1.
Turkish language
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Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
2.
Kenan Evren
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Ahmet Kenan Evren was a Turkish military officer who was the seventh President of Turkey from 1980 to 1989. He assumed the post by leading the 1980 military coup and this sentence was on appeal at the time of his death. Evren died at a hospital in Ankara on 9 May 2015. Kenan Evren was born in Alaşehir, Manisa Province, after going to elementary school and middle school in Manisa, Balıkesir and Istanbul, he attended military high school in Maltepe, Ankara. In 1938, he graduated from school and in 1949 from military academy as a staff officer. From 1958 to 1959, he served in the Turkish Brigade in Korea, in 1964, he was promoted to general. Evren served at various posts as Army Chief and he was the commander of Operation Gladios Turkish branch, the Counter-Guerrilla. The Counter-Guerrilla was an anti-communist stay-behind guerrilla force set up with the support of NATO and he became Chief of General Staff in March 1978. The years leading to the coup were characterized as a struggle between the rightists and leftists. Hoping to see a communist revolution, the left wingers rioted in the streets, on the other hand, universities had taken sides and each became headquarters for either the leftists or rightists. With the coup came the National Security Council as the ruling body, the council of 1980 was composed of the commanders Kenan Evren, the Chief of Staff and President of the State. The Central Intelligence Agencys Ankara bureau chief at the time, Paul B, henze, received a call from the White House Situation Room saying Paul, your guys have done it, while President Jimmy Carter was watching Fiddler on the Roof at the Kennedy Center. Evren suspended many forms of civil liberties and human rights on the grounds that it was necessary to establish stability, during his military regime, many people were tortured and executed due to their political beliefs. Evren took strong measures to ensure that the division between the left and right would not turn into violence again, the new constitution limited the rights. Responding to a question regarding the execution of 17-year-old Erdal Eren. After his retirement, he moved to the Turkish Mediterranean resort town of Armutalan, Marmaris, on 2 August 2006, a reported plan for assassinating Evren was thwarted when two men were apprehended and arrested in Muğla. Since the timing of the adhan was 4–5 minutes after Istanbul, a point slightly more to the west by that margin was sought. In 2004, he revealed that his daughter, Şenay Gürvit and his daughter presided over the reprisal operations against the militant Armenian organization ASALA
3.
History of the Republic of Turkey
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The Republic of Turkey was created after the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new Republican Parliament in 1922. This new regime delivered the coup de grâce to the Ottoman state which had been wiped away from the world stage following the First World War. The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on October 29,1923, the government was formed from the Ankara-based revolutionary group, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues. The second constitution was ratified by the Grand National Assembly on April 20,1924, chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms, November 1,1922, Abolition of the office of the Ottoman Sultan. October 29,1923, Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey, march 3,1924, Abolition of the office of Caliphate held by the Ottoman Caliphate. November 25,1925, Change of headgear and dress, November 30,1925, Closure of religious convents and dervish lodges. March 1,1926, Introduction of the new penal law, October 4,1926, Introduction of the new civil code. November 1,1928, Adoption of the new Turkish alphabet, June 21,1934, Introduction of the law on family names. November 26,1934, Abolition of titles and by-names, december 5,1934, Full political rights, to vote and be elected, to women. February 5,1937, The inclusion of the principle of laïcité in the constitution, the first party to be established in the newly formed republic was the Womens Party. It was founded by Nezihe Muhiddin and several women but was stopped from its activities. The actual passage to multi-party period was first attempted with the Liberal Republican Party by Ali Fethi Okyar, the Liberal Republican Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt for a multi-party democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations in July 1932, atatürks successor after his death on November 10,1938 was İsmet İnönü. After failing in 1939 to get an alliance against Germany with Britain. Ambassadors from the Axis powers and Allies intermingled in Ankara, İnönü signed a non-aggression treaty with Nazi Germany on June 18,1941,4 days before the Axis powers invaded the Soviet Union. Nationalist magazines Bozrukat and Chinar Altu called for the declaration of war against the Soviet Union, in July 1942, Bozrukat published a map of Greater Turkey, which included Soviet controlled Caucasus and central Asian republics. In August 1942, during talks with the German ambassador, Turkish prime minister Şükrü Saracoğlu stated, in the summer of 1942, Turkish high command considered war with the Soviet Union almost unavoidable. An operation was planned, with Baku being the initial target, Turkey traded with both sides and purchased arms from both sides
4.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
5.
