1.
Coordinated Universal Time
–
Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead
2.
International Seismological Centre
–
1900–1912 J. Milne 1912–1917 H. H. Turner 1918–1931 H. H. Turner 1931–1939 H. Plaskett 1939–1952 Sir Harold Jeffreys 1952–1960 R. Stoneley 1960–1963 P. L. Willmore 1964–1970 P. L. Willmore 1970–1977 E. P. Willeman 2004–2007 A. Shapira 2008–present D. A. Storchak The main scientific goal of the Centre is the compilation of earthquake information. Since 1957 the manipulation of the volume of data has been mainly carried out by computer. Up until then ISS locations were determined manually with the help of a large globe, the ISC now uses a network of workstations accessing a relational database of nearly 50 Gbytes of online data. The analysis of the data is undertaken in monthly batches. During analysis the computer program first groups origin estimates from different agencies, in a typical month more than 200,000 station readings are analysed leading to an average of 10,000 events per month being identified, of which some 4,000 require manual review. Misassociations and other discrepancies are rectified and the remaining unassociated readings are searched for new events, the total number of events listed each month is several times greater than those obtained by any other worldwide location service and results from ISCs goal to provide a fully comprehensive list. This global instrumental earthquake catalogue, covering events for the period 1900–2009, was released in 2013 by the International Seismological Centre, the catalogue was prepared at the request of the GEM Foundation. Epicentral locations and hypocentral depths were recalculated from original travel time using a consistent velocity model. Sources Official website International Seismological Centre Bulletin – IRIS Consortium
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Fault (geology)
–
In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement. Large faults within the Earths crust result from the action of tectonic forces. Energy release associated with movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes. A fault plane is the plane that represents the surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault line is the intersection of a plane with the ground surface. A fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on maps to represent a fault. Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, the two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall. By definition, the wall occurs above the fault plane. This terminology comes from mining, when working a tabular ore body, because of friction and the rigidity of rocks, they cannot glide or flow past each other easily, and occasionally all movement stops. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when the rate is too great. The energy released by instantaneous strain-release causes earthquakes, a common phenomenon along transform boundaries, slip is defined as the relative movement of geological features present on either side of a fault plane, and is a displacement vector. A faults sense of slip is defined as the motion of the rock on each side of the fault with respect to the other side. In practice, it is only possible to find the slip direction of faults. Based on direction of slip, faults can be categorized as, strike-slip. Dip-slip, offset is predominantly vertical and/or perpendicular to the fault trace, oblique-slip, combining significant strike and dip slip. The fault surface is usually vertical and the footwall moves either left or right or laterally with very little vertical motion. Strike-slip faults with left-lateral motion are known as sinistral faults. Those with right-lateral motion are known as dextral faults
5.
Pacific Northwest
–
The Pacific Northwest, sometimes referred to as Cascadia, is a geographic region in western North America bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and loosely, by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Though no agreed boundary exists, a common conception includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon, south into far northern California and east to the Continental Divide, thus including Idaho, Western Montana, narrower conceptions may be limited to the northwestern US or to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains. The variety of definitions can be attributed to partially overlapping commonalities of the history, geography, society. The Northwest Coast is the region of the Pacific Northwest. The term Pacific Northwest should not be confused with the Northwest Territory or the Northwest Territories of Canada. The border — in two sections, along the 49th parallel south of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle west of northern British Columbia — has had an effect on the region. According to Canadian historian Ken Coates, the border has not merely influenced the Pacific Northwest—rather, definitions of the Pacific Northwest region vary, and there is no commonly agreed-upon boundary, even among Pacific Northwesterners. A common conception of the Pacific Northwest includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington as well as the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader definitions of the region may include the U. S. state of Alaska, the Canadian territory of Yukon, the portion of the state of California. Definitions based on the historic Oregon Country reach east to the Continental Divide, thus including all of Idaho and parts of western Montana. Sometimes the Pacific Northwest is defined as being the Northwestern United States, often these definitions are made by government agencies whose scope is limited to the United States. Some definitions include, in addition to Washington, Oregon, Idaho and British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, western Montana, the coast of northern California, the Pacific Northwest has been occupied by a diverse array of indigenous peoples for millennia. The Pacific Coast is seen by scholars as a major coastal migration route in the settlement of the Americas by late Pleistocene peoples moving from northeast Asia into the Americas. Other evidence for human occupation dating back as much as 14,500 years ago is emerging from Paisley Caves in south-central Oregon, however, despite such research, the coastal migration hypothesis is still subject to considerable debate. Due in part to the richness of Pacific Northwest Coast and river fisheries, in the interior of the Pacific Northwest, the indigenous peoples, at the time of European contact, had a diversity of cultures and societies. Some areas were home to mobile and egalitarian societies, others, especially along major rivers such as the Columbia and Fraser, had very complex, affluent, sedentary societies rivaling those of the coast. In British Columbia and Southeast Alaska, the Tlingit and Haida erected large, throughout the Pacific Northwest, thousands of indigenous people live, and some continue to practice their rich cultural traditions, organizing their societies around cedar and salmon
6.
