1.
The Gambia
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The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is entirely surrounded by Senegal except for its coastline on the Atlantic Ocean at its western end. It is the smallest country in mainland Africa, the Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River, the nations namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres with a population of 1,882,450 at the April 2013 census, Banjul is the Gambian capital, and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama. Later, on 25 May 1765, The Gambia was made a part of the British Empire when the government formally assumed control, in 1965, The Gambia gained independence under the leadership of Dawda Jawara, who ruled until Yahya Jammeh seized power in a bloodless 1994 coup. Adama Barrow became The Gambias third president in January 2017, after defeating Jammeh in December 2016 elections, Jammeh initially refused to accept the results, which triggered a constitutional crisis and military intervention by the Economic Community of West African States, resulting in his exile. The Gambias economy is dominated by farming, fishing, and especially tourism, in 2008, about a third of the population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. The name Gambia is derived from the Mandinka term Kambra/Kambaa, meaning Gambia river, upon independence as a Commonwealth realm, the country used the name The Gambia. Following the proclamation of a republic in 1970, the name of the country became Republic of The Gambia. The administration of Yahya Jammeh changed the name to Islamic Republic of The Gambia in December 2015. On 29 January 2017 the new President Adama Barrow said the name will go back to Republic of The Gambia. Arab traders provided the first written accounts of the Gambia area in the ninth and tenth centuries, during the tenth century, Muslim merchants and scholars established communities in several West African commercial centres. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to an export trade in slaves, gold and ivory. At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called Gambia was part of the Mali Empire, the Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and began to dominate overseas trade. In 1588, the claimant to the Portuguese throne, António, Prior of Crato, letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I confirmed the grant. In 1618, King James I of England granted a charter to an English company for trade with the Gambia, between 1651 and 1661, some parts of the Gambia were under the rule of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, and were bought by Prince Jacob Kettler. The British Empire occupied the Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River and this was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856. As many as three million slaves may have taken from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade operated
2.
Dawda Jawara
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Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara, GCMG is a Gambian statesman who was the first leader of the Gambia, serving first as Prime Minister from 1962 to 1970 and then as President from 1970 to 1994. Born Kairaba Jawara on May 16,1924 at Barajally, MacCarthy Island Division and his parents were Mamma Fatty and Almami Jawara, Dawda was educated at the Methodist Boys’ High School in colonial Bathurst, then attended Achimota College in Ghana. He was trained as a surgeon at the Glasgow veterinary school. He completed his training at Liverpool University, from 1962 until 1970, when the country was a Commonwealth realm with Elizabeth II as head of state, Jawara was Prime Minister and head of government. A1970 referendum led to the becoming an republic. One of six sons, Dawda is the lastborn on his mother’s side and their father Almammi, who had several wives, was a well-to-do trader who commuted from Barajally Tenda to his trading post in Wally Kunda. Dawda from an early age attended the local Arabic schools to memorize the Quran, there were no primary schools in Barajally Tenda, the nearest was in Georgetown, the provincial capital, but this boarding school was reserved for the sons of the chiefs. Around 1933, young Jawara’s formal education was sponsored by a friend of his father, Dawda was enrolled at Mohammedan primary school. After graduation from Mohammedan, Jawara won a scholarship to an all-boys High School, where he enjoyed all his classes, upon matriculation in 1945, he worked as a nurse until 1947 at the Victoria Hospital in Bathurst. The limited career and educational opportunities in colonial Gambia led to a stint at Prince of Wales College and School in Achimota, Accra, in the then Gold Coast. While he was happy to have met Ghana’s founding father, Kwame Nkrumah, after attending Achimota College, Jawara won a scholarship to Scotland’s Glasgow University to study veterinary medicine. At the time, colonial education was intended to train Africans for the most menial of clerical tasks in the civil service, and it was rare for Gambians to be awarded scholarships in the sciences. It was at Glasgow University in the late 1940s, that Jawara’s interest in politics began, in 1948 he joined the African Students Association and was later elected secretary-general and president, respectively. Also, while at Glasgow, Jawara honed his political interests and skills by joining the Student Labour Party Organization, Forward Group, though never a leftist, Jawara immersed himself in the Labour Party’s socialist politics and ideology. At Glasgow Jawara met Cheddi Jagan, who later became Premier of British Guiana, Jawara classified this period in his life “as very interesting politically”. It was a moment of rising Pan-Africanist fervour and personal growth politically and he completed his studies in 1953. When Jawara returned home in 1953 after completing his studies as a veterinary surgeon, in 1955 he married Augusta Mahoney, daughter of Sir John Mahoney, a prominent Aku in Bathurst. The Aku, a small and educated group, are descendants of freed slaves who settled in the Gambia after manumission, despite their relatively small size, they came to dominate both the social, political and economic life of the colony
3.
Politics of the Gambia
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Politics of the Gambia takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of the Gambia is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government, legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The 1970 constitution of the Gambia, which divided the government into independent executive, legislative, as part of the transition process, the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council established the Constitution Review Commission through decree in March 1995. In accordance with the timetable for the transition to an elected government. The constitution provides for a system, a unicameral legislature, an independent judiciary. Before the coup détat in July 1994, the Gambia was one of the oldest existing multi-party democracies in Africa and it had conducted freely contested elections every 5 years since independence. After the military coup, politicians from deposed President Jawaras Peoples Progressive Party, the Peoples Progressive Party, headed by former president Jawara, had dominated Gambian politics for nearly 30 years. The last elections under the PPP regime were held in April 1992, following the coup, a presidential election took place in September 1996, in which retired Col. Yahya A. J. J. Jammeh won 56% of the vote, the legislative elections held in January 1997 were dominated by the Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction, which captured 33 out of 45 seats. In July 2001, the ban on Jawara-era political parties and politicians was lifted, four registered opposition parties participated in the 18 October 2001 presidential election, which the incumbent, President Yahya Jammeh, won with almost 53% of the votes. In 2005 the political scenario was changed, as five opposition parties united under the umbrella of the National Alliance for Democracy, NADD thus represented virtually all political opposition forces in the country. By-elections were held on 29 September, in which NADD retained three of the four seats, on 15 November the same year, three high-ranking NADD leaders were arrested on the grounds of subversion. On 21 and 22 March 2006, amid tensions preceding the 2006 presidential elections, President Yahya Jammeh was forced to return from a trip to Mauritania, many suspected army officials were arrested, and prominent army officials, including the army chief of staff, fled the country. The next presidential election took place on 22 September 2006, incumbent president, Yahya Jammeh, was reelected. On 31 December 2014, a coup was attempted when a military deserter along with supporters attacked the presidential palace. The coup failed and the ringleader, Lamin Sanneh was amongst those killed by forces loyal to Jammeh. Following the 1 December 2016 elections, the commission declared Adama Barrow the winner of the presidential election. On 20 January 2017, Jammeh announced that he had agreed to step down, the president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, the number of terms is not restricted
4.