Nationalism
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Nationalism is a complex, multidimensional concept involving a shared communal identification with ones nation. It is contrasted by Anti-nationalism as a political ideology oriented towards gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, Nationalism therefore holds that a nation should govern itself, free from unwanted outside interference, and is linked to the concept of self-determination. Nationalism therefore seeks to preserve the nations culture and it often also involves a sense of pride in the nations achievements, and is closely linked to the concept of patriotism. In these terms, nationalism can be considered positive or negative, from a political or sociological outlook, there are three main paradigms for understanding the origins and basis of nationalism. The first, known as Primordialism or Perennialism, sees nationalism as a natural phenomenon and it holds that although the concept nationhood may be recent, nations have always existed. The third, and most dominant paradigm is Modernism, which sees nationalism as a recent phenomenon that needs the structural conditions of society in order to exist. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however and this anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. Nationalism means devotion for the nation and it is a sentiment that binds the people together. National symbols and flags, national anthems, national languages, national myths, Nationalism is a newer word, in English the term dates from 1844, although the concept is older. It became important in the 19th century, the term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that The twentieth century, a time of disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism. Nationalism is the term used to characterize the modern sense of national political autonomy. For example, German nationalism emerged as a reaction against Napoleonic control of Germany as the Confederation of the Rhine around 1805–14, linda Colley in Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 explores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century, National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one, Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song Rule, Britannia. in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American, the Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term in 1772 in his Essay on the Origins of Language. Stressing the role of a common language, the political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history, napoleons conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–06 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity
6.
Far-right politics
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Far-right politics are right-wing politics further on the right of the left-right spectrum than the standard political right. Far-right politics often involve a focus on tradition, real or imagined, as opposed to policies, right-wing populism, a political ideology often combines laissez-faire, nationalism, ethnocentrism and anti-elitism is often described as far-right. Right-wing populism often involves appeals to common man and opposition to immigration, far-right politics include but are not limited to aspects of authoritarianism, anti-communism, and nativism. Claims that superior people should proportionally have greater rights than people are sometimes associated with the far right. The far right has historically favoured an elitist society based on its belief in the legitimacy of the rule of a supposed superior minority over the inferior masses. However, right-wing populist ideologies which are described by commentators as far-right often use appeals to the common man as opposed to the appeals of the elites. Far-right politics sometimes involves anti-immigration and anti-integration stances towards groups that are deemed inferior, hence, far right politics is associated with Othering. According to Christina Liang, this field is especially peculiar about its terminology. Each label carries with it a specific understanding of family of political parties as well as a particular set of assumptions regarding their origins. In an extensive survey of the literature, academic Cas Mudde found 26 definitions of right-wing extremism that contained 57 different ideological features, there is also debate about how appropriate the labels fascist or neo-Fascist are. Mudde lists nativism, authoritarianism, and populism as core elements of populist radical right political parties, in the United States, the term hard right and Alt-right have been used to describe groups such as the Tea Party movement and the Patriot movement. The term has also used to describe ideologies such as Paleoconservatism, Dominion Theology. The German political scientist Klaus von Beyme describes three phases in the development of far-right parties in Western Europe after World War II. From 1945 to the mid-1950s, far-right parties were marginalised, and their ideologies were discredited due to the recent existence and defeat of Nazism. Thus in the immediately following World War II, the main objective of far-right parties was survival. From the mid-1950s to the 1970s, the so-called populist protest phase emerged with sporadic electoral success, the most common demand-side theories are the social breakdown thesis, the relative deprivation thesis, the modernisation losers thesis and the ethnic competition thesis. The rise of political parties has also been viewed as a rejection of post-materialist values on the part of some voters. This theory which is known as the reverse post-material thesis blames both left-wing and progressive parties for embracing a post-material agenda that alienates traditional working class voters, another study argues that individuals who join far-right parties determine whether those parties develop into major political players or whether they remain marginalized
7.
Turkish military
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The Turkish Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of Turkey. They consist of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, in wartime, they are subordinate to the Army and Navy. The President of Turkey is the overall head. The current Chief of the General staff is General Hulusi Akar, the Chief of the General Staff is the Commander of the Armed Forces. In wartime, he acts as the Commander in Chief on behalf of the President of Turkey, furthermore, the General Staff coordinates the military relations of the TAF with NATO member states and other friendly nations. The modern history of the army began with its formation after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish military perceived itself as the guardian of Kemalist ideology, the official state ideology, especially of the secular aspects of Kemalism. After becoming a member of NATO on 18 February 1952, Turkey initiated a comprehensive program for its armed forces. The Turkish Army sent troops to fight in Korea, where they played pivotal roles at some points, towards the end of the 1980s, a second restructuring process was initiated. The Turkish Armed Forces participate in European Union battlegroups under the control of the European Council, the TAF also contributes operational staff to the Eurocorps multinational army corps initiative of the EU and NATO. The Turkish Armed Forces collectively rank as the second largest standing military force in NATO, Armed Forces, with an estimated strength in 2015 of 639,551 military, civilian and paramilitary personnel. Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy. After the end of World War I, many Ottoman military personnel escaped from Rumelia to Anatolia in order to part in the national movement. Turkey won the War of Independence in 1922, Turkey remained neutral until the final stages of World War II. In the initial stage of World War II, Turkey signed a treaty of assistance with Great Britain. But after the fall of France, the Turkish government tried to maintain a distance with both the Allies and the Axis. After the German-Soviet War broke out, the Turkish government sent a delegation of observers under Lieutenant General Ali Fuat Erden to the German Eastern Front. Turkey participated in the Korean War as a state of the United Nations and sent the Turkish Brigade to South Korea. On 18 February 1952, Turkey became a member of NATO, the Korean government donated a war memorial for the Turkish soldiers who fought and died in Korea
8.