Intraplate earthquake
–
An intraplate earthquake occurs in the interior of a tectonic plate, whereas an interplate earthquake is one that occurs at a plate boundary. Interplate earthquakes, which occur at plate boundaries, are more common, nonetheless, very large intraplate earthquakes can inflict heavy damage, particularly because such areas are not accustomed to earthquakes and buildings are usually not seismically retrofitted. The surface of the Earth is made up of seven primary and eight secondary tectonic plates, the large plates move very slowly, owing to convection currents within the mantle below the crust. Because they do not all move in the direction, plates often directly collide or move laterally along each other. Relatively few earthquakes occur in environments, most occur on faults near plate margins. By definition, intraplate earthquakes do not occur near plate boundaries, compared to earthquakes near plate boundaries, intraplate earthquakes are not well understood, and the hazards associated with them may be difficult to quantify. The Charleston quake was particularly surprising because, unlike Boston and New York, in 2001, a large intraplate earthquake devastated the region of Gujarat, India. The earthquake occurred far from any plate boundaries, which meant the region above the epicenter was unprepared for earthquakes, in particular, the Kutch district suffered tremendous damage, where the death toll was over 12,000 and the total death toll was higher than 20,000. The 1888 earthquake in Río de la Plata, Brazil, was also an intraplate quake, many cities live with the seismic risk of a rare, large intraplate earthquake. The cause of earthquakes is often uncertain. In many cases, the fault is deeply buried. Under these circumstances it is difficult to calculate the exact seismic hazard for a given city, some progress is being made in understanding the fault mechanics driving these earthquakes. Scientists continue to search for the causes of earthquakes. The best success has come with detailed micro-seismic monitoring, involving dense arrays of seismometers, in this manner, very small earthquakes associated with a causative fault can be located with great accuracy, and in most cases these line up in patterns consistent with faulting. Cryoseisms can sometimes be mistaken for intraplate earthquakes, New Madrid Seismic Zone Saint Lawrence rift system Stein, S. and S. Mazzotti. Continental Intraplate Earthquakes, Science and Policy Issues, Geological Society of America, Special Paper 425
7.
Epicenter
–
The term was coined by the Irish seismologist Robert Mallet. The word, however, is misused to mean center. In seismology, the epicenter is the point on the Earths surface directly above the point where the fault begins to rupture, however, in larger events, the length of the fault rupture is much longer, and damage can be spread across the rupture zone. During an earthquake seismic waves propagate spherically out from the hypocenter, outside of the seismic shadow zone both types of wave can be detected but, due to their different velocities and paths through the Earth, they arrive at different times. This distance is called the distance, commonly measured in °. Once epicentral distances have been calculated from at least three seismographic measuring stations, it is a matter to find out where the epicenter was located using trilateration. Epicentral distance is used in calculating seismic magnitudes developed by Richter. Epicenter is frequently misused when not employed in the context of seismology and it is often utilized as an alternative to centre. For example, Travel is restricted in the Chinese province thought to be the epicentre of the SARS outbreak, garners Modern American Usage gives several examples of such misuse. However, Garner notes that these misusages may be metaphorical uses of the term to describe focal points of unstable and potentially destructive environments
8.
Puget Sound
–
Puget Sound /ˈpjuːdʒɪt/ is a sound along the northwestern coast of the U. S. state of Washington, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and part of the Salish Sea. Flow through Deception Pass is approximately equal to 2% of the tidal exchange between Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Puget Sound extends approximately 100 miles from Deception Pass in the north to Olympia and its average depth is 450 feet and its maximum depth, off Point Jefferson between Indianola and Kingston, is 930 feet. The depth of the basin, between the southern tip of Whidbey Island and Tacoma, Washington, is approximately 600 feet. Since 2009, the term Salish Sea has been established by the United States Board on Geographic Names as the waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Sometimes the terms Puget Sound and Puget Sound and adjacent waters are used for not only Puget Sound proper but also for waters to the north, such as Bellingham Bay and the San Juan Islands region. The term Puget Sound is used not just for the body of water, major cities on the sound include Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, and Everett, Washington. Puget Sound is also the second largest estuary in the United States, in 1792 George Vancouver gave the name Pugets Sound to the waters south of the Tacoma Narrows, in honor of Peter Puget, a Huguenot lieutenant accompanying him on the Vancouver Expedition. This name later came to be used for the north of Tacoma Narrows as well. The USGS defines Puget Sound as all the south of three entrances from the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The main entrance at Admiralty Inlet is defined as a line between Point Wilson on the Olympic Peninsula, and Point Partridge on Whidbey Island. The second entrance is at Deception Pass along a line from West Point on Whidbey Island, to Deception Island, the third entrance is at the south end of the Swinomish Channel, which connects Skagit Bay and Padilla Bay. Under this definition, Puget Sound includes the waters of Hood Canal, Admiralty Inlet, Possession Sound, Saratoga Passage and it does not include Bellingham Bay, Padilla Bay, the waters of the San Juan Islands or anything farther north. Another definition, given by NOAA, subdivides Puget Sound into five basins or regions, four of these correspond to areas within the USGS definition, but the fifth one, called Northern Puget Sound includes a large additional region. It is defined as bounded to the north by the boundary with Canada. Kruckeberg uses the term Puget Sound and adjacent waters, continental ice sheets have repeatedly advanced and retreated from the Puget Sound region. The most recent glacial period, called the Fraser Glaciation, had three phases, or stades. S. Since each new advance and retreat of ice erodes away much of the evidence of ice ages
9.
