It was powered by the 1,966 cc Type 587/3, four-cam flat four-cylinder engine producing 198 hp, probably the most complex four-cylinder ever. It drove a five-speed transmission with a standard 4.428,1 final drive, with available 4.605,4.260,3.636, and 3.362 ratios. Begun as the Type 547, its development began in 1953, Porsche realized it needed something all-new. The 1.5 liter weighed 310 lb dry, eventually producing 180 hp, a complex design that proved very taxing to build and assemble, but very durable, it was used in 34 different models, including 550 spyders,356 Carreras, and F2/1s. The 904 was the first Porsche to use a chassis and fibreglass body, appearing more like a specialist racing car than the modified sports cars typical at the time. The fibreglass body was bonded to its steel chassis for extra rigidity, while many German race cars had used unpainted aluminium bodies since the famous 1934 Silver Arrows, most 904s were painted silver, the modern German national racing color. Unusually for Porsche, the bodies were provided by contractors. Frontal area was only 14 sq ft, the Porsche 904 rode on coil springs, with unequal-length A-arms in front. The wheelbase was 90.5 in, track front and rear 51.7 in, height 42 in, brakes were 275 mm discs at thefront and 285 mm at the rear. To satisfy demand, twenty 1965 models were produced, some featuring a variant of the 911s flat-six. A few factory race cars were fitted with a flat eight-cylinder power plant derived from the 1962804 F1 car, the 225 hp 1,962 cc Type 771, the Type 771s, however, suffered a disturbing habit of making their flywheels explode
33.
Ferrari 250 GTO
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The Ferrari 250 GTO is a GT car produced by Ferrari from 1962 to 1964 for homologation into the FIAs Group 3 Grand Touring Car category. It was powered by Ferraris Tipo 168/62 V12 engine, the 250 in its name denotes the displacement in cubic centimeters of each of its cylinders, GTO stands for Gran Turismo Omologato, Italian for Grand Touring Homologated. Just 39250 GTOs were manufactured between 1962 and 1964 and this includes 33 cars with 1962-63 bodywork, three with 1964 bodywork similar to the Ferrari 250 LM, and three 330 GTO specials with a larger engine. Four of the older 1962-1963 cars were updated in 1964 with Series II bodies, when new, the GTO cost $18,000 in the United States, with buyers personally approved by Enzo Ferrari and his dealer for North America, Luigi Chinetti. In May 2012 the 1962250 GTO made for Stirling Moss set a record selling price of $38,115,000. In October 2013, Connecticut-based collector Paul Pappalardo sold chassis number 5111GT to a buyer for a new record of around $52 million. In 2004, Sports Car International placed the 250 GTO eighth on a list of Top Sports Cars of the 1960s, similarly, Motor Trend Classic placed the 250 GTO first on a list of the Greatest Ferraris of All Time. Popular Mechanics named it the Hottest Car of All Time, the 250 GTO was designed to compete in GT racing, where its rivals would include the Shelby Cobra, Jaguar E-Type and Aston Martin DP214. The development of the 250 GTO was headed by chief engineer Giotto Bizzarrini, although Bizzarrini is usually credited as the designer of the 250 GTO, he and most other Ferrari engineers were fired in 1962 due to a dispute with Enzo Ferrari. Further development of the 250 GTO was overseen by new engineer Mauro Forghieri, the design of the car was a collaborative effort and cannot be ascribed to a single person. The mechanical aspects of 250 GTO were relatively conservative at the time of its introduction, using engine, the chassis of the car was based on that of the 250 GT SWB, with minor differences in frame structure and geometry to reduce weight, stiffen and lower the chassis. The car was built around a hand-welded oval tube frame, incorporating A-arm front suspension, rear live-axle with Watts linkage, disc brakes, the engine was the race-proven Tipo 168/62 Comp. 3.0 L V12 as used in the 250 Testa Rossa Le Mans winner, an all-alloy design utilizing a dry sump and six 38DCN Weber carburetors, it produced approximately 300 horsepower. The gearbox was a new 5-speed unit with Porsche-type synchromesh, Bizzarrini focused his design effort on the cars aerodynamics in an attempt to improve top speed and stability. The body design was informed by wind tunnel testing at Pisa University as well as road, the resulting all-aluminium bodywork had a long, low nose, small radiator inlet, and distinctive air intakes on the nose with removable covers. Early testing resulted in the addition of a rear spoiler, the underside of the car was covered by a belly pan and had an additional spoiler underneath formed by the fuel tank cover. The aerodynamic design of the 250 GTO was a technical innovation compared to previous Ferrari GT cars. The bodies were constructed by Scaglietti, with the exception of early prototypes with bodies constructed in-house by Ferrari or by Pininfarina, Cars were produced in many colours, with the most famous being the bright red Rosso Cina
34.