Gambia Armed Forces
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The Gambian Armed Forces consists of the Gambia National Army, the National Republican Guard, and the Gambian Navy. Recruits receive training from the Turkish-Gambian Training Team, in 1901, the Gambia Company was formed as a sub-unit of the Sierra Leone Battalion, West Africa Frontier Force. It participated in the Kamerun Campaign in World War I and became a full regiment and it participated in the Burma Campaign and continued until 1958 when it was disbanded and the Gambia Frontier Force, a paramilitary unit, was formed in its place. Furthermore, in the early 20th century there existed a Gambian Volunteer Artillery unit, the Gambia also gave its name to HMS Gambia, a Royal Navy light cruiser that was in service from 1942 to 1960, including a stint with the Royal New Zealand Navy. Throughout its service, it maintained a link with the Gambia, from 1936 through World War II, there existed the Gambia Naval Volunteer Force, authorised under the Colonial Naval Defence Act 1931. During World War II, the Gambia was home to RAF Yundum, Yundum was home to No.200 Squadron RAF and Bathurst home to No.204 Squadron RAF. The Gambia Armed Forces or GAF is under the authority of the Ministry of Defence, prior to the 1994 coup, the Gambian Army received technical assistance and training from the United States, Peoples Republic of China, Nigeria, and Turkey. With the withdrawal of most of this aid, the army has received renewed assistance from Turkey, the United States, Pakistan, Republic of China, and Libya. Pakistan sent an 18-month advisory team composed of one Brigadier from the Pakistan Army, one Captain of the Pakistan Navy, members of the Gambian Armed Forces have participated in ECOMOG, the West African force deployed during the Liberian civil war beginning in 1990. Responsibilities for internal security and law enforcement rest with the Gambian Police/PIU force under the Inspector General of police, all branches are jointly governed by a Chief of Defence Staff, currently Lieutenant General Ousman Badji, with and Assistant Chief of Defence Staff, currently Major General Yankuba Drammeh. The Gambian Police Force is divided into General Duties, Community Policing, Mobile Traffic and Licensing Unit, the GPF and PIU are both part of GAF as they received rigorous military trainings both home and abroad. All Police/PIU recruits are trained at the Gambian Forces Police Academy located in Banjuling. The academy was commanded by Brigadier General Lamin Olefah in 2012, the academy has four intakes of recruits every year. In 2011 the Gambian government decided to employ foreign police officers to provide specialist training, the foreign police contingent is directed by Colonel Neil Clark, a retired British police chief inspector who acts under direct warrant of the President. Since 2011 the GPF has also received training directly from the Turkish government and it is believed this special police program is funded by the United Nations. The Gambian government has stated the purpose of these programs is to promote public confidence in the GPF. Recent media reports in the report that the police urgently require more police vehicles. The government is discussing this lack of issue with the British High Commission who have put forward a strategic plan to improve the situation. The GAF Police Academy has a specialist Detective Training School where experienced police officers are sent to learn the basic of criminal investigation, there is also a new GPF Firearms Training School where recruits learn basic weapon handling skills and experienced officers learn advanced weapon handling skills
5.
Yahya Jammeh
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Jammeh was born in Kanilai, a Muslim of the Jola ethnic group. He attended Gambia High School in Banjul from 1978 to 1983 and he was then commissioned as an officer of the Gambia National Army, commanding the Military Police from 1992 to 1994. Jammeh was re-elected as president in 2001,2006 and 2011 and his time in office saw the oppression of journalists, LGBT people, and opposition parties. He also led various efforts and led peace efforts in the region. His foreign policy led to a strained relationship with the sole neighbouring country of Senegal. In 2013, Jammeh withdrew the Gambia from the Commonwealth of Nations, Jammeh was born on 25 May 1965 in Kanilai, a village in the Foni Kansala district of the Western Division. He is the son of Aja Fatou Ashombi Bojang, a housewife and trader, and Abdul Aziz James Junkung Jammeh, Jammehs grandparents migrated to the Gambia from the Casamance region of Senegal. He had an upbringing as part of a Muslim Jola family, primarily focused in Kanilai. One of his closest childhood friends was reportedly Mustapha James Kujabi and he attended Kanilai primary school, Saint Edwards primary school in Bwiam, from 1972 to 1978. Due to his result in the entrance exam, he was awarded a government scholarship to Gambia High School in Banjul. His formal education ended after he received his O Levels in 1983, in April 1984, Jammeh joined what was then the Gambian National Gendarmerie as a private. He was part of the Special Intervention Unit from 1984 to 1986 and was a training instructor at the Gendarmerie Training School from 1986 to 1989. He was promoted to sergeant in April 1986, and to cadet officer in December 1987, a former Gendarmerie officer, Binneh S. Minteh, later claimed that Jammeh had had always singled out Mandinka’s as bad people during his time as a Gendarme. In 1991, he served as the officer commanding the Mobile Gendarmerie, on 1 February 1992, he had been promoted to lieutenant. Jammeh was the head of security detail attached to Pope John Paul II during his visit to the Gambia in February 1992 and he attended the Military Police Officers Basic Course at Fort McClellan in the United States from September 1993 to January 1994, obtaining a Diploma in Military Science. Jammeh was one of the four junior Army officers who organised the 1994 coup detat against Dawda Jawaras government, the other three were Sana Sabally, Sadibou Hydara and Edward Singhateh. The coup, which place on 22 July, was successful and bloodless. Four days later, on 26 July, the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council was formed with Jammeh as its chairman
6.