Olympia, Washington
–
Olympia is the capital of the U. S. state of Washington and the county seat of Thurston County. It was incorporated on January 28,1859, the population was documented as 46,478 in the 2010 census. The city borders Lacey to the east and Tumwater to the south, Olympia is a major cultural center of the Puget Sound region. Olympia is located 60 miles southwest of Seattle, the largest city in the state of Washington, the site of Olympia has been home to Lushootseed-speaking peoples for thousands of years, including Squaxin, Nisqually, Puyallup, Chehalis, Suquamish, and Duwamish. The first recorded visit by Europeans was in 1792 when Peter Puget, in 1846, Edmund Sylvester and Levi Smith jointly claimed the land that now comprises downtown Olympia. In 1851, the U. S. Congress established the Customs District of Puget Sound for Washington Territory and its population steadily expanded from Oregon Trail immigrants. In 1850, the settled on the name Olympia, at the suggestion of local resident Colonel Isaac N. Ebey. The area began to be served by a fleet of steamboats known as the Puget Sound Mosquito Fleet. In 1896, Olympia became the home of the Olympia Brewing Company, the 1949 Olympia earthquake damaged many historic buildings beyond repair, and they were demolished. Parts of the city suffered damage from earthquakes in 1965 and 2001. In 1967, the legislature approved the creation of The Evergreen State College in Olympia. Since 1984, Olympia has also been home to the South Puget Sound Community College, Olympia has become a hub for artists and musicians, and has been named one of the best college towns in the nation for its vibrant downtown and access to outdoor activities. Olympia is located at 47°2′33″N 122°53′35″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 19.68 square miles, of which 17.82 sq mi is land and 1.86 sq mi is water. The city of Olympia is located at the end of Puget Sound on Budd Inlet. The Deschutes River estuary was dammed in 1951 to create Capitol Lake, much of the lower area of downtown Olympia sits on reclaimed land. The cities of Lacey and Tumwater border Olympia, the region surrounding Olympia has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, whereas the local microclimate due to its dry summers and cool July and August overnight lows. It is part of USDA Hardiness zone 8a, with isolated pockets around Puget Sound falling under zone 8b, most of western Washingtons weather is brought in by weather systems that form near the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. It contains cold moist air, which brings western Washington cold rain, cloudiness, November through January are Olympias rainiest months
10.
Oregon
–
Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
11.
Canada
–
Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
12.
Eastern Washington
–
Eastern Washington is the portion of the US state of Washington east of the Cascade Range. The region contains the city of Spokane, the Tri-Cities, the Columbia River and the Grand Coulee Dam, the Hanford Nuclear Reservation and the farmlands of the Yakima Valley. Unlike in Western Washington, the climate is dry, including some desert environments, a significant difference between Eastern Washington and the western half of the state is its climate. While the west half of the state is located in an oceanic climate. Also, due to being farther from the sea, the east side has both hotter summers and colder winters than the west, most communities in Eastern Washington, for example, have significant yearly snowfall, while in the west snowfall is minimal and not seen every year. The east and west do still have some traits in common, though, more rainfall in winter than summer, a lack of severe storms. There is some variation in rainfall throughout Eastern Washington. Generally, lower elevations are hotter and drier than higher elevations. This is easily seen in the comparison between low-elevation Richland with higher elevation Spokane, compared to Western Washington, Eastern Washington has roughly twice the land area and one-third the population. According to the U. S. Census Bureau the population estimate as of July 2014 was 1,547,303, the population growth rate between the two is roughly the same. Of Washingtons nine Congressional districts, Eastern Washington exactly encompasses two, aside from a portion of the 4th in Skamania County. Eastern Washington hosts a number of world-renowned universities including three of the five public universities. Bills in the Washington State Legislature which would have requested the United States Congress to take up the question were proposed in 1996,1999,2005, proposed names for the new state have included Lincoln, Columbia, Liberty, or simply Eastern Washington. Many of these proposals were to include the Idaho Panhandle as part of the state of Lincoln. Eastern Washington tends to vote Republican, whereas Western Washington usually supports the Democrats
13.
