1.
2nd millennium BC
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The 2nd millennium BC spans the years 2000 through 1000 BC. It marks the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age and its first half is dominated by the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and Babylonia. Indo-Iranian migration onto the Iranian plateau and onto the Indian subcontinent propagates the use of the chariot, chariot warfare and population movements lead to violent changes at the center of the millennium, a new order emerges with Greek dominance of the Aegean and the rise of the Hittite Empire. The end of the sees the transition to the Iron Age. World population begins to rise steadily, reaching some 50 million towards 1000 BC, the Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and their contemporary Kings of Babylon, of Amorite origin, brought good governance without much tyranny, and favoured elegant art and architecture. Farther east, the Indus Valley civilization was in a period of decline, possibly as a result of intense, Egypt and Babylonias military tactics were still based on foot soldiers transporting their equipment on donkeys. Combined with an economy and difficulty in maintaining order, this was a fragile situation that crumbled under the pressure of external forces they could not oppose. About a century before the middle of the millennium, bands of Indo-European invaders came from the Central Asian plains and swept through Western Asia and they were riding fast two-wheeled chariots powered by horses, a system of weaponry developed earlier in the context of plains warfare. This tool of war was unknown among the classical civilizations, Egypt and Babylonias foot soldiers were unable to defend against the invaders, in 1630 BC, the Hyksos swept into the Nile Delta, and in 1595 BC, the Hittites swept into Mesopotamia. The peoples in place were quick to adapt to the new tactics, among the great states of the time, only Babylon refrained from taking part in battles, mainly due to its new position as the worlds religious and intellectual capital. Also contributing to the changes were the Sea Peoples, ship-faring raiders of the Mediterranean, the civilizations, kingdoms and dynasties in this section are organized according to the United Nations geoscheme The events in this section are organized according to the United Nations geoscheme. It is difficult to pinpoint the year or even the correct century for many events of the 2nd Millennium BC. c.1700 BC–1300 BC—Palace complex in Knossos. C.1600 BC–1360 BC Egyptian domination over Canaan and Syria, in the history of the Egyptian language, the early 2nd millennium saw a transition from Old Egyptian to Middle Egyptian. As the most used form of the Ancient Egyptian language. The earliest attested Indo-European language, the Hittite language, first appears in cuneiform in the 16th century BC, Hittite is the best known and the most studied language of the extinct Anatolian branch of Indo-European languages. The first Northwest Semitic language, Ugaritic, is attested in the 14th century BC, the first fully phonemic script Proto-Canaanite developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs, becoming the Phoenician alphabet by 1200 BC. Mycenaean Greek, the most ancient attested form of the Greek language, was used on the Greek mainland, Crete, the people in this section are organized according to the United Nations geoscheme The Canadian–American speculative fiction author S. M. Stirling has written a set in Bronze Age era, circa the 1250s BC
2.