Turkish Armed Forces
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The Turkish Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of Turkey. They consist of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, in wartime, they are subordinate to the Army and Navy. The President of Turkey is the overall head. The current Chief of the General staff is General Hulusi Akar, the Chief of the General Staff is the Commander of the Armed Forces. In wartime, he acts as the Commander in Chief on behalf of the President of Turkey, furthermore, the General Staff coordinates the military relations of the TAF with NATO member states and other friendly nations. The modern history of the army began with its formation after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish military perceived itself as the guardian of Kemalist ideology, the official state ideology, especially of the secular aspects of Kemalism. After becoming a member of NATO on 18 February 1952, Turkey initiated a comprehensive program for its armed forces. The Turkish Army sent troops to fight in Korea, where they played pivotal roles at some points, towards the end of the 1980s, a second restructuring process was initiated. The Turkish Armed Forces participate in European Union battlegroups under the control of the European Council, the TAF also contributes operational staff to the Eurocorps multinational army corps initiative of the EU and NATO. The Turkish Armed Forces collectively rank as the second largest standing military force in NATO, Armed Forces, with an estimated strength in 2015 of 639,551 military, civilian and paramilitary personnel. Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy. After the end of World War I, many Ottoman military personnel escaped from Rumelia to Anatolia in order to part in the national movement. Turkey won the War of Independence in 1922, Turkey remained neutral until the final stages of World War II. In the initial stage of World War II, Turkey signed a treaty of assistance with Great Britain. But after the fall of France, the Turkish government tried to maintain a distance with both the Allies and the Axis. After the German-Soviet War broke out, the Turkish government sent a delegation of observers under Lieutenant General Ali Fuat Erden to the German Eastern Front. Turkey participated in the Korean War as a state of the United Nations and sent the Turkish Brigade to South Korea. On 18 February 1952, Turkey became a member of NATO, the Korean government donated a war memorial for the Turkish soldiers who fought and died in Korea
9.
National Security Council (Turkey)
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The National Security Council comprises the Chief of Staff, select members of the Council of Ministers, and the President of the Republic. Like the national security councils of other countries, the MGK develops the national security policy, the policy is expressed in the National Security Policy Document, commonly known as The Red Book. The Red Book is sometimes called the most secret document in Turkey and it is updated once or twice a decade. The creation of the MGK was an outcome of the coup in 1960. The role of the MGK was further strengthened with the 1982 constitution, adopted by the junta in the aftermath of the 1980 military coup. From then on its recommendations would be given priority consideration by the council of ministers, furthermore, the number and weight of senior military commanders in MGK increased at the expense of its civilian members. In 1992 then chief of general staff Gen. Doğan Güreş proclaimed self-confidently that Turkey is a military state, the MGK is widely perceived as the institutionalisation of the Turkish military’s influence over politics. Paradoxically, the military has both been an important force in Turkey’s continuous Westernization but at the time also represents an obstacle for Turkey’s desire to join the EU. At the same time, the military enjoys a degree of popular legitimacy. In order to meet EUs political demands for starting membership negotiations and these reforms have mainly focused on the MGK, its duties, functioning and composition. On 23 July 2003 the Turkish Grand National Assembly passed the reform package. According to an editorial in the Financial Times the seventh reform package constitutes nothing less than a quiet revolution, firstly it is underlined that the MGK is a consultative body, now with a civilian majority. The 7th reform package made it possible to appoint a civilian Secretary General of the MGK, in addition, the MGK no longer has unlimited access to all civil institutions. The MGK no longer has a representative in the Supervision Board of Cinema, Video, before the reforms, the MGK covertly influenced public opinion through its Public Relations Command
10.
Republican People's Party (Turkey)
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The Republican Peoples Party is a Kemalist and social-democratic political party in Turkey. It is the oldest political party of the Republic of Turkey and is currently the opposition in the Grand National Assembly. The Republican Peoples Party describes itself as a modern social-democratic party, also, the party is cited as the founding party of modern Turkey. The political party was established during the Congress of Sivas in 1919 as a union of resistance groups against the invasion of Anatolia, the union represented Turkish people as a unified front during the Turkish War of Independence. On 9 September 1923, the Peoples Party officially declared itself as an organization and on October 29,1923. On 10 November 1924, the Peoples Party renamed itself to Republican Peoples Party as Turkey moved into a one-party period, during the one-party period, the CHP became the major political organisation of a one-party state. Both of which, however, were banned within a few months of their establishment by the state for veering too closely to Islamism and this experience was followed by the founding of the National Development Party by Nuri Demirağ in 1945. The current structure of the party was established within the transition to the multi-party period, after World War II, the leader of the CHP İsmet İnönü introduced democratic elections to Turkish society. Due to widespread dissatisfaction with the CHP in the four years after its victory in the first multi-party general election, celâl Bayar then replaced İnönü as President. During the interim multi-party periods in between the military coups of 1960,1971, and 1980, CHP is regarded as being social-democratic, state nationalistic and secular/laicist. The partys logo consists of the Six Arrows, which represent the principles of Kemalism, republicanism, nationalism, statism, populism, laïcité. The CHP, along all other political parties of the time, was closed down for a brief period by the military coup of 1980. An inheritor party which still participates in Turkish democratic life was established in 1984 by the name of the Democratic Left Party, created by the leader of CHP. CHP was finally re-established with its name on 9 September 1992. Nevertheless, the relationship between CHP and some trade unions, business chambers and most non-governmental organisations alienated many voters. The distance between the party administration and many leftist grassroots, especially left oriented Kurdish voters, contributed to the shift away from the political left. CHP urged the Socialist International to accept Republican Turkish Party of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus as an observer member, at the 2007 general election CHP ran in alliance with Democratic Left Party. CHP suffered a defeat, getting 7,300,234 votes
11.