Idaho
–
Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
14.
Geology of the Pacific Northwest
–
The geology of the Pacific Northwest includes the composition, structure, physical properties and the processes that shape the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada. The geology of the region much of the areas scenic beauty and also causes periodic catastrophes. There are at least five provinces in the area, the Cascade Volcanoes, the Columbia Plateau, the North Cascades, the Coast Mountains. The Cascade Volcanoes are a volcanic region along the western side of the Pacific Northwest. The Coast Mountains and Insular Mountains are a strip of mountains along the coast of British Columbia, the geology of the Pacific Northwest is vast, complex and confusing. Most of the region was formed about 200 million years ago as the North American Plate started to drift westward during the rupture of Pangaea. Since that date, the edge of North America has grown westward as a succession of island arcs. The Cascades Province forms a band extending from southwestern British Columbia to Northern California. Within this region, nearly 20 major volcanic centers lie in sequence like a string of explosive pearls, rising above this volcanic platform are a few strikingly large volcanoes that dominate the landscape. The Cascade volcanoes define the Pacific Northwest section of the Ring of Fire, the Ring of Fire is also known for its frequent earthquakes. The volcanoes and earthquakes arise from a source, subduction. Beneath the Cascade Volcanic Arc, an oceanic plate plunges beneath the North American Plate. As the oceanic slab sinks deep into the Earths interior beneath the continental plate, the water vapor rises into the pliable mantle above the subducting plate, causing some of the mantle to melt. This newly formed magma rises toward the Earths surface to erupt, a close-up look at the Cascades reveals a more complicated picture than a simple subduction zone. Not far off the coast of the North Pacific lies a spreading ridge, on one side of the spreading ridge new Pacific Plate crust is made, then moves away from the ridge. On the other side of the ridge the Juan de Fuca. There are some features at the Cascade subduction zone. The probable explanation lies in the rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American Plates and these two plates converge at 3–4 centimeters per year at present
15.
Puget Sound faults
–
The Puget Sound faults under the heavily populated Puget Sound region of Washington state form a regional complex of interrelated seismogenic geologic faults. Intraslab earthquakes, such as the M6.72001 Nisqually earthquake, relatively shallow crustal earthquakes, generally less than 25 km deep, caused by stresses and faulting in the near-surface crustal structures. The energy released depends on the length of the fault, the faults here are believed capable of generating earthquakes as great as M6 or 7. While the great subduction events release much energy, that energy is spread over a large area, the energy of the somewhat smaller Benioff earthquakes is likewise diluted over a relatively large area. The largest intra-crustal earthquakes have about the total energy, but since they re closer to the surface they will cause more powerful shaking. The Puget Sound region is not just potentially seismic, it is actively seismic, the southern limit nearly matches the southern limit of the glaciation, possibly the seismicity reflects rebound of the upper crust after being stressed by the weight of the glacial ice. The first definite indications of most of these came from gravitational mapping in 1965. As of 1985 only the Saddle Mountain Faults had been shown to have Holocene activity, not until 1992 was the first of the lowland faults, the Seattle Fault, confirmed to be an actual fault with Holocene activity, and the barest minimum of its history established. Aeromagnetic surveys, seismic tomography, and other studies have contributed to locating and understanding these faults. Western Washington lies over the Cascadia subduction zone, where the Juan de Fuca Plate is subducting towards the east. This is being obliquely overridden by the North American plate coming out of the northeast and this bend has distorted the subducting slab into an arch that has lifted the Olympic Mountains and prevented them from subducting. For the past 50 million years or so these have been thrust by subduction up against the North Cascades, which sit on the North American Plate. This forms a pocket or trough – what one local geologist calls the big hole between the mountains – between the Cascades on the east and the Olympic Mountains and Willapa Hills on the west and these terranes were covered by the basalts of the Crescent Formation. Folding and faulting has exposed these basalts in some places, the basins have been filled by various sedimentary formations. Glacially deposited and shaped fill covers most of the elevations of Puget Sound. Some upper-crustal formations have been pushed onto the older basement of the North Cascades, there is a general north or northeast directed compression within the Lowland causing folds, which eventually break to become dip-slip thrust or reverse faults. Some strike-slip movement is expected along the peripheral faults, further complicating this is a feature of unknown structure and origin, the Olympic-Wallowa Lineament. This is a seemingly accidental alignment of features that runs roughly east-southeast from the north side of the Olympic Peninsula to the Wallowa Mountains in northeastern Oregon
16.