8th century BC
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The 8th century BC started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. The 8th century BC was a period of changes in civilizations. In Egypt, the 23rd and 24th dynasties led to rule from Nubia in the 25th Dynasty, the Neo-Assyrian Empire reaches the peak of its power, conquering the Kingdom of Israel as well as nearby countries. Greece colonizes other regions of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, Rome is founded in 753 BC, and the Etruscan civilization expands in Italy. The 8th century BC is conventionally taken as the beginning of Classical Antiquity, with the first Olympiad set at 776 BC, iron Age India enters the later Vedic period. Vedic ritual is annotated in many schools in Brahmana commentaries. Late 8th century BC, Earrings, crown and rosettes, from the tomb of Queen Yabay in Kalhu are made and they are now at Iraq Museum, Baghdad. 797 BC, Ardysus I becomes king of Lydia,797 BC, Thespieus, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 27 years and is succeeded by his son Agamestor. 783 BC, Shalmaneser IV succeeds his father Adad-nirari III as king of Assyria,782 BC, Founding of Erebuni by the orders of King Argishtis I at the site of current-day Yerevan. 782 BC, Death of King Xuan of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China,781 BC, King You of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 780 BC, The first historic solar eclipse is recorded in China,778 BC, Agamestor, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 17 years and is succeeded by his son Aeschylus. 776 BC, retrospectively set as the first Olympiad, the history of the Olympic Games is believed to reach as far back as the 13th century BC.774 BC, End of the reign of king Pygmalion of Tyre. 773 BC, Death of Shoshenq III, king of Egypt,773 BC, Ashur-Dan III succeeds his brother Shalmaneser IV as king of Assyria. 771 BC, End of the Western Zhou Dynasty in China as western barbarian tribes sack the capital Hao, King You of Zhou is killed. Crown Prince Ji Yijiu escapes and will reign as King Ping of Zhou,770 BC, Beginning of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty in China as King Ping of Zhou becomes the first King of the Zhou to rule from the new capital of Chengzhou. June 15,763 BC, A solar eclipse at this date is used to fix the chronology of the Ancient Near East, mid-8th century BC, Model of temple, found in the Sanctuary of Hera, Argos, is made. It is now at National Archeological Museum, Athens,755 BC, Ashur-nirari V succeeds Ashur-Dan III as king of Assyria. 755 BC, Aeschylus, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 23 years and is succeeded by Alcmaeon,753 BC, Alcmaeon, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 2 years
3.
7th century BC
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The 7th century BC began the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC. The Assyrian Empire continued to dominate the Near East during this century, exercising power over neighbors like Babylon. In the last two decades of the century, however, the empire began to unravel as numerous enemies made alliances, the Assyrians finally left the world stage permanently when their capital Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BC. These events gave rise to the Neo-Babylonian Empire, which would dominate the region for much of the following century,699 BC, Khallushu succeeds Shuttir-Nakhkhunte as king of the Elamite Empire. 697 BC, Death of King Huan of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China,696 BC, King Zhuang of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 696 BC, The Cimmerians ravage Phrygia, possible migration of the Armenians,691 BC, King Sennacherib of Assyria defeats king Humban-nimena of Elam in the Battle of Halule. 690 BC, Taharqa, a king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty,689 BC, King Sennacherib of Assyria sacks Babylon. 687 BC, Gyges becomes king of Lydia,687 BC, Hezekiah succeeded by Manasseh as king of Judah. 682 BC, Death of King Zhuang of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China,681 BC, King Xi of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 681 BC, Esarhaddon succeeds Sennacherib as king of Assyria,677 BC, Death of King Li of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 677 BC, Esarhaddon leads the Assyrian army against rebellious Arab tribes, advances as far as the Brook of Egypt,676 BC, King Hui of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 675 BC, Esarhaddon begins the rebuilding of Babylon,674 BC, Esarhaddon puts down a revolt in Ashkelon supported by Taharqa, king of Egypt. In response, the Assyrians invade Egypt, but Taharqa is able to hold the invaders off,673 BC, Tullus Hostilius becomes king of Rome. 671 BC, Esarhadon again invades Egypt, capturing Memphis as well as a number of the royal family,669 BC, Assurbanipal succeeds his father Esarhaddon as king of Assyria. 669 BC, Argos defeats Sparta for the last time, this using a Phalanx. 668 BC, Shamash-shum-ukin, son of Esarhaddon, becomes King of Babylon,668 BC, Egypt revolts against Assyria. 668 BC, Nineveh, capital of Assyria becomes the largest city of the world,667 BC, Byzantium founded by Megaran colonists under Byzas. 664 BC, First naval battle in Greek recorded history, between Corinth and Corcyra,664 BC, Assurbanipal captures and sacks Thebes, Egypt
4.