Necmettin Erbakan
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Necmettin Erbakan was a Turkish politician, engineer, and academic who was the Prime Minister of Turkey from 1996 to 1997. Erbakans political views conflicted with the principle of secularism in Turkey. Erbakan was born in Sinop, at the coast of Black Sea in northern Turkey and his father was Mehmet Sabri, a judge from the prestigious Kozanoğlu family of Cilicia and his mother Kamer was a native of Sinop and the second wife of Mehmet Sabri. After returning to Turkey, Erbakan became lecturer at the İTÜ and was appointed professor in 1965 at the same university, after working some time in leading positions in the industry, he switched over to politics, and was elected deputy of Konya in 1969. He was a member of the Community of İskenderpaşa, a Turkish sufistic community of the Naqshbandi tariqah, Erbakans ideology is set forth in a manifesto, entitled Millî Görüş, which he published in 1969. The organisation of the name, which he founded and of which he was the leader. One of the names in Turkish politics for decades, Erbakan was the leader of a series of Islamic political parties that he founded or inspired. These parties rose to only to be banned by Turkeys secular authorities. In the wake of the 1980 military coup, Erbakan and his party were banned from politics and he reemerged following a referendum to lift the ban in 1987 and became the leader of Refah Partisi. His party benefited in the 1990s from the acrimony between the leaders of Turkeys two most prominent conservative parties, Mesut Yılmaz and Tansu Çiller and he led his party to a surprise success in the general elections of 1995. He became Prime Minister in 1996 in coalition with Çillers Doğru Yol Partisi, as prime minister, he attempted to further Turkeys relations with the Arab nations. Erbakans image was damaged by his famous speech making fun of the demonstrations against the Susurluk scandal. He was widely blamed at the time for his indifference, the Turkish military gradually increased the urgency and frequency of its public warnings to Erbakans government, eventually prompting Erbakan to step down in 1997. At the time there was a deal between Erbakan and Tansu Çiller, the leaders of the coalition, for a period based premiership. According to this, Erbakan was to act as the minister for a certain period. He had argued that a democratic country should not shut down a political party for its beliefs. e. One million in todays currency following the ban of the party in 1997, Erbakan died on 27 February 2011 at 11,40 local time of heart failure at Güven Hospital in Çankaya, Ankara. He did not wish a state funeral, however his funeral was attended by highest state, according to The Economist, at his death Erbakan was acknowledged as a moderating force on Turkeys Islamists, and made Turkey as a possible model for the Arab world as well
12.
Nationalist Movement Party
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The Nationalist Movement Party is a Turkish far-right political party that adheres to Turkish ultranationalism and Euroscepticism. The party was first formed in 1969 by former colonel Alparslan Türkeş, the partys youth wing is the Grey Wolves organization, which is also known as the Nationalist Hearths. Türkeş, who is revered by Turkish nationalists as the founder of the idealist movement, is commonly referred to as Chieftain by his supporters. After Türkeşs death and the election of Devlet Bahçeli as his successor, the party under Bahçelis leadership won 18% of the vote and 129 seats in the 1999 general election, its best ever result, coming second only to the Democratic Left Party. Since the 2007 general election, in which the MHP won back its parliamentary representation with 14, in the 2011 general election, the partys vote fell to 13% and won 53 seats, though increased to 16. 3% and 80 seats in the June 2015 general election. During an Extraordinary Great Congress held at Adana in Turkey on 8–9 February 1969, the leader of the partys youth wing, known as the Grey Wolves after Turkic mythology, claimed that they had an intelligence organization that was superior to the states own. On May 27,1980, the deputy leader and former government minister Gün Sazak was assassinated by members of the Marxist–Leninist terrorist group Revolutionary Left in front of his home. Many party members joined the neoliberal Anavatan Partisi or various Islamist parties, Party member noted that the partys ideology was in power while its members were in prison. The party later was reformed in 1983 under the name Conservative Party, after 1985, however, the name was changed to the Nationalist Task Party then back again to its former name in 1992. In 1993, Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu and five other deputies separated and founded the Great Union Party, the MHP used to be described as a neo-fascist party linked to extremist and violent militias. Notably, it has moved from strict, Kemalist-style secularism to a more pro-Islamic stance, some scholars doubt the sincerity and credibility of this turn and suspect the party of still pursuing a fascist agenda behind a more moderate and pro-democratic façade. Showing this as a MHP-HDP coalition is a deliberate diversion, in July 2015, inmidst a wave of protests against the Xinjiang conflict, MHP-affiliated Ülkücü attacked South Korean tourists on Istanbuls Sultanahmet Square. In an interview to Turkish columnist Ahmet Hakan, MHP leader Devlet Bahçeli played the attacks down, plus, how are you going to differentiate between Korean and Chinese. The party is headed by Devlet Bahçeli and has 40 deputies, the party has recently been putting a distance between itself and its history of ultranationalism, at occasion asking its members to keep away from ethnic politics. There is an opposition against Devlet Bahçeli led by Meral Akşener, Koray Aydın, Ümit Özdağ, the opposition tries to make a congress and elect a new leader for the party. However Recep Tayyip Erdoğan tries to prevent the congress due to the possibility of his defeat in the elections if MHP joins the elections led by a new leader. The Programme of the Nationalist Action Party, An Iron Hand in a Velvet Glove, Turkish extreme right in office, whither democracy and democratization. Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe, From Local to Transnational, globalization and Nationalism, The Nationalist Action Party of Turkey
13.