Abarth
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S. p. A. is a racing car and road car maker founded by Italo-Austrian Carlo Abarth in 1949. Its logo is a shield with a scorpion on a red. S. p. A. is an owned subsidiary of FCA Italy S. p. A. the subsidiary of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles controlling its European automotive production activities. Carlo Abarth was sporting director of the Cisitalia factory racing team starting in 1947,1948 saw the financial downfall of Cisitalia, spurred by the investments needed to put the 202 coupé into production. The following year the manufacturer folded, and founder Piero Dusio flew to Argentina, Carlo Abarth, funded by Armando Scagliarini, took over Cisitalias assets and on 31 March 1949 Abarth & C. was founded in Bologna. Carlos astrological sign, Scorpio, was chosen as the company logo, from the Cisitalia liquidation Abarth obtained five 204 sports cars, a D46 single seater and various spares. The 204s were immediately rechristened Abarth 204 A. Abarth built, in addition to Guido Scagliarini, the «Squadra Abarth» racing team lined up celebrated drivers such as Tazio Nuvolari, Franco Cortese and Piero Taruffi. Notably Tazio Nuvolari made his last appearance in racing at the wheel of an Abarth 204 A, alongside racing, the companys main activity was producing and selling accessories and performance parts for Fiat, Lancia, Cisitalia and Simca cars, like inlet manifolds and silencers. On 9 April 1951 the companys headquarters were moved to Turin, Abarth began his association with Fiat in 1952. In the 1960s, Abarth was successful in hillclimbing and sports car racing, mainly in classes from 850cc to 2000cc, competing with Porsche 904, hans Herrmann was a factory driver from 1962 until 1965, winning the 500 km Nürburgring in 1963 with Teddy Pilette. Abarth promised Johann Abt that he could race a car for free if he won all the races he entered. Abt almost succeeded, of the 30 races he entered, Abt won 29, Abarth produced high-performance exhaust pipes, diversifying into tuning kits for road vehicles, mainly for Fiat. A racing exhaust was produced for the 1950s Lambretta models D, original Abarth LD exhausts are now valuable collectors items. Reproductions are available which carry the Abarth name, how Fiat feels about this is not known, Lambretta even held several 125cc Motorcycle land speed records during the 1950s thanks partly to the exhaust that Abarth developed for them. Abarth also helped build sports or racing cars with Porsche and Simca, Carlo sold Abarth to Fiat on 31 July 1971. The acquisition was made public by Fiat with a press release on 15 October. As Fiat was not interested in the Reparto Corse racing operations, Osella obtained cars, spares, technicians and drivers, and continued the racing activity founding the Osella racing team. Thus ended for Abarth the days of sport prototype and hill climb racing, under Fiat ownership, Abarth became the Fiat Groups racing department, managed by engine designer Aurelio Lampredi
35.