History of the Gambia
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It is possible that the Carthaginian explorer Hanno the Navigator sailed as far as the Gambia on an expedition in the sixth or fifth century BC. The first verifiable written accounts of the come from records of Arab traders in the 9th and 10th centuries AD. In medieval times the area was dominated by the trans-Saharan trade, the Mali Empire, most renowned for the Mandinka ruler Mansa Kankan Musa, brought worldwide recognition to the region due to its enormous wealth, scholarship, and civility. From the early 13th century, the Kouroukan Fouga, Malis constitution, was the law of the land, the North African scholar and traveller Ibn Battuta visited the area in 1352 and said about its inhabitants, The negroes possess some admirable qualities. They are seldom unjust, and have an abhorrence of injustice than any other people. There is complete security in their country, neither traveler nor inhabitant in it has anything to fear from robbers or men of violence. The Songhai Empire, named after the Songhai people whose king assumed formal control of the Empire, as time went on the area began to suffer from continuous Arabic and Portuguese invasion and looting. By the end of the 16th century, as the raids continued, the name Gambia comes from the Portugues word for trade, cambio. The transaction was confirmed for a period of ten years by Letters Patent issued by Queen Elizabeth I, Letters Patent conferring exclusive trading rights in the River Gambia were granted in 1598,1618 and 1632. For Britain, these were the main outpost in the region, Britain though never controlled the land on the riverbanks, merely the mouth islands and few small settlements. The first British settlement was established at Fort James on Dog Island by a British chartered company, the Adventurers of London Trading with Africa, the grantees of the Letters Patent of 1618. In that year, an expedition commanded by George Thompson was exploring the River Gambia when the crew of the ship were massacred by the Portuguese, the grantees then lost interest in the Gambia. In 1651 native chiefs ceded Dog Island, Half-Die, Jufureh and Gasson to the Duchy of Courland under Jacob Kettler, merchants and missionaries were then sent out and forts were erected at Dog Island and at Half-Die. In 1662 new Letters Patent was granted to another British company and they dispatched an expedition which, after occupying Dog Island, compelled the Duke of Courlands small garrison to surrender, took possession of Kunta Kinteh Island. A period of competition with France followed, Albreda was established as a French settlement. However, by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the French recognised the British title to Kunta Kinteh Island, by an Act of Parliament in 1765, the forts and settlements belonging to the Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa were transferred to the Crown. From 1765 until 1783 the Gambia formed part of the Crown Colony of Senegambia, the Gambia was again transferred to the Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa. However, the Royal Adventurers made no attempt to administer the Gambia, at the beginning of the 19th century, Montgomery identified that most settlements on the Gambia River were British
7.
Senegambian stone circles
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The Senegambian stone circles lie in The Gambia north of Janjanbureh and in central Senegal. They are sometimes divided into the Wassu and Sine-Saloum circles, researchers are not certain when these monuments were built, but the generally accepted range is between the third century B. C. and the sixteenth century A. D. Archaeologists have also found pottery sherds, human burials, and some grave goods, a small collection of these can be found in the British Museums study collection that was donated by the colonial administrator Sir Richmond Palmer. They include a bracelet and two spears. Among these four areas, there are approximately 29,000 stones,17,000 monuments. The monuments consist of what were originally upright blocks or pillars, the monoliths are found in circles, double circles, isolated, or standing apart from circles in rows or individually. These stones that are found standing apart outside the circles are called frontal stones, when there are frontal stones in two parallel, connected rows, they are called lyre-stones. The construction of the stone monuments shows evidence of a prosperous, the stones were extracted from laterite quarries using iron tools, although few of these quarries have been identified as directly linked to particular sites. After extracting the stone, identical pillars were made, either cylindrical or polygonal, the builders of these megaliths are unknown, but some believe that the Serer people are the builders. This hypothesis comes from the fact that the Serer still use funerary houses like those found at Wanar, Wassu is located in the Niani district of Gambia, and is made up of 11 stone circles. The tallest stone is found in area, with a height of 2.59 meters. The builders of the monuments here possessed great knowledge of their local geology in order to find the sources of laterite stones and they must also have had great technical ability in order to extract these stones without splitting or cracking them. Kerbatch, an area comprising nine stone circles and one circle, is located in Gambias Nianija district. Kerbatch also features a V-shaped stone that had broken in three places and fallen and this stone, that had been part of a frontal line, was restored during the 1965 Anglo-Gambian Stone Circles Expedition led by P. Ozanne. During this expedition Ozanne and his team excavated the double circle at Kerbatch, the area of Wanar is located in the Kaffrine district of Senegal, and is made up of 21 stone circles and one double circle. In fact, one third of all Senegambian lyre-stones are located at Wanar, all of the monuments found at Wanar seem to mark burials, according to the archaeologists working there. Researchers have also determined that the site was a ground first. Construction for this area can be narrowed down to between the seventh and fifteenth centuries A. D, a current dating program that has begun is yielding estimates that date the construction of the double circle to between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
8.
Takrur
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Takrur, Tekrur, or Tekrour was an ancient state of West Africa, which flourished roughly parallel to the Ghana Empire. Takrur was the name of the capital of the state which flourished on the lower Senegal River, takruri was a term, like Bilad-ul-Sudan, that was used to refer to all people of West African ancestry. The formation of the state may have taken place as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley, john Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and Negro agricultural peoples who were essentially Serer. Located in the Senegal Valley, along the border of present-day Senegal and Mauritania, it was a trading center and it was rival of the Ghana Empire and the two states clashed from time to time with the Soninké usually winning. Despite these clashes, Takrur prospered throughout the 9th and 10th centuries, according to Levtzion, It is significant that the cotton tree and the manufacture of cloth were first reported from Takrur. The kings of Takrur eventually adopted Islam, in 1035 that War Jabi introduced Sharia law in the Kingdom. The Fulani of Tarkur became independent after Ghanaian power faded, Takrur in turn set out to conquer the kingdom of Diara, which was a Ghanaian province before. Then in 1203, Takrur leader Sumanguru took control of Kumbi Saleh, thus, Takrur became the sole power in the region. Among these were the Susu who carved out the sizeable though short-lived Kaniaga, waalo, the first Wolof state, emerged out its south. By the time Mandinka tribes united to form the Mali Empire in 1235, the state was finally conquered by the usurper emperor Sabakoura of Mali in the 1280s. Takrur was later conquered by Mali, it was conquered by Jolof in the 15th century. Serer people Fula people Toucouleur people J. F. Ade Ajayi, columbia University ISBN 0-231-03628-0 J. Hunwick. Takrur, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden 2000, X, 142-3, medieval West Africa Before 1400, Ghana, Takrur, Gao and Mali. The Cambridge History of Africa, vol, the Wind of Change in the Western Sahara. The Geographical Journal, Vol.130, No, general history of Africa, Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. University of California Press,1999, ISBN 0-520-06700-2, p 146, the Cambridge history of Africa, From c.1600 to c. ISBN 0-521-20981-1, p484 African Kingdoms About – Takrur Empire Takrur — webPulaaku
9.