Turkish general election, 1977
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General elections were held in Turkey on 5 June 1977. Elections took place in the middle of a race between the right wing party AP and the left wing party CHP. With the charismatic leadership of Bülent Ecevit, CHP managed to beat one of the figures of the conservative politics of Turkey. Finally, CHP couldnt gain a vote of confidence and they would have to wait until 1978 to gain support from some independents and small parties to become the head of the government. CHP couldnt keep power for long and soon government control passed on to AP even as the rumblings of the coup were beginning to be felt
14.
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
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The Grand National Assembly of Turkey, usually referred to simply as the TBMM or Parliament, is the unicameral Turkish legislature. It is the body given the legislative prerogatives by the Turkish Constitution. It was founded in Ankara on 23 April 1920 in the midst of the Turkish War of Independence. The parliament was fundamental in the efforts of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkey has had a history of parliamentary government before the establishment of the current national parliament. There were two parliamentary governments during the Ottoman period in what is now Turkey, the First Constitutional Era lasted for only two years, elections being held only twice. The Second Constitutional Era is considered to have begun on 23 July 1908, freedom to hold meetings and establish political parties was recognized, and the government was held responsible to the assembly, not to the sultan. During the two eras of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman parliament was called the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire and was bicameral. The upper house was the Senate of the Ottoman Empire, the members of which were selected by the sultan, the lower chamber of the General Assembly was the Chamber of Deputies of the Ottoman Empire, the members of which were elected by the general public. After World War I, the victorious Allied Powers sought the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire through the Treaty of Sèvres, the political existence of the Turkish nation was to be completely eliminated under these plans, except for a small region. Nationalist Turkish sentiment rose in the Anatolian peninsula, engendering the establishment of the Turkish national movement, the political developments during this period have made a lasting impact which continues to affect the character of the Turkish nation. The Sultanate was abolished by the newly founded parliament in 1922 and he also stated that the members of the dispersed Ottoman Chamber of Deputies could also participate in the assembly in Ankara, to increase the representative power of the parliament. These elections were held as planned, in the style of the elections of the preceding Chamber of Deputies and this Grand National Assembly, established on national sovereignty, held its inaugural session on 23 April 1920. From this date until the end of the Turkish War of Independence in 1923, the Liberal Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt at a multiparty democracy was made until 1945. The multi-party period in Turkey was resumed by the founding of the National Development Party, by Nuri Demirağ, under the constitution of 1961, the Grand National Assembly was a bicameral parliament with over 600 members, the newly established upper house being the Senate of the Republic. Following the 1980 military coup, the Senate was dissolved and the Turkish parliament again became unicameral under the current constitution approved in a referendum in 1982. To avoid a hung parliament and its political fragmentation, a party must win at least 10% of the national vote to qualify for representation in the parliament. As a result of this threshold, only two won seats in the legislature after the 2002 elections and three in 2007. The 2002 elections saw every party represented in the previous parliament ejected from the chamber and this rather high threshold has been internationally criticised, but a complaint with the European Court for Human Rights was turned down
15.