6th century BC
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The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. This century represents the peak of a period in human history popularly known as Axial Age, pāṇini, in India, composed a grammar for Sanskrit, in this century or slightly later. This is the oldest still known grammar of any language, the Kingdom of Judah came to an end in 586 BC when Babylonian forces under Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem, and removed most of its population to their own lands. Babylonian rule was ended in the 540s by Cyrus, who founded the Persian Empire in its place, the Persian Empire continued to expand and grew into the greatest empire the world had known at the time. In Iron Age Europe, the Celtic expansion was in progress, China was in the Spring and Autumn period. Laozi founds Taoism West Asia, During the Persian empire, Zoroaster, zarathustra, founded Zoroastrianism, a dualistic philosophy. This was also the time of the Babylonian captivity of the ancient Jews, ancient India, the Buddha and Mahavira found Buddhism and Jainism The decline of the Olmec civilization in Central America Mid-6th century BC, Foundation of Temple of Olympian Zeus. 598 BC, Jehoiachin succeeds Jehoiakim as King of Judah,16 March 597 BC, Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king. 595 BC, Psammetichus II succeeds Necho II as King of Egypt,594 BC, Solon appointed Archon of Athens, institutes democratic reforms. 590 BC, Egyptian army sacks Napata, compelling the Cushite court to move to a secure location at Meroe near the sixth Cataract. 589 BC, Apries succeeds Psammetichus II as King of Egypt,588 BC, Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon begins siege of Jerusalem, some sources set the date at 587 BC.587 BC/586 BC, Jerusalem falls to the Babylonians, ending the Kingdom of Judah. The conquerors destroy the Solomons Temple and exile the remaining inhabitants. Babylonian Captivity for the Jews began,586 BC, death of King Ding of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China 28 May 585 BC, A solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Thales, while Alyattes II is battling Cyaxares. This is one of the dates from which other dates can be calculated. 585 BC/584 BC, Astyages succeeds Cyaxares as King of the Medes,585 BC, King Jian of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty. 583 BC, Babylonians begins siege against Tyre,582 BC, Pythian Games founded at Delphi. 580 BC, Cambyses I succeeds Cyrus I as King of Anshan,580 BC, Isthmian Games founded at Corinth 579 BC, Servius Tullius succeeds the assassinated Lucius Tarquinius Priscus as King of Rome. 573 BC, Nemean Games founded at Nemea,572 BC, Death of King Jian of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China
5.
5th century BC
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The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. This century saw the establishment of Pataliputra as a capital of Magadha Empire and this city would later become the ruling capital of different Indian Kingdoms for about a thousand years. This period saw the rise of two great schools of the East, Jainism and Buddhism. This period saw Mahavira and Buddha spreading their teachings in Northern Plains of India. This essentially changed the socio-cultural and political dynamics of the region of South Asia, Buddhism would later go on to become one of the major world religions. This period also saw the work of Yaska, who created Nirukta, Ancient Greek philosophy developed during the 5th century BC, setting the foundation for Western ideology. In Athens and elsewhere in the Mediterranean world, the 5th century marked a point in the development of political institutions, art, architecture. The century was notable for the Persian Wars, fought between the Greek cities and the vast Persian Empire. His son Xerxes attempted to finish the job 10 years later, and succeeded in capturing Athens and burning it to the ground, and was defeated later on land at Plataea. In the latter part of the century the Greeks became locked in a war among themselves, with the major cities Athens. The Spartans were victorious in this battle, demotic becomes the dominant script of ancient Egypt. 499 BC, Aristagoras, acting on behalf of the Persian Empire,499 BC, Aristagoras instigates the Ionic Revolt, beginning the Persian Wars between Greece and Persia. 499 BC, Sardis destroyed by Athenian and Ionian troops,498 BC, Leontini subjugated by Hippocrates of Gela. 498 BC, Alexander I succeeds his father Amyntas I as king of Macedon,496 BC, Battle of Lake Regillus, A legendary early Roman victory, won over either the Etruscans or the Latins. 495 BC, Temple to Mercury on the Circus Maximus in Rome is built,494 BC, The Battle of Lade, where Persians take back Ionia. 494 BC, Two tribunes of the plebs and two plebeian aediles are elected for the first time in Rome, the office of the tribunate is established,494 BC, The year Rome changed from an Aristocratic Republic to a Liberalized Republic. 493 BC, Piraeus, the town of Athens, is founded. 493 BC, Coriolanus captures the Volscian town of Corioli for Rome,492 BC, First expedition of King Darius I of Persia against Greece, under the leadership of his son-in-law Mardonius
6.