Mali Empire
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The Mali Empire, also historically referred to as the Manden Kurufaba, was an empire in West Africa from c.1230 to c. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, the Manding languages were spoken in the empire. The Mali Empire was the largest in West Africa and profoundly influenced the culture of West Africa through the spread of its language, laws and customs. Rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, by 300 BC, large organised settlements had developed, most notable near Djenné, one of West Africas oldest cities. By the 6th century AD, the lucrative trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun. There are a few references to Mali in early written literature and this area was composed of mountains, savannah and forest providing ideal protection and resources for the population of hunters. Those not living in the mountains formed small city-states such as Toron, Ka-Ba, yet African Muslim scholars like the London-based Nigerian-British cleric, Sheikh Dr. Adelabu. During the height of Sundiatas power, the land of Manden became one of its provinces, the Manden city-state of Ka-ba served as the capital and name of this province. From at least the beginning of the 11th century, Mandinka kings known as faamas ruled Manden from Ka-ba in the name of the Ghanas, wagadous control over Manden came to a halt after internal instability lead to its decline. The Kangaba province, free of Soninké influence, splintered into twelve kingdoms with their own maghan or faama, Manden was split in half with the Dodougou territory to the northeast and the Kri territory to the southwest. The tiny kingdom of Niani was one of several in the Kri area of Manden, in approximately 1140 the Sosso kingdom of Kaniaga, a former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its old masters. By 1180 it had even subjugated Wagadou forcing the Soninké to pay tribute, in 1203, the Sosso king Soumaoro of the Kanté clan came to power and reportedly terrorized much of Manden stealing women and goods from both Dodougou and Kri. According to Nianes version of the epic, during the rise of Kaniaga and he was the son of Nianis faama, Nare Fa. Sundiatas mother was Maghan Kon Fattas second wife, Sogolon Kédjou and she was a hunchback from the land of Do, south of Mali. The child of this received the first name of his mother. Combined in the spoken language of the Mandinka, the names formed Sondjata, Sundjata or Sundiata Keita. The anglicized version of this name, Sunjata, is also popular, in Ibn Khalduns account, Sundjata is recorded as Mari Djata with Mari meaning Amir or Prince. He also states that Djata or Jatah means lion, Prince Sundjata was prophesized to become a great conqueror
10.
Songhai Empire
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The Songhai Empire was a state that dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th century. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history, the state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its leading ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai. Sonni Ali established Gao as the capital of the empire, although a Songhai state had existed in, other important cities in the empire were Timbuktu and Djenné, conquered in 1468 and 1475 respectively, where urban-centered trade flourished. Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty, during the second half of the 13th century, Gao and the surrounding region had grown into an important trading center and attracted the interest of the expanding Mali Empire. Mali conquered Gao towards the end of the 13th century, Gao would remain under Malian hegemony until the late 14th century, but as the Mali Empire started to disintegrate, the Songhai reasserted control of Gao. Songhai rulers subsequently took advantage of the weakened Mali Empire to expand Songhai rule, under the rule of Sonni Ali, the Songhai surpassed the Malian Empire in area, wealth, and power, absorbing vast areas of the Mali Empire and reached its greatest extent. A series of plots and coups by Askias successors forced the empire into a period of decline, however, the empire experienced a period of stability and a string of military successes during the reign of Askia Daoud. Ahmad al-Mansur, the Moroccan sultan at the time, demanded tax revenues from the salt mines. Askia Daoud responded by sending a large quantity of gold as gift in an attempt to appease the sultan, Askia Ishaq II ascended to power in a long dynastic struggle following the death of Askia Daoud. He would be the last ruler of the empire, after the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Tondibi, the Songhai Empire collapsed. The Dendi Kingdom succeeded the empire as the continuation of Songhai culture, in ancient times there were several different groups of people that collectively formed the Songhai identity. Among the first people to settle in the region of Gao were the Sorko people, the Sorko fashioned boats and canoes from the wood of the cailcedrat tree and fished and hunted from their boats and provided water-borne transport for goods and people. Another group of people moved into the area to exploit the Nigers resources were the Gow people. The Gow were hunters and specialized in hunting animals such as crocodile. The other known group of known to have inhabited the area were the Do people. They were farmers who raised crops in the lands bordering the river. Sometime before the 10th century, these settlers were subjugated by more powerful, horse-riding Songhai speakers. All these groups of people began to speak the same language and they
11.
Couronian colonization
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Couronian colonization refers to the colonization efforts of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a vassal of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Small but wealthy, it took a modest part in the European domination and settlement of West Africa, like Brandenburg, that had far larger German colonizing power before the formation of the German Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian fief of Courland had a European crusading, hence expansionist, past. The colonies were established under Jakob, Duke of Courland and Semigallia, during his reign, the duchy established trading relations with all of the major European powers. Jakob established one of the largest merchant fleets in Europe, with its main harbors in Windau and his fleet made voyages to the West Indies as early as 1637 when the settlers on the ship established the first colony on Tobago. The first colony was a failure, but it was refounded in 1639, in 1651, the Duchy gained a colony in Africa on St. Andrews Island at the Gambia River and established the Jacob Fort there. The Duchy also took other local land including St. Mary Island, the Duchys colonies exported sugar, tobacco, coffee, cotton, ginger, indigo, rum, cocoa, tortoise shells, tropical birds and their feathers. The Courlanders retained control of lands for less than a decade. The colonies were lost when neighboring nations took advantage of Courland during the Northern Wars, however, Tobago was returned to Courland, but the Duchy abandoned it in 1666. In 1668, a Courish ship attempted to reoccupy Fort Jacob but was driven off by the Dutch, the Courland Monument near Courland Bay commemorates the Duchys settlements. A final Courish attempt to establish a Caribbean colony involved a settlement near modern Toco on Trinidad, St. Andrews Island or Courlander Gambia New Courland on Tobago Couronian colonization of the Americas WorldStatesmen
12.
Albreda
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Albreda is a historic settlement in the Gambia on the north bank of the Gambia River, variously described as a trading post or a slave fort. It is located near Jufureh in the North Bank Division and an arch stands on the beach connecting the two places, as of 2008, it has an estimated population of 1,776. According to Wolof oral tradition, Musa Gaye, a Wolof marabout founded it sometime between 1520 and 1681, Wolof traders called the island Draga, while the Mandinkas called it Albadar. In 1681, a ruler, Niumi Mansa, gave the land to the French because his people depended on trade with Europeans. The French exclave was never large but its location was inconvenient for the British. The British also possessed Fort James on James Island, which was less than two miles away on the bank, and which fulfilled a similar function. There was constant tension and occasional skirmishes between the two powers, with Fort James changing hands between them several times, until remaining definitively under British control in 1702, albreda was transferred from French control to the British empire in 1857. Today it contains a museum which opened in 1996. List of French possessions and colonies Katharina Kane
13.