Proportional representation
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Proportional representation characterizes electoral systems by which divisions in an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. If n% of the support an particular political party, then roughly n% of seats will be won by that party. The essence of such systems is that all votes contribute to the result, not just a plurality, or a bare majority, Proportional representation requires the use of multiple-member voting districts, it is not possible using single-member districts alone. In fact, the most proportional representation is achieved when just one super-district is used, the two most widely used families of PR voting systems are party list PR and single transferable vote. Mixed member proportional representation, also known as the Additional Member System, is a hybrid Mixed Electoral System that uses party list PR as its proportional component, with party list PR, political parties define candidate lists and voters vote for a list. The relative vote for each list determines how many candidates from each list are actually elected, lists can be closed or open, open lists allow voters to indicate individual candidate preferences and vote for independent candidates. Voting districts can be small or as large as a province or an entire nation, the single transferable vote uses small districts, with voters ranking individual candidates in order of preference. During the count, as candidates are elected or eliminated, surplus or discarded votes that would otherwise be wasted are transferred to other candidates according to the preferences, STV enables voters to vote across party lines and to elect independent candidates. Voters have two votes, one for their district and one for the party list, the party list vote determining the balance of the parties in the elected body. Biproportional apportionment, first used in Zurich in 2006, is a method for adjusting an elections result to achieve overall proportionality. Some form of representation is used for national lower house elections in 94 countries, party list PR. As with all systems, there are overlapping and contentious claims in terms of its advantages and disadvantages. But does it follow that the minority should have no representatives at all, is it necessary that the minority should not even be heard. Nothing but habit and old association can reconcile any reasonable being to the needless injustice, in a really equal democracy, every or any section would be represented, not disproportionately, but proportionately. A majority of the electors would always have a majority of the representatives, man for man, they would be as fully represented as the majority. Unless they are, there is not equal government, many academic political theorists agree with Mill, that in a representative democracy the representatives should represent all segments of society. The established parties in UK elections can win formal control of the parliament with as little as 35% of votes, in Canada, majority governments are regularly formed by parties with the support of under 40% of votes cast. Coupled with turnout levels in the electorate of less than 60%, in the 2005 general election, for example, the Labour Party under Tony Blair won a comfortable parliamentary majority with the votes of only 21. 6% of the total electorate
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Bourgeoisie
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A legally defined class of the Middle Ages to the end of the Ancien Régime in France, that of inhabitants having the rights of citizenship and political rights in a city. This bourgeoisie destroyed aristocratic privilege and established civic equality after the French monarchy collapsed, the aristocracy crumbled because it refused to reform institutions and financial systems. An affluent and often opulent stratum of the class who stand opposite the proletariat class. In English, bourgeoisie identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, hence, since the 19th century, the term bourgeoisie usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society. The 18th century saw a partial rehabilitation of bourgeois values in such as the drame bourgeois and bourgeois tragedy. The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and this urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self-organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen conflicted with their feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. In English, the bourgeoisie is often used to denote the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French-speaking countries consists of four evolving social layers, petite bourgeoisie, moyenne bourgeoisie, grande bourgeoisie, the petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, the petite bourgeois would belong to the British lower middle class and would be American middle income. They are distinguished mainly by their mentality, and would differentiate themselves from the proletariat or working class and this class would include artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to afford employees themselves, the moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie contains people who have solid incomes and assets, but not the aura of those who have become established at a higher level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations, some members of this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie is the equivalent of the British and American upper-middle classes, the grande bourgeoisie are families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, or for at least four or five generations. Members of these tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an established historical and cultural heritage over the decades, the names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the regions history. These families are respected and revered and they belong to the upper class, and in the British class system are considered part of the gentry
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Grey Wolves (organization)
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The Grey Wolves, officially known as Ülkü Ocakları, is a Turkish nationalist organization. It is variously described as ultra-nationalist or neo-fascist, a youth organization with close links to the Nationalist Movement Party, it has been described as MHPs paramilitary or militant wing. Its members deny its political nature and claim it to be a cultural and education foundation, scholars have described it as a death squad, responsible for most of the violence and killings in this period. Their most notorious attack, which killed over 100 Alevis, took place in Maraş in December 1978 and they are also alleged to have been behind the Taksim Square massacre on May Day,1977. The masterminds behind the Pope John Paul II assassination attempt in 1981 by Grey Wolves member Mehmet Ali Ağca were not identified, due to these attacks, the Grey Wolves have been described by scholars and journalists as a terrorist organization. A staunchly Pan-Turkist organization, in the early 1990s the Grey Wolves extended their area of operation into the states with Turkic. Up to thousands of its members fought in the Nagorno-Karabakh War on the Azerbaijani side, after an unsuccessful attempt to seize power in Azerbaijan in 1995, they were banned in that country. In 2005, Kazakhstan also banned the organization, classifying it as terrorist, under Devlet Bahçeli, who assumed the leadership of MHP and Grey Wolves after Türkeşs death in 1997, the organization has been reformed. The organization has also active in the Turkish-controlled portion of Cyprus. It has affiliated branches in several Western European countries with significant Turkish populations, such as Belgium, the Netherlands, in Germany, they are the largest far-right organization with at least 10,000 members and are monitored by the authorities as an extremist organization. According to a 2014 estimate, the Grey Wolves are supported by 3. 