3rd century BC
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The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period and this balance was shattered when conflict arose between Carthage and the Roman Republic. In the following decades, the Carthaginian Republic was first humbled and then destroyed by the Romans in the first, following the Second Punic War, Rome became the most important power in the western Mediterranean. In India, Ashoka ruled the Maurya Empire, the Pandya, Chola and Chera dynasties of the classical age flourished in the ancient Tamil country. The Protohistoric Period began in the Korean peninsula, the Xiongnu were at the height of their power in Mongolia. Ptolemy finally brings the region of Cyrene under his control. He places the region under the rule of his stepson Magas, after failing to decisively defeat the Romans, Pyrrhus of Epirus withdraws from Italy. Gallic migration to Macedon, Thrace and Galatia,273 BC –232 BC, Ashoka ruled the Maurya Empire. 265 BC, Kalinga War takes place between Ashoka and the kingdom of Kalinga,264 BC, First Punic War breaks out between the Carthaginian Empire and the Roman Republic. 261 BC, Antiochus II Theos, 2nd son, at the death of his father becomes emperor of the Seleucid empire,260 BC, Battle of Changping between the State of Qin and the State of Zhao in China, a decisive Qin victory. 260 BC, Ashoka inscribes the Edicts of Ashoka,258 BC, An Dương Vương overthrows the Hồng Bàng Dynasty in Viet Nam. 257 BC, Thục Dynasty takes over Viet Nam,241 BC, First Punic War ends in Carthaginian defeat. Rome demands large reparations, and annexes Sicily and Corsica,230 BC, The Chinese Qin State conquers Han. 230 BC, Simuka declares independence from Mauryan rule and establishes the Satavahana Empire,227 BC, The attempted assassination of Ying Zheng, king of Qin State, by Jing Ke from Yan failed. 225 BC, A large Gallic army is defeated by the Romans at the Battle of Telamon,225 BC, The Chinese Qin State conquers Wei.223 BC, The Chinese Qin State conquers Chu.222 BC, The Chinese Qin State conquers Yan and Zhao. 221 BC, With the conquest of the State of Qi, Qin Shi Huang unifies the whole of China into one empire that also included northern Vietnam,218 BC, Second Punic War begins. Hannibal makes his famous Alpine crossing to invade Italy, the Roman heartland,216 BC, Hannibal famously crushed the Roman legions at the Battle of Cannae. 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang of the Chinese Qin Dynasty ordered construction of the Great Wall of China,208 BC, Zhao Tuo defeats the Vietnamese king An Dương Vương
7.
Iron Age
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The Iron Age is an archaeological era, referring to a period of time in the prehistory and protohistory of the Old World when the dominant toolmaking material was iron. It is commonly preceded by the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia with exceptions, meteoric iron has been used by humans since at least 3200 BC. Ancient iron production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt ore, remove impurities. The start of the Iron Age proper is considered by many to fall between around 1200 BC and 600 BC, depending on the region, the earliest known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering, meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the record from the middle Bronze Age. While terrestrial iron is abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 °C placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tins low melting point of 231, similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of iron production in around 1200 BC. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of objects was fast. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during this time, more widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger, and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. Increasingly, the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India, ancient Iran, and ancient Greece. In other regions of Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe, the Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly alloys which were produced with a carbon content between approximately 0. 30% and 1. 2% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, however, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and alloys that were easier to make, such as wrought iron, were more common in lower-priced goods
8.