Gambia Colony and Protectorate
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The Gambia Colony and Protectorate was part of the British Empire in the New Imperialism era. The colony was the area surrounding Bathurst, and the protectorate the inland territory situated around the Gambia River. The foundation of the colony was Fort James and Bathurst, where British presence was established in 1815 and 1816, respectively. For various periods in its existence it was subordinate to the Sierra Leone colony, the boundaries of the territory were an issue of contention between the British and French authorities due to the proximity to French Senegal. Additionally, on occasions the British government had attempted to exchange it with France for other territories. France and Britain agreed in 1889 in principle to set the boundary at six miles north and south of the river and east to Yarbutenda and this should have been followed by the dispatchment of a joint Anglo-French Boundary Commission to map the actual border. Yet, at its arrival on place in 1891, the commission was met with resistance by local leaders whose territories they were coming to divide. ”The colony ended in 1965 when Gambia became an independent state within the Commonwealth of Nations. The economy of the Gambia, like other African countries at the time, was very orientated towards agriculture. Reliance on the groundnut became so strong that it made up almost the entirety of exports, groundnuts were the only commodity subject to export duties, these export duties resulted in the illegal smuggling of the product to French Senegal. The conditions in the Gambia proved unfavourable and typhoid killed much of the chicken stock, the River Gambia was the principal route of navigation and transport inland, with a port at Bathurst. The road network was concentrated around Bathurst, with the remaining areas largely connected by dirt roads. The only airport was at Yundum, built in World War II, post war it was used for passenger flights. Both British South American Airways and the British Overseas Airways Corporation had services, the former moving its service to Dakar, the airport was rebuilt in 1963 and the building is still in use today. In anticipation of independence, efforts were made to create internal self-government, the 1960 Constitution created a partly elected House of Representatives, with 19 elected members and 8 chosen by the chiefs. This constitution proved flawed in the 1960 elections when the two parties tied with 8 seats each. With the support of the chiefs, Pierra Sarr NJie of the United Party was appointed Chief Minister. Dawda Jawara of the Peoples Progressive Party resigned as Minister of Education, the Constitutional Conference paved the way for a new constitution that granted a greater degree of self-government and a House of Representatives with more elected members. Elections were held in 1962, with Jawaras Progressive Party securing a majority of the elected seats, under the new constitutional arrangements, Jawara was appointed Prime Minister, a position he held until it was abolished in 1970
14.
Senegambia Confederation
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The confederation was founded on 1 February 1982 following an agreement between the two countries signed on 12 December 1981. It was intended to promote cooperation between the two countries, but was dissolved by Senegal on 30 September 1989 after the Gambia refused to move closer toward union, as a political unit, Senegambia was created by dueling French and English colonial forces in the region. Competition between the French and the English began in the 16th century when both started to establish trading centers, although there was some overlap in their areas of influence, French trade centered on the Senegal River and in the Cap-Vert region and English trade on the Gambia River. From 1500 to 1758, the two used their naval power to try to remove each other from the region. In 1758, during the Seven Years War based in Europe, the unified region collapsed in 1779. With the British occupied by the American Revolutionary War in North America, the unified region ended officially in 1783 in the aftermath of the British defeat and independence by the United States. The Treaty of Versailles created a balance between France and Britain, Saint Louis, l’île de Gorée, and the Senegal River region were restored to France, and the Gambia was left to the British. Although the areas were ruled by separate, competing powers, they did not determine an official border between the French and British Senegambian colonies until 1889, at the time, France agreed to accept the current border between the two countries and remove its border trading posts. For each country, the lock and key border situation has posed problems for international relations, especially in trade. One of the greatest problems for both countries is the ease with which violence could spread through the region and this fear was realized during the 1981 coup attempt to oust President Dawda Jawara of the Gambia. Specific threats came from Kwame Nkrumahs Ghana, Moussa Traorés Mali, Ahmed Sekou Tourés Guinea, João Bernardo Vieiras Guinea-Bissau, while the Senegalese government speculated about some dangers, in the late 1980s it had border skirmishes with Mauritania. After the coup attempt, the government realized that its forces were not adequate to stop, or prevent. Security of the region was becoming more and more difficult to maintain, the opposing trade policies fueled a large black market around the Senegal–Gambia border, which brought cheaper manufactured goods into Senegal. The black market also attracted an export drain into the Gambia, the Senegalese government began to institute a delayed payment system with its groundnut farms. When farmers sold their harvest to the Senegalese government, they would get a voucher, known as a chit, in the short term, the Senegambia Confederation was a pragmatic union based on a mutual security interest. As noted, the Senegalese government feared national instability caused by uprisings in either the Gambia or the Casamance region and this fear nearly became reality on 30 July 1981 when Gambian leftists attempted a coup détat against President Sir Dawda Jawara. At the request of President Jawara, the Senegalese army entered the Gambia, the attempted coup resulted in both countries leaders promoting the unification ideas which had been developing in the region. Senghor’s belief in Negritude informed the possibility of unification between Senegal and the Gambia, and fostered the belief that unification would happen as an organic process
15.
USS La Moure County (LST-1194)
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USS La Moure County was the sixteenth of twenty Newport-class tank landing ship built for the United States Navy in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Named after La Moure County, North Dakota, she was the second U. S. Naval vessel to bear the name, the ships status was changed to Active Reserve Force on 30 September 1995. A combination of the speed of the ship at impact and the incoming tide resulted in damage to the bow, keel, screws. Extensive internal flooding and the dumping 40,000 gallons of fuel only served to complicate matters. She was unable to get off the point under her own power. Eventually, the ship was towed off the rocks by the seagoing Chilean Navy tug Galvarino, Galvarino continued to provide rescue and salvage support to La Moure County several days after the incident. The ships commanding officer was relieved of duty and replaced via helicopter a few days later, the attached Marine force onboard was transferred to the US naval ship Tortuga shortly after that. After getting underway 28 October, she arrived at Talcahuano on the 31st and this was her final port, as repairs to her severely damaged hull and machinery were judged to be uneconomical. Within a few weeks, 90% of the crew was returned to the United States, a total of forty officers and enlisted personnel remained behind to see the now-derelict ship towed to the Chilean naval base at Talcahuano for decommissioning
16.