6% of the Turkish electorate, the organizations members are known as Ülkücüler, literally meaning idealists. Its informal name is inspired by the ancient legend of Asena, a she-wolf in the Ergenekon, in Turkey, the wolf also symbolizes honor. The Grey Wolves have an emphasis on leadership and hierarchical. The Grey Wolves and MHP supporters are known for their hand sign and it is made by holding up the forefinger and little finger. However, according to commentator Mehmet Ali Birand, the sign is not exclusively used by Grey Wolves members, the Grey Wolves also use what scholar Ahmet İnsel describes as fascist slogans imported from America, such as Love it or leave it and Communists to Moscow. The Grey Wolves adhere to a form of Turkish nationalism. It has been characterized as neo-fascist by scholars, mainstream media, R. W. Apple Jr. writing in the New York Times in 1981, described MHP and its satellite groups as a xenophobic, fanatically nationalist, neofascist network steeped in violence. The organizations ideology emphasizes the history of the Turkic states in Central Asia
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National Intelligence Organization (Turkey)
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The National Intelligence Organization is the governmental intelligence organization of Turkey. It was established in 1965 to replace the National Security Service, according to the former director of Foreign Operations, Yavuz Ataç, the military presence in the organization is negligible. This is a recent development, as the organization has a military heritage, in 1990, the fraction of military personnel was 35%. In order to ensure reliability, the organization has recruited from relatives of existing employees. The former undersecretary, Emre Taner, says that this is no longer the case and he is credited with reducing the turf war between the MİT and the police intelligence, as well as infighting inside the MİT itself. Taner announced a restructuring of the MİT at the start of 2009, the MİT co-operates with American and Russian intelligence agencies. The MİT is in charge of activities in Turkey. The MİT cannot be any other duty and cannot be led to any other field of activity than collecting intelligence concerning the security of the Republic. The MİT engages in a proactive cyber defence program for Turkey, the Turkish Ministry of National Defence considers cybersecurity as the countrys fifth frontier after land, air, sea and space. The MİT uses local cybersecurity solutions mostly developed by companies Havelsan, providing secrecy in the conduct of the duty and activities the MİT is responsible for is indisputably of utmost importance. The Organisations legal basis and structure can be found in Law No,2937, the Law on the State Intelligence Services and the Turkish National Intelligence Organisation, as well as several other laws. Before November 2016, when two main departments were added, had four main departments. 2937, high crimes levied against a MİT agent that fall within the jurisdiction of the Heavy Penal Courts must be approved by the Prime Minister or several other relevant officials, testimony in court may only be made with and by the permission of the Undersecretary of the MİT. According to Article 29 of Law No,2937, MİT agents must not give their testimony if it pertains to state secrets without further permission from the MİT Undersecretary. The Organization owns a non-public Museum of Espionage consisting of a variety of spy equipment, almanac Turkey 2005, Security Sector and Democratic Oversight. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, frequently Asked Questions about the MİT Official Web Site about the MİT
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Martial law
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It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency
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Kemalism
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Kemalism, also known as Atatürkism, or the Six Arrows, is the founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey. In the early 20th century, Young Turks abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early Turkish nationalism, Kemalism is a modernization philosophy which guided the transition between multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the secular, unitary Republic of Turkey. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the process in the Turkish Reformation. Atatürk is the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as state ideology even after his death, there are six fundamental pillars of the ideology, Republicanism, Populism, Nationalism, Secularism, Statism, and Reformism. The principles came to be recognized as unchangeable and sacrosanct, the head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a tenet of national life. Kemalism advocates a system as the best representative of the wishes of the people. The Kemalist President does not have executive powers, but has limited veto powers. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the Prime Minister, the Kemalist republic is a unitary state in which three organs of state govern the nation as a single unit, with one constitutionally created legislature. On some issues, the power of government is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors. Populism is defined as a revolution aimed to transfer the political power to citizenship. Kemalist populism differs from the Western understanding of the term populism, in Western European culture the construct Populism is a political doctrine where one sides with the people against the elites. In the Ottoman Society the people side to autocracy, theocracy, Kemalism moved the orientation of political power towards the best interest of the general public. Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, in Kemalist populism, in the ideal society, individuals would be able to read religious texts by themselves or have them freely translated. The literacy drive and translation of the Quran to Turkish, for instance, Atatürk stated on a number of occasions that the legitimate rulers of Turkey were common citizens, such as villagers and workers. Kemalist social content does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation, denies the types of national unity based on racial, religious, totalitarian and fascist ideologies. It strongly opposes any kind of authority, oppression, colonialism, imperialism, sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc. Sovereignty belongs to the people/nation unrestrictedly and unconditionally, Kemalist social content was brought against the political domination of sheikhs, tribal leaders, and Islamism of the Ottoman Empire
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International Monetary Fund