History of Turkey
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See History of the Republic of Turkey for the history of the modern state. The history of Turkey, understood as the history of the region now forming the territory of the Republic of Turkey, the earliest representations of culture in Anatolia were Stone Age artifacts. The remnants of Bronze Age civilizations such as the Hattian, Akkadian, Assyrian, after the fall of the Hittites, the new states of Phrygia and Lydia stood strong on the western coast as Greek civilization began to flourish. They, and all the rest of Anatolia were relatively soon after incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian Empire, as Persia grew in strength, their system of local government in Anatolia allowed many port cities to grow and to become wealthy. All of Anatolia got divided into satrapies, ruled by satraps appointed by the central Persian rulers. Some of the satraps revolted periodically but did not pose a serious threat, in the 5th century BC, Darius I built the Royal Road, which linked the principal city of Susa with the west Anatolian city of Sardis. Anatolia played a role in Achaemenid history. In the earliest 5th century BC, some of the Ionian cities under Persian rule revolted, which culminated into the Ionian Revolt. This revolt, after being suppressed by the Persian authority, laid the direct uplead for the Greco-Persian Wars. After Achaemenid Persian rule, the Greek Alexander the Great finally wrested control of the region from Persia in successive battles. The Seleucid Empire, the largest of Alexanders territories, and which included Anatolia, became involved in a war with Rome culminating in the battles of Thermopylae. The resulting Treaty of Apamea in saw the Seleucids retreat from Anatolia, the Kingdom of Pergamum and the Republic of Rhodes, Romes allies in the war, were granted the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia. Roman control of Anatolia was strengthened by a hands off approach by Rome, allowing control to govern effectively. The Thracians were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting an area in Central. They were bordered by the Scythians to the north, the Celts and the Illyrians to the west, the Ancient Greeks to the south and they spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family. The study of Thracians and Thracian culture is known as Thracology, starting around 1200 BC, the western coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were founded by colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna and Byzantium. The territory of Thrace later became unified by the Odrysian kingdom, founded by Teres I, a type of soldier of this period called the Peltast probably originated in Thrace
9.
History of the Caucasus
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Up to including the early 19th century, the Southern Caucasus and a part of the Northern Caucasus all formed part of the Persian Empire. In 1813 and 1828 by the Treaty of Gulistan and the Treaty of Turkmenchay respectively, Russia conquered and annexed the rest of the Northern Caucasus in the course of the 19th century in the Caucasian Wars. The Northern Caucasus became the scene of fighting during the Second World War. The Nazis intended to establish a Reichskommissariat Kaukasus to control the Caucasian territories of the Soviet Union, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia became independent nations. The nascent Russian Empire gained territories in the North Caucasus in the Russo-Persian war of 1722/3, following the death of Nader Shah, Kartli and Kakheti were merged into the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in 1762, seceding from Persian overlordship. King Erekle II concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk with the Russian Empire, catherine the Great used Georgia as a base of operations against both Iran and the Ottoman Empire. The Qajar dynasty attempted to restore Persian hegemony over the Caucasus, while Georgia and Armenia remained Christian, the Chechens gradually adopted Sunni Islam. The Circassians were mostly Islamized under the influence of the Crimean Tatars, a Little War that Shook the World, Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West. ISBN 0-8147-1945-7 Gasimov, Zaur, The Caucasus, European History Online, Mainz, Institute of European History,2011, retrieved, Azerbaijan Diary, A Rogue Reporters Adventures in an Oil-Rich, War-Torn, Post-Soviet Republic. Chechnya Diary, A War Correspondents Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya, Georgia Diary, A Chronicle of War and Political Chaos in the Post-Soviet Caucasus. Everyday life of the Caucasian highlanders
10.
Iron Age Europe
–
The Iron Age is an archaeological era, referring to a period of time in the prehistory and protohistory of the Old World when the dominant toolmaking material was iron. It is commonly preceded by the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia with exceptions, meteoric iron has been used by humans since at least 3200 BC. Ancient iron production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt ore, remove impurities. The start of the Iron Age proper is considered by many to fall between around 1200 BC and 600 BC, depending on the region, the earliest known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering, meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the record from the middle Bronze Age. While terrestrial iron is abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 °C placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tins low melting point of 231, similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of iron production in around 1200 BC. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of objects was fast. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during this time, more widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger, and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. Increasingly, the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India, ancient Iran, and ancient Greece. In other regions of Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe, the Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly alloys which were produced with a carbon content between approximately 0. 30% and 1. 2% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, however, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and alloys that were easier to make, such as wrought iron, were more common in lower-priced goods
11.