Banjul
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Banjul, officially the City of Banjul and formerly known as Bathurst, is the capital of The Gambia and is in a division of the same name. The population of the city proper is 34,828, with the Greater Banjul Area, which includes the City of Banjul, Banjul is on St Marys Island, where the Gambia River enters the Atlantic Ocean. The island is connected to the mainland to the west and the rest of Greater Banjul Area via bridges, there are also ferries linking Banjul to the mainland at the other side of the river. Banjul takes its name from the Mandé people who gathered specific fibres on the island, bang julo is the Mandinka word for rope fibre. The mispronunciation led to the word Banjul, in 1651 Banjul was leased by The Duke of Courland and Semigallia from the King of Kombo, as part of the Couronian colonization. In 1816, Alexander Grant, the British commandant, founded Banjul as a trading post, the British renamed Banjul Island as St. Marys Island and first named Bathurst after The 3rd Earl Bathurst, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies at the time. The name was changed to Banjul in 1973, on 22 July 1994, Banjul was the scene of a bloodless military coup détat in which President Dawda Jawara was overthrown and replaced by Yahya Jammeh. To commemorate this event, Arch 22 was built as a portal to the capital. The gate is 35 metres tall and stands at the centre of an open square, attractions in the city include the Gambian National Museum, the Albert Market, Banjul State House, Banjul Court House, African Heritage Museum, two cathedrals and several major mosques. Banjul is the destination of the Plymouth-Banjul Challenge, a charity road rally, Banjul is the countrys economic and administrative centre and includes the Central Bank of the Gambia. Peanut processing is the principal industry, but beeswax, palm wood, palm oil. Banjul is also the home of the Gambia Technical Training Institute, GTTI is currently engaged in a partnership with non-profit organization Power Up Gambia to develop a solar energy training program. Banjul has a warm climate year round. Under the Köppen climate classification, Banjul features a tropical wet, the city features a lengthy dry season, spanning from November to June and a relatively short wet season covering the remaining four months. However, during four months, Banjul tends to see heavy precipitation. August is usually the rainiest month, with on average 500 mm of precipitation falling, temperatures are somewhat constant, though it tends to be slightly cooler during the wet season than the dry season. According to a Gambian government minister, Banjul is at risk of submerging under water by a rise in sea levels as a result of climate change. As of May 2014, ferries sail regularly from Banjul across the River Gambia to Barra, the city is served by the Banjul International Airport
17.
Mutiny
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Mutiny is a criminal conspiracy among a group of people to openly oppose, change, or overthrow a lawful authority to which they are subject. The term is used for a rebellion among members of the military against their superior officers. During the Age of Discovery, mutiny particularly meant open rebellion against a ships captain, until 1689, mutiny was regulated in England by Articles of War instituted by the monarch and effective only in a period of war. In 1689, the first Mutiny Act was passed which passed the responsibility to enforce discipline within the military to Parliament. The Mutiny Act, altered in 1803, and the Articles of War defined the nature and punishment of mutiny until the latter were replaced by the Army Discipline and this, in turn, was replaced by the Army Act in 1881. The same definition applies in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, the military law of England in early times existed, like the forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were raised for a service and were disbanded upon the cessation of hostilities. The crown, by prerogative, made known as Articles of War for the government and discipline of the troops while thus embodied. This power of law-making by prerogative was however held to be applicable during a state of war only. Subject to this limitation, it existed for more than a century after the passing of the first Mutiny Act. The Mutiny Act 1873 was passed in this manner, such matters remained until 1879 when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last Articles of War were promulgated. The act and the articles were not to harmonize in all respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their sometimes obscure. In 1869, a commission recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelligible shape. In 1878, a committee of the House of Commons endorsed this view, in 1879, passed into law a measure consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects. This measure was called the Army Discipline and Regulation Act 1879, as the punishment of every conceivable offence was provided, any articles made under the act could be no more than an empty formality having no practical effect. These rules, however, must not be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, thus in 1879 the government and discipline of the army became for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or the close supervision of parliament. A further notable change took place at the same time, each session therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both Houses clause by clause and line by line
18.
Dakar
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Dakar is the capital and largest city of Senegal. It is located on the Cap-Vert peninsula on the Atlantic coast and is the westernmost city in the Old World as well as on the African mainland. The city of Dakar proper has a population of 1,030,594, the area around Dakar was settled in the 15th century. The Portuguese established a presence on the island of Gorée off the coast of Cap-Vert, France took over the island in 1677. Following the abolition of the trade and French annexation of the mainland area in the 19th century, Dakar grew into a major regional port. In 1902, Dakar replaced Saint-Louis as the capital of French West Africa, from 1959 to 1960, Dakar was the capital of the short-lived Mali Federation. In 1960, it became the capital of the independent Republic of Senegal, Dakar is home to multiple national and regional banks as well as numerous international organizations. From 1978 to 2007, it was also the finishing point of the Dakar Rally. The Cap-Vert peninsula was settled no later than the 15th century, by the Lebou people, the original villages, Ouakam, Ngor, Yoff and Hann, still constitute distinctively Lebou neighborhoods of the city today. In 1444, the Portuguese reached the Bay of Dakar, initially as slave-raiders, peaceful contact was finally opened in 1456 by Diogo Gomes, and the bay was subsequently referred to as the Angra de Bezeguiche. The Portuguese eventually founded a settlement on the island of Gorée, the mainland of Cap-Vert, however, was under control of the Jolof Empire, as part of the western province of Cayor which seceded from Jolof in its own right in 1549. A new Lebou village, called Ndakaaru, was established directly across from Gorée in the 17th century to service the European trading factory with food, Gorée was captured by the United Netherlands in 1588, which gave it its present name. The island was to switch hands between the Portuguese and Dutch several more times before falling to the English under Admiral Robert Holmes on January 23,1664, and finally to the French in 1677. Though under continuous French administration since, métis families, descended from Dutch and French traders and African wives, the infamous House of Slaves was built at Gorée in 1776. In 1795 the Lebou of Cape Verde revolted against Cayor rule, a new theocratic state, subsequently called the Lebou Republic by the French, was established under the leadership of the Diop, a Muslim clerical family originally from Koki in Cayor. The capital of the republic was established at Ndakaaru, in 1857 the French established a military post at Ndakaaru and annexed the Lebou Republic, though its institutions continued to function nominally. The Serigne of Ndakaaru is still recognized as the political authority of the Lebou by the Senegalese State today. The slave trade was abolished by France in February 1794, however, Napoleon reinstated it in May 1802, then finally abolished it permanently in March 1815
19.
Arch 22
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Arch 22 is a commemorative arch on the road into Banjul in the Gambia. The Arch stands on the Banjul-Serrekunda Highway, near the island at the intersection with Box Bar Road, Independence Drive. A statue of the soldier can be seen near the base of the arch. Arch 22 is depicted on the back of the 100-dalasis banknote, the Arch was designed by Senegalese architect Pierre Goudiaby, who also designed the Yundum International Airport at Banjul and the African Renaissance Monument in Dakar, Senegal. At 35 metres, the Arch is one of the tallest structures in the Gambia, the building stands on eight columns and has three floors. Access to the floors can be made through several elevators. The first floor is at a level in the columns. The gallery on the floor provides an impressive panorama of the city, with the view extending down to the sea port of Banjul. On the top floor is a textile museum. Because the stability of the construction is in doubt, the Arch has been closed to traffic
20.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
21.