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The International Monetary Fund is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D. C. It now plays a role in the management of balance of payments difficulties. Countries contribute funds to a pool through a system from which countries experiencing balance of payments problems can borrow money. As of 2016, the fund had SDR477 billion, the rationale for this is that private international capital markets function imperfectly and many countries have limited access to financial markets. The IMF provides alternate sources of financing and this assistance was meant to prevent the spread of international economic crises. The IMF was also intended to help mend the pieces of the economy after the Great Depression. As well, to provide investments for economic growth and projects such as infrastructure. The IMFs role was altered by the floating exchange rates post-1971. It shifted to examining the economic policies of countries with IMF loan agreements to determine if a shortage of capital was due to economic fluctuations or economic policy, the IMF also researched what types of government policy would ensure economic recovery. Rather than maintaining a position of oversight of only exchange rates and their role became a lot more active because the IMF now manages economic policy rather than just exchange rates. In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy of conditionality, nonconcessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements, the Flexible Credit Line, the Precautionary and Liquidity Line, and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the Rapid Financing Instrument to members facing urgent balance-of-payments needs, the IMF is mandated to oversee the international monetary and financial system and monitor the economic and financial policies of its member countries. This activity is known as surveillance and facilitates international cooperation, the responsibilities changed from those of guardian to those of overseer of members’ policies. In 1995 the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively, the system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals, some countries initially used the GDDS, but later upgraded to SDDS. The IMF does require collateral from countries for loans but also requires the government seeking assistance to correct its macroeconomic imbalances in the form of policy reform, if the conditions are not met, the funds are withheld. The concept of conditionality was introduced in a 1952 Executive Board decision, conditionality is associated with economic theory as well as an enforcement mechanism for repayment
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Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey
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The Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, CBRT is the central bank of Turkey and is founded as a joint stock company on 11 June 1930. Shares of the CBRT are divided into four classes, Class A shares belong solely to the Turkish Treasury. Class B and Class C shares are allocated to national banks operating in Turkey, banks other than national banks, finally, Class D shares are allocated to Turkish commercial institutions and to real and legal persons of Turkish nationality. The CBRT determines, at its own discretion, the policy to pursue. This implies that the CBRT enjoys instrument independence, in order to attain its objective of price stability, the CBRT has implemented a full-fledged inflation targeting regime since 2006. The preparations to establish a bank of Turkey began in 1926. The Bank had, originally, a privilege of issuing banknotes for a period of 30 years, in 1955, this privilege was extended until 1999. Finally it was prolonged indefinitely in 1994, in this organizational structure that prevailed until the second half of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire minted gold coins on behalf of the Sultan. The Ottoman Empire put cash banknotes into circulation in 1840, as a result, the “Ottoman Bank ”, headquartered in London, was established with English capital in 1856. The fundamental powers of the Bank were limited to lending in small amounts, making payments to the Government. In 1863, the Ottoman Bank was dissolved and restructured as an English-French partnership under the name “Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane ”, the Imperial Ottoman Bank was granted the sole privilege of issuing banknotes for a period of thirty years. The capital of the Imperial Ottoman Bank retained by other nations triggered reactions in time, efforts towards establishing a central bank with domestic capital culminated in the establishment of the “Ottoman National Credit Bank ” on 11 March 1917. However, the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War prevented the bank from becoming a national bank and this issue was first addressed in the 1923 Izmir Economic Congress with a special emphasis on founding a “national state bank”. In 1927, the Minister of Finance Abdülhalik Renda submitted a bill on the establishment of a central bank. Following the enactment of the law, Turkey exchanged views with the banks of other countries’ in establishing the Turkish Central Bank. In 1928, having been invited to Turkey, Dr. G. Leon Morf from the University of Lausanne, following the centralization of duties carried out by various institutions and organizations, the Central Bank started to function on 3 October 1931. The shares of the Bank, which acquired legal status as a joint stock company, - to manifest that ‘it is not a public entity’, and that ‘it is independent’, were divided into, and classes. 1715, the objective of the Central Bank was to support the economic development of the country
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Economic globalization
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Economic globalization primarily comprises the globalization of production, finance, markets, technology, organizational regimes, institutions, corporations, and labour. And the shifting location of production has caused many jobs to cross borders. International commodity markets, labor markets, and capital markets make up the economy, beginning as early as 4000 BCE, people were trading livestock, tools, and other items. In Sumer, a civilization in Mesopotamia, a token system was one of the first forms of commodity money. Labor markets consist of workers, employers, wages, income, supply, Labor markets have been around as long as commodity markets. The first labor markets provided workers to grow crops and tend livestock for sale in local markets. Capital markets emerged in industries that require resources beyond those of an individual farmer and these advances in economic globalization were disrupted by World War I. Most of the economic powers constructed protectionist economic policies and introduced trade barriers that slowed trade growth to the point of stagnation. This caused a slowing of worldwide trade and even led to other countries introducing immigration caps, Globalization did not fully resume until the 1970s, when governments began to emphasize the benefits of trade. Today, follow-on advances in technology have led to the expansion of global trade. Three suggested factors accelerated economic globalization, advancement of science and technology, market oriented economic reforms, the GATT/WTO framework led participating countries to reduce their tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade. Governments shifted their economies from central planning to markets and these internal reforms allowed enterprises to adapt more quickly and exploit opportunities created by technology shifts. Multinational corporations reorganized production to take advantage of these opportunities, labor-intensive production migrated to areas with lower labor costs, later followed by other functions as skill levels increased. The 1956 invention of containerized shipping, increases in ship sizes were a part of the reduction in shipping costs. On 27 October 1986, the London Stock Exchange enacted newly deregulated rules that enabled global interconnection of markets and this event came to be known as the Big Bang. An intergovernmental organization or international governmental organization refers to an entity created by treaty, iGO’s strive for peace, security and deal with economic and social questions. Examples include, The United Nations, The World Bank and on a regional level The North Atlantic Treaty Organization among others, the necessary education infrastructure is often not present, requiring a redirection of the government’s focus from social services to education. Corporations have outsourced in recent years, in business, outsourcing involves the contracting out of a business process and operational, and/or non-core functions to another party