Ancient history
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Ancient history is the aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script, the term classical antiquity is often used to refer to history in the Old World from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC. This roughly coincides with the date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC, the beginning of the history of ancient Rome. In India, ancient history includes the period of the Middle Kingdoms, and, in China. Historians have two major avenues which they take to better understand the ancient world, archaeology and the study of source texts, primary sources are those sources closest to the origin of the information or idea under study. Primary sources have been distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on. Archaeology is the excavation and study of artefacts in an effort to interpret, archaeologists excavate the ruins of ancient cities looking for clues as to how the people of the time period lived. The study of the ancient cities of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, the city of Pompeii, an ancient Roman city preserved by the eruption of a volcano in AD79. Its state of preservation is so great that it is a window into Roman culture and provided insight into the cultures of the Etruscans. The Terracotta Army, the mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in ancient China, the discovery of Knossos by Minos Kalokairinos and Sir Arthur Evans. The discovery of Troy by Heinrich Schliemann, most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquitys own historians. Although it is important to take account the bias of each ancient author. Some of the more notable ancient writers include Herodotus, Thucydides, Arrian, Plutarch, Polybius, Sima Qian, Sallust, Livy, Josephus, Suetonius, furthermore, the reliability of the information obtained from these surviving records must be considered. Few people were capable of writing histories, as literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history, the earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, beginning with Herodotus of Halicarnassus. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, the Roman Empire was one of the ancient worlds most literate cultures, but many works by its most widely read historians are lost. Indeed, only a minority of the work of any major Roman historian has survived, prehistory is the period before written history. The early human migrations in the Lower Paleolithic saw Homo erectus spread across Eurasia 1.8 million years ago, the controlled use of fire occurred 800,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. 250,000 years ago, Homo sapiens emerged in Africa, 60–70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa along a coastal route to South and Southeast Asia and reached Australia
12.
Middle kingdoms of India
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Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. This period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, the Middle period lasts for some 1500 years, and ends in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate and the end of the Later Cholas. The period is known as the period of India, during which India is estimated to have had the largest economy of the world controlling between one third and one fourth of the worlds wealth. During the 2nd century BCE, the Maurya Empire became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries, the whole northwest attracted a series of invaders between 200 BCE and 300 CE. The Puranas speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians, over time, the invaders became Indianized as they influenced society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and were conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism as the new kingdoms straddle the Silk Road. The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara, Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last of the Western Satraps, Rudrasimha III, in 395 CE. The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India as well as nearby countries. The Indo-Greek Kingdom covered various parts of the Northwestern South Asia during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings, often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when Demetrius I of Bactria invaded the Hindu Kush early in the 2nd century BCE, the Greeks in India were eventually divided from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria. The expression Indo-Greek Kingdom loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities, there were numerous cities, such as Taxila Pakistans Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala. Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius a Magnesian Greek and his son, Demetrius, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek descent from his father at minimum. A marriage treaty was arranged for Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus III the Great, the ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear. For example, Artemidoros Aniketos may have been of Indo-Scythian descent, intermarriage also occurred, as exemplified by Alexander the Great, who married Roxana of Bactria, or Seleucus I Nicator, who married Apama of Sogdia. The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, the Yavana or Yona people, literally Ionian and meaning Western foreigner, were described as living beyond Gandhara. Yavanas, Sakas, the Pahlavas and Hunas were sometimes described as mlecchas, kambojas and the inhabitants of Madra, the Kekeya Kingdom, the Indus River region and Gandhara were sometimes also classified as mlecchas. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the culture of the Kuru Kingdom, the Indo-Parthian Kingdom was founded by Gondophares around 20 BCE. The kingdom lasted only briefly until its conquest by the Kushan Empire in the late 1st century CE and was a framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence
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