Juan de Fuca Plate
–
It is named after the explorer of the same name. One of the smallest of Earths tectonic plates, the Juan de Fuca Plate is a remnant part of the once-vast Farallon Plate, the Juan de Fuca plate system has its origins with Panthalassas oceanic basin and crust. This oceanic crust has primarily been subducted under the North American plate, Panthalassas oceanic plate remnants are understood to be the Juan de Fuca, Gorda, Cocos and the Nazca plates, all four of which were part of the Farallon Plate. The Juan de Fuca plate is bounded on the south by the Blanco Fracture Zone, on the north by the Nootka Fault and along the west by the Pacific Plate. The Juan de Fuca plate itself has since fractured into three pieces, and the name is applied to the plate in some references. The three fragments are differentiated as such, the piece to the south is known as the Gorda Plate, the separate pieces are demarcated by the large offsets of the undersea spreading zone. These in turn are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the last megathrust earthquake at the Cascadia subduction zone was the 1700 Cascadia earthquake, estimated to have a moment magnitude of 8.7 to 9.2. Based on carbon dating of tsunami deposits, it occurred around 1700. As reported in National Geographic on 8 December 2003, Japanese records indicate the quake caused a tsunami in Japan, in 2008, small earthquakes were observed within the plate. The unusual quakes were described as more than 600 quakes over the past 10 days in a basin 150 miles southwest of Newport. The quakes were unlike most quakes in that they did not follow the pattern of a quake, followed by smaller aftershocks, rather. Furthermore, they did not occur on the plate boundary. The subterranean quakes were heard on hydrophones, and scientists described the sounds as similar to thunder, the basaltic formations of this plate could potentially be suitable for long-term CO2 sequestration as part of a carbon capture and storage system. Injection of CO2 would lead to the formation of stable carbonates and it is estimated that 100 years of US carbon emissions could be stored securely, without risk of leakage back into the atmosphere. Geology of the Pacific Northwest Plate tectonics National Geographic on Japanese records verifying an American earthquake Cascadia tectonic history with map
17.
Plate tectonics
–
The theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s, the lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet, is broken up into tectonic plates. The Earths lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates, where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary, convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along plate boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually, tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction carries plates into the mantle, the material lost is balanced by the formation of new crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the surface of the lithosphere remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle, earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking or gradual expansion of the globe. Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earths lithosphere has greater strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the result in convection. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the ridge and drag, with downward suction. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by forces of the Sun. The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to other is unclear. The outer layers of the Earth are divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere and this is based on differences in mechanical properties and in the method for the transfer of heat. Mechanically, the lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, while the asthenosphere is hotter, in terms of heat transfer, the lithosphere loses heat by conduction, whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by convection and has a nearly adiabatic temperature gradient. The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates, Plate motions range up to a typical 10–40 mm/year, to about 160 mm/year. The driving mechanism behind this movement is described below, tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by either or both of two types of crustal material, oceanic crust and continental crust. Average oceanic lithosphere is typically 100 km thick, its thickness is a function of its age, as passes, it conductively cools
18.
Subduction
–
Subduction is a geological process that takes place at convergent boundaries of tectonic plates where one plate moves under another and is forced or sinks due to gravity into the mantle. Regions where this occurs are known as subduction zones. Rates of subduction are typically in centimeters per year, with the rate of convergence being approximately two to eight centimeters per year along most plate boundaries. Plates include both oceanic crust and continental crust, stable subduction zones involve the oceanic lithosphere of one plate sliding beneath the continental or oceanic lithosphere of another plate due to the higher density of the oceanic lithosphere. That is, the lithosphere is always oceanic while the overriding lithosphere may or may not be oceanic. Subduction zones are sites that have a rate of volcanism, earthquakes. Subduction zones are sites of convective downwelling of Earths lithosphere, subduction zones exist at convergent plate boundaries where one plate of oceanic lithosphere converges with another plate. The descending slab, the plate, is over-ridden by the leading edge of the other plate. The slab sinks at an angle of approximately twenty-five to forty-five degrees to Earths surface and this sinking is driven by the temperature difference between the subducting oceanic lithosphere and the surrounding mantle asthenosphere, as the colder oceanic lithosphere is, on average, denser. At a depth of approximately 80–120 kilometers, the basalt of the oceanic crust is converted to a rock called eclogite. At that point, the density of the oceanic crust increases and provides additional negative buoyancy and it is at subduction zones that Earths lithosphere, oceanic crust, sedimentary layers and some trapped water are recycled into the deep mantle. Earth is so far the only planet where subduction is known to occur, subduction is the driving force behind plate tectonics, and without it, plate tectonics could not occur. Subduction zones dive down into the mantle beneath 55,000 kilometers of convergent plate margins, subduction zones burrow deeply but are imperfectly camouflaged, and geophysics and geochemistry can be used to study them. Not surprisingly, the shallowest portions of subduction zones are known best, subduction zones are strongly asymmetric for the first several hundred kilometers of their descent. They start to go down at oceanic trenches and their descents are marked by inclined zones of earthquakes that dip away from the trench beneath the volcanoes and extend down to the 660-kilometer discontinuity. Subduction zones are defined by the array of earthquakes known as the Wadati–Benioff zone after the two scientists who first identified this distinctive aspect. Subduction zone earthquakes occur at greater depths than elsewhere on Earth, such deep earthquakes may be driven by deep phase transformations, thermal runaway, the subducting basalt and sediment are normally rich in hydrous minerals and clays. Additionally, large quantities of water are introduced into cracks and fractures created as the slab bends downward
19.