Congo Crisis
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The Congo Crisis was a period of political upheaval and conflict in the Republic of the Congo between 1960 and 1965. It began almost immediately after the Congo became independent from Belgium and ended, unofficially, constituting a series of civil wars, the Congo Crisis was also a proxy conflict in the Cold War in which the Soviet Union and United States supported opposing factions. Around 100,000 people are believed to have been killed during the crisis, a nationalist movement in the Belgian Congo demanding the end of colonial rule led to the countrys independence on 30 June 1960. Minimal preparations had been made and many issues, such as the questions of federalism and ethnicity, in the first week of July, a mutiny broke out in the army and violence erupted between black and white civilians. Belgium sent troops to protect fleeing whites and two areas of the country, Katanga and South Kasai, seceded with Belgian support, the involvement of the Soviets split the Congolese government and led to impasse between Lumumba and the President, Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Mobutu, in command of the army, broke this deadlock with a coup détat, expelled the Soviet advisors, Lumumba was placed in captivity and subsequently executed in 1961. A rival government, the Free Republic of the Congo, founded by Antoine Gizenga and Lumumba supporters in the city of Stanleyville. Meanwhile, the UN took an aggressive stance towards the secessionists after Hammarskjöld was killed in a plane crash in late 1961. Supported by UN troops, Léopoldville defeated the secessionist movements in Katanga, before these could be held, however, Maoist-inspired militants calling themselves the Simbas rose up in the east of the country. The Simbas took control of a significant amount of territory and proclaimed a communist Peoples Republic of the Congo in Stanleyville, government forces gradually retook territory and, in November 1964, Belgium and the United States intervened militarily in Stanleyville to recover hostages from Simba captivity. The Simbas were defeated and collapsed soon after, following the elections in March 1965, a new political stalemate developed between Tshombe and Kasa-Vubu, forcing the government into near-paralysis. Mobutu mounted a second coup détat in November 1965, now taking personal control, under Mobutus rule, the Congo was transformed into a dictatorship which would endure until his deposition in 1997. Colonial rule in the Congo began in the late 19th century, the Belgian governments ambivalence about the idea led Leopold to eventually create the colony on his own account. Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the colonial trinity of state, missionary, the privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that capital sometimes flowed back into the Congo and that individual regions became specialised. There was also a degree of racial segregation. Large numbers of immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum. One of the results of the measures was the development of a new class of Europeanised African évolués in the cities. By the 1950s the Congo had a labour force twice as large as that in any other African colony
22.
1960 Ethiopian coup attempt
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The 1960 Ethiopian coup was an attempted coup détat staged in Ethiopia on 13 December 1960. Its goal was to overthrow Emperor Haile Selassie, who was on a visit to Brazil at the time. Despite a demonstration of support by the students of Haile Selassie University, other units remained loyal to Selassie. By 17 December, loyalists had regained control of Addis Ababa, the coup attempt is considered the most serious threat to Haile Selassies rule between 1941 and his deposition in 1974 during the Ethiopian Revolution. When he had attempted to encourage the Oromo inhabitants of Wellamu to build roads, bridges and schools and he was then reassigned to Jijiga, where he was immediately confronted with the abject poverty and underdevelopment of the region and with obvious signs of official neglect. Concludes Bahru Zewde, The obstruction he encountered even in these remote posts convinced him of the need for change, Germame then persuaded his brother, Mengistu, that a military coup was feasible. Two more important members were recruited to form a clandestine Council of the Revolution, the Chief of Security Colonel Warqenah Gabayahu, and Police Commissioner Brigadier General Tsege Dibu. The next morning, after the members of the coup had secured control of most of Addis Ababa, Asfaw Wossen, in response, the students of Haile Selassie University demonstrated in support of the new government. The leaders of the coup obviously expected this demonstration would convince the other branches of the military to join them, an uneasy 24 hours followed while the conspirators awaited developments. Meanwhile, the loyalists within the military were able to come to a consensus on how to respond to this threat and these leaflets are believed to have had a great effect on the uncommitted. Fighting broke out in the afternoon of the next day, heavily outnumbered, the rebels were slowly driven back. Many ordinary soldiers of the Kebur Zabangna, once they learned they were fighting against the Emperor, the inhabitants of the capital, once the fighting started, gave their support to the loyalists. Before abandoning the capital, Germame and the others turned their machine-guns on their hostages in Genetta Leul palace, the dead included not only Prime Minister Abebe Aregai, and Makonnen Habte-Wold, but also Major General Mulugeta. General Tsege was killed in the fighting, Colonel Warqenah committed suicide, Mengistu and Germame evaded capture until 24 December 1960 when they were surrounded by the army near Mojo. Rather than face capture, Germame committed suicide, Mengistu surrendered and he was hanged a few months later. Although Paul Henze asks the relevant question, Was the 1960 coup the harbinger of the revolution of 1974 and he denies that there was a significant connection with his next sentence, Only in a very general sense, if at all. Henze emphasizes the nature of the coup, how much of the population of Ethiopia was illiterate and had little awareness of events in the capital city. Not to be overshadowed by many of the new personalities on the African scene – Nkrumah, Sekou Toure, Kenyatta, on the other hand, Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde finds a very clear chain of connection between the two events
23.