Simca
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Simca was a French automaker, founded in November 1934 by Fiat and directed from July 1935 to May 1963 by Italian Henri Théodore Pigozzi. Simca was affiliated with Fiat and then, after Simca bought Fords French activities, in 1970, Simca became a subsidiary and brand of Chrysler Europe, ending its period as an independent company. Simca disappeared in 1978, when Chrysler divested its European operations to another French automaker, PSA replaced the Simca brand with Talbot after a short period when some models were badged as Simca-Talbots. During most of its activity, Simca was one of the biggest automobile manufacturers in France. For instance the Simca 1307 was sold in Britain as the Chrysler Alpine, Simca vehicles were also manufactured by Simca do Brasil in São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil, and Barreiros in Spain. They were also assembled in Australia, Chile, Colombia and the Netherlands during the Chrysler era, Henri Théodore Pigozzi was active in the automotive business in the early 1920s when he met Fiat founder, Giovanni Agnelli. They began business together in 1922 with Pigozzi acting as a merchant, buying old automobile bodies. Two years later Pigozzi became Fiats General Agent in France, in 1928, SAFAF started the assembly of Fiat cars in Suresnes near Paris, and licensed the production of some parts to local suppliers. By 1934, as many as 30,000 Fiat cars were sold by SAFAF, the SIMCA company was founded in 1935 by FIAT, when Fiat bought the former Donnet factory in the French town of Nanterre. The first cars produced were Fiat 508 Balillas and Fiat 518 Arditas and they were followed during 1936 by the Simca Cinq or 5CV, a version of the Fiat Topolino announced in the Spring, but only available for sale from October 1936. The Huit, an 8CV version of the Fiat 508C-1100, appeared in 1937, production of the 6CV and 11CV stopped in 1937, leaving the 5CV and the 8CV in production until the outbreak of World War II. The firm nevertheless remained closely connected with Fiat, and it was not until 1938 that the shortened name Simca replaced Simca-Fiat, of the businesses that emerged as Frances big four auto-makers after the war, Simca was unique in not suffering serious bomb damage to its plant. Despite France being occupied, Simca cars continued to be produced in numbers throughout the war. Nevertheless, shortly after the liberation the Nanterre plants financial sustainability received a boost when Simca won a contract from the American army to repair large numbers of Jeep engines, on 3 January 1946 the new government’s five-year plan for the automobile industry came into force. Grégoire owed his influence to a powerfully persuasive personality and an engineering talent. Regarding the future of the French automobile industry, Grégoire held strong opinions, a few weeks after the liberation Grégoire joined the Simca board as General Technical Director, in order to prepare for the production of the AFG at the company’s Nanterre factory. For Simca, faced with a determinedly dirigiste left-wing French government, in return, Grégoire obtained the personal commitment of the surviving Director General to the production at Nanterre of his two-door AFG. It is very easy to see how the two-door AFG looked, because its four-door equivalent went into production, little changed from Grégoire’s prototype and it was a car designed by an engineer, and Pigozzi thought it ugly
36.
Triumph Motor Company
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The Triumph Motor Company was a British car and motor manufacturing company. The Triumph marque is owned currently by BMW, the marque had its origins in 1885 when Siegfried Bettmann of Nuremberg formed S. Bettmann & Co and started importing bicycles from Europe and selling them under his own trade name in London. The trade name became Triumph the following year, and in 1887 Bettmann was joined by a partner, Moritz Schulte, in 1889 the businessmen started producing their own bicycles in Coventry, England. The company was renamed the Triumph Cycle Co. Ltd. in 1897, in 1902 they began producing Triumph motorcycles at their works in Coventry on Much Park Street. At first, these used engines purchased from company, but the business prospered. In 1907 they purchased the premises of a mill on Priory Street to develop a new factory. Production of this car and its successors was moderate, but this changed with the introduction in 1927 of the Triumph Super 7. In 1930 the companys name was changed to Triumph Motor Company, holbrook realized he could not compete with the larger car companies for the mass market, so he decided to produce expensive cars, and introduced the models Southern Cross and Gloria. The company encountered financial problems however, and in 1936 the Triumph bicycle and motorcycle businesses were sold, healey purchased an Alfa Romeo 8C2300 and developed a new car model with an Alfa inspired straight-8 engine type named the Triumph Dolomite. Three of these cars were made in 1934, one of which was used in competition, the Dolomites manufactured from 1937 to 1940 were unrelated to these prototypes. In July 1939 the Triumph Motor Company went into receivership and the factory, equipment, Triumphs new owners had been supplying engines to Jaguar and its predecessor company since 1938. The pre-war Triumph models were not revived and in 1946 a new range of Triumphs was announced, the Roadster had an aluminium body because steel was in short supply and surplus aluminium from aircraft production was plentiful. The same engine was used for the 1800 Town and Country saloon, later named the Triumph Renown, a similar style was also used for the subsequent Triumph Mayflower light saloon. All three of these models prominently sported the globe badge that had used on pre-war models. Curiously, the TR2 had a Standard badge on its front, Standard had been making a range of small saloons named the Standard Eight and Ten, and had been working on their replacements. The success of the TR range meant that Triumph was considered a more marketable name than Standard, the last Standard car to be made in the UK was replaced in 1963 by the Triumph 2000. Standard-Triumph was bought by Leyland Motors Ltd. in December 1960, further mergers resulted in the formation of British Leyland Motor Corporation in 1968. Triumph set up a facility in Speke, Liverpool in 1959
37.