North American Plate
–
The North American Plate is a tectonic plate covering most of North America, Greenland, Cuba, the Bahamas, extreme northeastern Russia, and parts of Iceland and the Azores. It extends eastward to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and westward to the Chersky Range in eastern Siberia, the plate includes both continental and oceanic crust. The interior of the continental landmass includes an extensive granitic core called a craton. Along most of the edges of this craton are fragments of material called terranes. It is thought that much of North America west of the Rocky Mountains is composed of such terranes, the parallel Septentrional and Enriquillo-Plantain Garden faults, which run through the island of Hispaniola and bound the Gonâve Microplate, are also a part of the boundary. On the northerly boundary is a continuation of the Mid-Atlantic ridge called the Gakkel Ridge, the rest of the boundary in the far northwestern part of the plate extends into Siberia. On its western edge, the Farallon Plate has been subducting under the North American Plate since the Jurassic Period, the Juan de Fuca, Explorer, Gorda, Rivera, Cocos and Nazca plates are remnants of the Farallon Plate. The boundary along the Gulf of California is complex and it is generally accepted that a piece of the North American Plate was broken off and transported north as the East Pacific Rise propagated northward, creating the Gulf of California. A few hotspots are thought to exist below the North American Plate, the most notable hotspots are the Yellowstone, Raton, and Anahim hotspots. The Yellowstone and Anahim hotspots are thought to have first arrived during the Miocene period and are still geologically active, for the most part, the North American Plate moves in roughly a southwest direction away from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. One recent study suggests that a convective current is propelling the plate. Geologic timeline of Western North America New Madrid Seismic Zone - an ancient intraplate fault zone within the North American Plate, notable as early as 1699 Notes
20.
Cascadia subduction zone
–
The Cascadia subduction zone is a convergent plate boundary that stretches from northern Vancouver Island to northern California. It is a long, sloping subduction zone that separates the Explorer, Juan de Fuca, and Gorda plates, on the one hand. The denser oceanic plate is subducting beneath the less dense continental plate offshore of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, the North American Plate is moving in a southwest direction, overriding the oceanic plate. The Cascadia subduction zone is where the two plates meet, tectonic processes active in the Cascadia subduction zone region include accretion, subduction, deep earthquakes, and active volcanism of the Cascades. This volcanism has included such notable eruptions as Mount Mazama about 7,500 years ago, Mount Meager about 2,350 years ago, and Mount St. Helens in 1980. Major cities affected by a disturbance in this zone include Vancouver and Victoria, British Columbia, Seattle, Washington. In the 1960s, underground fractures were uncovered by oil companies in Puget Sound and these were believed to be inactive through the 1990s. In the 1980s, geophysicists Tom Heaton and Hiroo Kanamori of Caltech compared the generally quiet Cascadia to more active subduction zones elsewhere in the Ring of Fire, at the time of the 1700 earthquake, there were no written records of the event in Cascadia. Orally-transmitted legends from the Olympic Peninsula area talk of a battle between a thunderbird and a whale. Therefore, in a 2005 study, seismologist Ruth Ludwin set out to collect, reports from the Huu-ay-aht, Makah, Hoh, Quileute, Yurok, and Duwamish peoples referred to earthquakes and saltwater floods. This collection of data allowed her team to come up with a date range for the event. During low tide one day in March 1986, paleogeologist Brian Atwater dug along Neah Bay using a nejiri gama, underneath the top layer of sand, he uncovered a distinct plant—arrowgrass—that had grown in a layer of marsh soil. This was proof that the ground had suddenly sunk under sea level, the events had happened so quickly as to cause the top layer of sand to seal away any air, thus preserving the centuries-old plants. In 1987, Atwater mounted another expedition paddling up the Copalis River with Dr. David Yamaguchi, who was then studying the eruptions of Mount St. Helens. The pair happened upon a section of ghost forest, so-called due to the dead, originally thought to have died slowly due to a gradual rise in sea level, closer inspection yielded a different story, the land plummeted up to two meters during an earthquake. Having initially tested spruce using tree-ring dating, they found that the stumps were too rotted to count all the outer rings. However, upon having examined those of the red cedar and comparing them to the living specimens meters away from the banks. There were rings up until the year 1690, indicating that the incident had occurred shortly thereafter, root samples confirmed their conclusion, narrowing the time frame to the winter of 1699 to 1700
21.