Algiers putsch of 1961
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The Algiers putsch, also known as the Generals putsch, was a failed coup détat to overthrow French President Charles de Gaulle and establish a military junta. The organisers of the putsch were opposed to the negotiations that French Prime Minister Michel Debrés government had started with the anti-colonialist National Liberation Front. The coup was to come in two phases, an assertion of control in French Algerias major cities Algiers, Oran and Constantine, the metropolitan operation would be led by Colonel Antoine Argoud, with French paratroopers descending on strategic airfields. The commanders in Oran and Constantine, however, refused to follow Challes demand that they join the coup, at the same time, information about the metropolitan phase came to Prime Minister Debrés attention through the intelligence service. On 22 April, all flights and landings were forbidden in Parisian airfields, the following day, President Charles de Gaulle made a famous speech on television, dressed with his 1940s generals uniform ordering the French people and army to help him. The majority of the French people had voted in favor of Algerian self-determination during the referendum of 8 January 1961 organised in metropolitan France. French citizens living abroad or serving abroad in the military were allowed to vote, as were all adult Algerians, regardless of ancestry, self-determination was approved by 75. 0% of voters overall and 69. 5% in Algeria. The government reported voter turnout of 92. 2%, other sources claim that four out of ten of the individuals in France and Algeria entitled to vote abstained. Following the outcome of the referendum, Michel Debrés government started secret negotiations with the GPRA, during the night, the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment, composed of a thousand men, and headed by Hélie de Saint Marc took control of all of Algiers strategic points in three hours. The units directly involved in the putsch were the 1st and 2nd REP, the 1er REC, together they comprised the elite units of the airborne divisions of the French Army. Initially there were pledges of support from other regiments but these seem to have reflected the views of senior officers only and there was no active participation. The president was informed during the entracte of the coup by Jacques Foccart, his secretary of African and Malagasy Affairs and closest collaborator. Algiers population was awakened on 22 April at 7 am to a read on the radio, The army has seized control of Algeria. Several regiments put themselves under the command of the insurrectionary generals, General Jacques Faure, six other officers and several civilians were simultaneously arrested in Paris. At 5 pm, during the council, Charles de Gaulle declared, Gentlemen. The following day, on Sunday 23 April, General Salan arrived from Spain and this power has an appearance, a quartet of retired generals. It has a reality, a group of officers, partisan, ambitious and this group and this quartet possess an expedient and limited knowledge of things. But they only see and understand the Nation and the world distorted by their delirium and their enterprise leads directly towards a national disaster
24.
Zanzibar Revolution
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The Zanzibar Revolution occurred in 1964 and led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar and his mainly Arab government by local African revolutionaries. Zanzibar was a diverse state consisting of a number of islands off the east coast of Tanganyika which had been granted independence by Britain in 1963. Having overrun the countrys police force and appropriated their weaponry, the insurgents proceeded to Zanzibar Town where they overthrew the Sultan and his government. Reprisals against Arab and South Asian civilians on the island followed, the moderate ASP leader Abeid Karume became the countrys new president and head of state, and positions of power were granted to Umma party members. The new governments apparent communist ties concerned Western governments, as Zanzibar lay within the British sphere of influence, the British government drew up a number of intervention plans. However, the feared communist government never materialised, and because British, meanwhile, the communist bloc powers of China, East Germany and the Soviet Union established friendly relations with the new government by recognising the country and sending advisors. The revolution ended 200 years of Arab dominance in Zanzibar, and is commemorated on the each year with anniversary celebrations. The Zanzibar Archipelago, now part of the Southeast African republic of Tanzania, is a group of islands lying in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Tanganyika and it comprises the main southern island of Unguja, the smaller northern island of Pemba, and numerous surrounding islets. With a long history of Arab rule dating back to 1698, in 1890 during Ali ibn Saids reign, Zanzibar became a British protectorate, and although never formally under direct rule was considered part of the British Empire. By 1964, the country was a monarchy ruled by Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah. After Zanzibar had been conquered by the Sultanate of Oman in 1698, all of the land in the countryside had been given to Omani aristocratic families, in January 1961, as part of the process of decolonisation, the islands British authorities drew up constituencies and held democratic elections. Both the ASP and the ZNP won 11 of the available 22 seats in Zanzibars Parliament, the ZNP entered into a coalition with the Zanzibar and Pemba Peoples Party and this time took 13 seats, while the ASP, despite receiving the most votes, won just 10. Electoral fraud was suspected by the ASP and civil disorder broke out, to maintain control, the coalition government banned the more radical opposition parties, filled the civil service with its own appointees, and politicised the police. In 1963, with the number of seats increased to 31. The Umma Party, formed that year by disaffected radical Arab socialist supporters of the ZNP, was banned and this removed a large portion of the only security force on the island, and created an angry group of paramilitary-trained men with knowledge of police buildings, equipment and procedures. In Parliament, the Minister of Finance Juma Aley responded to questions from Karume by insultingly saying he need to answer questions from a mere boatman. The government did not help broaden its appeal to the majority by drastically cutting spending in schools in areas with high concentrations of blacks. Complete independence from British rule was granted on 10 December 1963, much of the cabinet which was seeking closer ties with Egypt did not want British troops in Zanzibar anyway
25.
National Liberation Council
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The National Liberation Council led the Ghanaian government from February 24,1966 to October 1,1969. The body emerged from a violent coup détat against the government led by Kwame Nkrumah. The Ghana Police Service and Ghana Armed Forces carried out the coup jointly, the new government implemented structural adjustment policies recommended by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. Money in the national budget shifted away from agriculture and industrialization towards the military, National enterprises, property, and capital were privatized or abandoned. Whereas Nkrumah had condemned the development projects of multinational corporations as signs of neocolonialism, the Ghanaian cedi was devalued by 30%. These economic changes did not succeed in reducing the debt or in increasing the ratio of exports to imports. The National Liberation Council regime won support from groups in Ghanaian society, local chiefs, intelligentsia. However, its policies of economic austerity were not beloved of workers at large, in 1969 the regime underwent a carefully managed transition to civilian rule. Elections held on August 29,1969 thus inaugurated a new government led by the NLCs chosen successor, from 1951–1966, Ghana was controlled by the Convention Peoples Party and its founder Kwame Nkrumah. During the 1950s, the CPP sponsored a variety of economic projects. In 1960 the CPP moved to nationalize the Ghanaian economy and heavily tightened its control in such as currency. By 1963 the public was suffering from shortages and price gouging, fewer and fewer businesspeople benefited from party membership. Amidst growing unpopularity the Party increased its repression of political opponents and it used the Preventive Detention Act to jail its opponents without trial for up to five years. In 1964, Nkrumah won a heavily rigged referendum that made the CPP the sole legal party, General Afrifa later commented, regarding Radio Ghana, From early morning till late at night there poured forth a sickening stream of Stalinist adulation and abject flattery. News was so often distorted or suppressed that Ghanaians stopped believing what they heard, the Party acted as a political monolith, with functional control over powerful civil organizations such as the Ghana Trades Union Congress and Ghana Muslim Council. Thus, the CPP had centralized political and economic power in order to pursue rapid industrialization under national control, behind the scenes was an elite group of economic planners which stood to advance its agenda under military rule. These technocrats within the government found common cause with the military, one such figure was B. A. Bentum, former Secretary-General of the Agricultural Workers Union and subsequently the Minister of Forestry under the CPP. Bentum disapproved of the countrys socialist tendencies and collaborated with the plotters by supplying them with information, kojo Botsio, chairman of the State Planning Commission, was similarly disposed if not as closely involved
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Government of the Gambia
Years in the Gambia (1965–present)