Alpine (automobile)
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The Société des Automobiles Alpine SAS, commonly known as Alpine, is a French manufacturer of racing and sports cars that used Renault engines. The company was bought in 1973 by Renault, production of Alpine models ceased in 1995. The Alpine marque has been relaunched, with the 2017 introduction of the new Alpine A110. Using Renault 4CVs, Rédélé gained class wins in a number of events, including the Mille Miglia. As his experience with the little 4CV built up, he incorporated many modifications, including for example, special 5-speed gearboxes replacing the original 3-speed unit. To provide a car he built a number of special versions with lightweight aluminium bodies, he drove in these at Le Mans. Encouraged by the development of cars and consequent customer demand. The firm was named Alpine after his Coupe des Alpes successes and he did not realise that in England the previous year, Sunbeam had introduced a sports coupe derived from the Sunbeam Talbot and called the Sunbeam Alpine. This naming problem was to cause problems for Alpine throughout its history, in 1955, he worked with the Chappe brothers to be amongst the pioneers of auto glass fibre construction and produced a small coupe, based on 4CV mechanicals and called the Alpine A106. It used the chassis of the original Renault 4CV. The A106 achieved a number of successes through the 1950s and was joined by a low, styling for this car was contracted to the Italian designer Giovanni Michelotti. Under the glassfibre body was a stiff chassis based on a central tubular backbone which was to be the hallmark of all Alpines built. The A108 was built between 1958 and 1963, in 1962, the A108 began to be produced also in Brazil, by Willys-Overland. By now the cars mechanicals were beginning to show their age in Europe, Alpine was already working closely with Renault and when the Renault R8 saloon was introduced in 1962. Alpine redeveloped their chassis and made a number of body changes to allow the use of R8 mechanicals. This new car was the A110 Berlinette Tour de France, named after a run with the Alpine A108 in the 1962 event. With a competition weight for the car of around 620 kg, Alpine achieved increasing success in rallying, and by 1968 had been allocated the whole Renault competition budget. The close collaboration allowed Alpines to be sold and maintained in France by normal Renault dealerships, real top level success started in 1968 with outright wins in the Coupe des Alpes and other international events
38.
Lotus Cars
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Lotus Cars is an English company that manufactures sports cars and racing cars with its headquarters in Hethel, Norfolk, England, and is a subsidiary of Malaysian automotive company Proton. Notable Lotus cars include the Esprit, Elan, Europa and Elise sports cars, Lotus Cars is based at the former site of RAF Hethel, a World War II airfield in Norfolk. The company designs and builds race and production automobiles of light weight and it also owns the engineering consultancy Lotus Engineering, which has facilities in the United Kingdom, United States, China, and Malaysia. Lotus is owned by DRB-HICOM through its subsidiary Proton, which acquired it following the bankruptcy of former owner Romano Artioli in 1996, the company was formed as Lotus Engineering Ltd. by engineers Colin Chapman and Colin Dare, both graduates of University College, London, in 1952. The four letters in the middle of the stand for the initials of company founder. When the logo was created, Colin Chapmans original partners Michael and Nigel Allen were led to believe that the letters stood for Colin Chapman, the first factory was situated in old stables behind the Railway Hotel in Hornsey, North London. Team Lotus, which was split off from Lotus Engineering in 1954, was active and competitive in Formula One racing from 1958 to 1994, the Lotus Group of Companies was formed in 1959. This was made up of Lotus Cars Limited and Lotus Components Limited, Lotus Components Limited became Lotus Racing Limited in 1971 but the newly renamed entity ceased operation in the same year. The company moved to a purpose built factory at