Stress (mechanics)
–
For example, when a solid vertical bar is supporting a weight, each particle in the bar pushes on the particles immediately below it. When a liquid is in a container under pressure, each particle gets pushed against by all the surrounding particles. The container walls and the pressure-inducing surface push against them in reaction and these macroscopic forces are actually the net result of a very large number of intermolecular forces and collisions between the particles in those molecules. Strain inside a material may arise by various mechanisms, such as stress as applied by external forces to the material or to its surface. Any strain of a material generates an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a spring. In liquids and gases, only deformations that change the volume generate persistent elastic stress, however, if the deformation is gradually changing with time, even in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change. Elastic and viscous stresses are usually combined under the mechanical stress. Significant stress may exist even when deformation is negligible or non-existent, stress may exist in the absence of external forces, such built-in stress is important, for example, in prestressed concrete and tempered glass. Stress may also be imposed on a material without the application of net forces, for example by changes in temperature or chemical composition, stress that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition. In some branches of engineering, the stress is occasionally used in a looser sense as a synonym of internal force. For example, in the analysis of trusses, it may refer to the total traction or compression force acting on a beam, since ancient times humans have been consciously aware of stress inside materials. Until the 17th century the understanding of stress was largely intuitive and empirical, with those tools, Augustin-Louis Cauchy was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for stress in a homogeneous medium. Cauchy observed that the force across a surface was a linear function of its normal vector, and, moreover. The understanding of stress in liquids started with Newton, who provided a formula for friction forces in parallel laminar flow. Stress is defined as the force across a small boundary per unit area of that boundary, following the basic premises of continuum mechanics, stress is a macroscopic concept. In a fluid at rest the force is perpendicular to the surface, in a solid, or in a flow of viscous liquid, the force F may not be perpendicular to S, hence the stress across a surface must be regarded a vector quantity, not a scalar. Moreover, the direction and magnitude depend on the orientation of S. Thus the stress state of the material must be described by a tensor, called the stress tensor, with respect to any chosen coordinate system, the Cauchy stress tensor can be represented as a symmetric matrix of 3×3 real numbers
22.
Mantle (geology)
–
The mantle is a layer inside a terrestrial planet and some other rocky planetary bodies. For a mantle to form, the body must be large enough to have undergone the process of planetary differentiation by density. The mantle surrounds the planetary core, the mantle is surrounded by the crust. The terrestrial planets, the Moon, two of Jupiters moons and the asteroid Vesta each have a made of silicate rock. Interpretation of spacecraft data suggests that at least two moons of Jupiter, as well as Titan and Triton each have a mantle made of ice or other solid volatile substances. The interior of Earth, similar to the terrestrial planets, is divided into layers of different composition. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core, Earths mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of 2,886 kilometres. The mantle makes up about 84% of Earths volume and it is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid. The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, past episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface. A thin crust, the part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km thick. In some places under the ocean the mantle is exposed on the surface of Earth. The mantle is divided into sections which are based upon results from seismology and these layers are the following, the upper mantle, the transition zone, the lower mantle, and anomalous core–mantle boundary with a variable thickness. The uppermost mantle plus overlying crust are relatively rigid and form the lithosphere, below the lithosphere the upper mantle becomes notably more plastic. In some regions below the lithosphere, the shear velocity is reduced. Inge Lehmann discovered a seismic discontinuity at about 220 km depth, although this discontinuity has been found in other studies, the transition zone is an area of great complexity, it physically separates the upper and lower mantle. Very little is known about the lower mantle apart from that it appears to be relatively seismically homogeneous, the D layer at the core–mantle boundary separates the mantle from the core. A principal source of the heat that drives plate tectonics is the decay of uranium, thorium. The mantle differs substantially from the crust in its properties as the direct consequence of the difference in composition
23.