Cheshunt in 1959 and since 1966 the company has occupied a modern factory and road test facility at Hethel and this site is the former RAF Hethel base and the test track uses sections of the old runway. In its early days Lotus sold cars aimed at privateer racers and its early road cars could be bought as kits, in order to save on purchase tax. After the elegant but delicate Lotus Elite of the 1950s, Lotus found critical, Lotus was notable for its use of fibreglass bodies, backbone chassis, and twin cam engines, initially supplied by Coventry Climax but later replaced by Lotus-Ford units. Lotus worked with Ford on the Lotus Cortina, a sports saloon. The Lotus Seven, originating in the 1950s as a simple, Lotus then sold the rights to produce the Seven to Caterham, which has continued to produce the car since then. The mid engined line continued with the Lotus Esprit, which was to one of the companys longest lived. Lotus developed its own series of four cylinder DOHC engines, the Lotus 900 series, and later a V8, variants of the 900 series engine were supplied for the Jensen Healey sports car and the Sunbeam Lotus hot hatchback. In the 1980s, Lotus collaborated with Vauxhall Motors to produce the Lotus Carlton, by 1980, Group Lotus was in serious financial trouble. Production had dropped from 1,200 units per year to a mere 383, in early 1982, Chapman came to an agreement with Toyota to exchange intellectual property and applied expertise. This initially resulted in Lotus Engineering helping to develop the Mk2 Toyota Supra, secondly it allowed Lotus to launch the new Lotus Excel to replace the ageing Lotus Eclat
39.
Fiat Automobiles
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Fiat Automobiles S. p. A. is the largest automobile manufacturer in Italy, a subsidiary of FCA Italy S. p. A. which is part of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. Fiat Automobiles S. p. A. was formed in January 2007 when Fiat reorganized its automobile business, Fiats main market is Europe, mainly focused in Italy. Historically successful in citycars and supermini sector, currently Fiat has a range of models focused on two segments. Fiat does not currently offer any large family car, nor an executive car - these market segments have, to some extent been covered by the Lancia and Alfa Romeo brands, which Fiat also owns. Fiats share of the European market shrank from 9.4 per cent in 2000 to 5.8 per cent in the summer of 2004, at this point Sergio Marchionne was appointed as Fiats chief executive. By March 2009 their market share had expanded to 9.1 per cent, Fiats built their five-story Lingotto plant in 1915 through 1918, at the time it was Europes largest car manufacturing plant. Later the Mirafiori plant was built, also in Turin, to prepare for production of the all-new Fiat 128, Fiat opened their Rivalta plant in October 1968. Until the 128 entered production, the plant was used to build versions of the 850 and 124 as well as parts for the Fiat Dino. Fiats 2014 range of car engines comprised eleven units, eight petrols. The second generation Punto was a seller in the UK after its October 1999 launch. The original Fiat 500 had been one of the few competitors for the iconic Mini during its 1960s heyday. Fiat has invested for a time in South America, mainly in Brazil. They built their first Brazilian car plant in the Greater Belo Horizonte city of Betim in 1973, recently a brand new model developed in Brazil has been launched, the Fiat Uno. Other European models are imported to Brazil, Fiat 500. Some others are still in production, Punto, Idea, Bravo, Fiat has a long history in the United States. In 1908, the Fiat Automobile Co. was established in the country and a plant in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. began producing Fiats a year later, like the Fiat 60 HP and the Fiat 16-20 HP. These luxury cars were produced long before Chrysler Corp. was formed in 1925 from older manufacturers that were acquired by Walter P. Chrysler, the New Jersey factory was closed when the U. S. entered World War I in 1917. Fiat returned to North America in the 1950s, selling the original 500, Fiat 600 Multipla, Fiat 1100, Fiat 1200, for example the Fiat 124 Sport Spider and the Fiat X1/9
40.
Alfa Romeo
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Alfa Romeo Automobiles S. p. A. is an Italian car manufacturer, founded as A. L. F. A. on 24 June 1910, in Milan. The brand is known for sporty vehicles and has involved in car racing since 1911. The company was owned by Italian state holding company Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale between 1932 and 1986, when it became a part of the Fiat group, in February 2007, the Alfa Romeo brand became Alfa Romeo Automobiles S. p. A. A subsidiary of Fiat Group Automobiles, now Fiat Chrysler Automobiles Italy, the company that became Alfa Romeo was founded as Società Anonima Italiana Darracq in 1906 by the French automobile firm of Alexandre Darracq, with Italian investors. In late 1909, the Italian Darracq cars were selling slowly, on 24 June 1910, a new company was founded named A. L. F. A. Initially still in partnership with Darracq, the first non-Darracq car produced by the company was the 191024 HP, designed by Merosi. Ventured into motor racing, with drivers Franchini and Ronzoni competing in the 1911 Targa Florio with two 24-hp models. In August 1915, the company came under the direction of Neapolitan entrepreneur Nicola Romeo, in 1920, the name of the company was changed to Alfa Romeo with the Torpedo 20-30 HP the first car to be so badged. In 1921, the Banca Italiana di Sconto, which backed the Ing, Nicola Romeo & Co, went broke and the government needed to support the industrial companies involved, among which was Alfa Romeo, through the Consorzio per Sovvenzioni sui Valori Industriali. In 1925, the activities were separated from the Romeo company. In 1933, the ownership was reorganized under the banner of the Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale by Benito Mussolinis government. The company struggled to return to profitability after the Second World War, in 1954, it developed the Alfa Romeo Twin Cam engine, which would remain in production until 1994. Alfa Romeo has competed successfully in Grand Prix motor racing, Formula One, sportscar racing, touring car racing and it has competed both as a constructor and an engine supplier, via works entries, and private entries. The first racing car was made in 1913, three years after the foundation of the company, and Alfa Romeo won the world championship for Grand Prix cars in 1925. The company gained a name in motorsport, which gave a sporty image to the whole marque. Enzo Ferrari founded the Scuderia Ferrari racing team in 1929 as an Alfa Romeo racing team and it holds the worlds title of the most wins of any marque in the world. The companys name is a combination of the name, A. L. F. A. and the last name of entrepreneur Nicola Romeo. The company that became Alfa Romeo was founded as Società Anonima Italiana Darracq in 1906 by the French automobile firm of Alexandre Darracq, One of them, Cavaliere Ugo Stella, an aristocrat from Milan, became chairman of the SAID in 1909
41.
Austin-Healey
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Leonard Lord represented BMC and Donald Healey his firm. BMC merged with Jaguar Cars in 1966 to form British Motor Holdings, Donald Healey left BMH in 1968 when it merged into British Leyland. Healey then joined Jensen Motors, which had been making bodies for the big Healeys since their inception in 1952, Healey models raced in club racing in D, E, and F production classes, winning National Championships in both D and E Production. The last Big Healey to win an SCCA National Championship was the class E Production Austin-Healey 100-6 driven by Alan Barker at the Daytona ARRC in 1965, in 1953, a special streamlined Austin-Healey set several land speed records at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, USA. The name Austin is now owned by Nanjing, which bought the assets of MG Rover Group out of bankruptcy in 2005. In June 2007, Nanjing and Healey Automobile Consultants / HFI Automotive signed an agreement that aims to recreate the Austin Healey and Healey marques alongside NACs MG. No timeline has been given as to when the Healey and Austin-Healey brands will return, although MG will be back on the market in China, in Mad Men S7/E1, Time Zones, Megan picks up Don at LAX in a green,1969 Austin-Healey convertible. In The Invisible Man the Invisible Man Dr. Peter Brady, Donald Healey Motor Company for the models made by the independent Healey company. Nash-Healey for a Nash-engined pre-Austin sports car by Donald Healey, jensen-Healey for a later Donald Healey designed sports car. List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom
2000 km of Daytona
Targa Florio
500 km of Spa
1000km Nürburgring
24 Hours of Le Mans
RAC Gallaghers Tourist Trophy
Grosser Bergerpreis Sierre Crans-Montana