1965 Puget Sound earthquake
–
The 1965 Puget Sound earthquake occurred at 08,29 PDT on April 29 within the Puget Sound region of Washington State. It had a magnitude of 6.7 on the moment magnitude scale and it caused the deaths of seven people and about $12.5 million in damage. The western part of Washington State lies above the Cascadia subduction zone, the seismicity of this region consists of rare great megathrust earthquakes, like the 1700 Cascadia earthquake and more common earthquakes originating from within the subducting slab. These events relate to normal faulting, associated with the bending of the slab, the earthquake had an estimated magnitude of 6.6 Ms,6.5 Mb and 6.7 Mw. At 10–20 seconds the duration of strong motion was relatively short. The earthquakes focal mechanism indicates that it resulted from normal faulting within the Juan de Fuca slab, there were no recorded aftershocks, similar to observations from the 1949 Olympia and 2001 Nisqually earthquakes and a characteristic of such intraslab events. The pattern of shaking intensity was somewhat variable, with a region with an intensity of VII containing localized areas of intensity VIII. These variations generally relate closely to the geology, with higher intensities recorded where there was either artificial fill or alluvium. The observed pattern of intensities was very similar to those from the 1949 Olympia and 2001 Nisqually earthquakes, there was minor damage recorded over a large area, including fallen chimneys and cracked mortar. The two Boeing plants at Renton and Seattle, both built on artificial fill and mudflats, suffered major damage, the State Capitol building suffered cracking to the dome and supporting buttresses, leaving it in a condition where a major aftershock could have caused complete collapse. Single-story unreinforced brick buildings performed the worst in the earthquake with wood-framed structures generally performing very well, three people were killed by falling debris in the Duwamish valley floor area of Seattle, and four others died from heart attacks. A peak ground acceleration of 0.204 g was measured at Olympia, the damage and deaths in the 1965 earthquake helped bring about the installation of the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network in 1969
24.
Seattle
–
Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
25.
Masonry
–
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block. Masonry is generally a durable form of construction. However, the used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer, Masonry is commonly used for walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations, Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement offers much greater tensile, the use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Extreme weather, under circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a foundation, such as reinforced concrete. Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend well to mechanization. Masonry consists of components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood. Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength unless reinforced, the tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added, a masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural, the brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties. There is typically an air gap between the veneer and the structural wall. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion
26.
First Hill, Seattle
–
First Hill is a neighborhood in Seattle, Washington, named for the hill on which it is located. The hill, in turn, is so named for being the first hill one encounters traveling east from downtown Seattle toward Lake Washington, First Hill is bounded on the west by Interstate 5, beyond which is Downtown, on the north by E. Pike and E. Madison Streets, beyond which is Capitol Hill, main St. beyond which is the International District. The City of Seattle provides conflicting information about its eastern limit, beyond which are Cherry Hill, some describe it as being bounded by Broadway and Boren Avenues, while others describe it as being bounded by 12th Avenue. First Hill rose to popularity in the 1890s as a close enough to downtown for convenience. More recently, local philanthropist and businesswoman Patsy Bullitt Collins resided in a First Hill condominium, First Hill has been home to Seattle University, a private Jesuit university, since 1891. James Cathedral, and Seattle First Baptist Church, First Hills major thoroughfares, assuming its greatest possible extent, include Madison, James, Cherry, and Jefferson Streets and Yesler Way and 9th, Boren, and Broadway. A Link Light Rail station was planned for First Hill. Instead, the First Hill Streetcar was built on Broadway and Jackson Street to connect First Hill with the International District / Chinatown, Seattle City Clerk, First Hill neighborhood Seattle Photographs Collection, First Hill - University of Washington Digital Collections
27.
Pioneer Square, Seattle
–
Pioneer Square is a neighborhood in the southwest corner of Downtown Seattle, Washington, USA. It was once the heart of the city, Seattles founders settled there in 1852, the early structures in the neighborhood were mostly wooden, and nearly all burned in the Great Seattle Fire of 1889. The neighborhood takes its name from a triangular plaza near the corner of First Avenue and Yesler Way. The Pioneer Square-Skid Road Historic District, a district including that plaza. Like virtually all Seattle neighborhoods, the Pioneer Square neighborhood lacks definitive borders, in some places, the Pioneer Square-Skid Road Historic District extends beyond these borders. It includes Union Station east of 4th Avenue S. and several city blocks south of S. King Street, the mainland shore roughly followed what is now Yesler Way to about Fourth Avenue, then ran southeast, at an angle of about 45 degrees to the current shoreline. Slightly inland were steep bluffs, which were smoothed away by regrading in the late 19th. Yesler Way, originally Mill Street, is the main east-west street through the Pioneer Square neighborhood, immediately south of the square itself, it was the dividing line between Maynards original claim and Borens. One of the earliest names, and one that well into second half of the 20th century, was Skid Row. There were parlor houses with marquees, celebrity madames—among them Lou Graham, Lila Young, each had a hundred or more cubicles—cribs—and they were not known for any particular honesty in their dealings. The city health department conducted inspections and attempted to keep venereal disease under control, besides the brothels there were an ungodly mixture of dives, dumps. Pawnshops, hash houses, dope parlors and, the et cetera that kept the police guessing. Box houses prospered, part theater, part bar, part brothel, police only dared enter the neighborhood in teams. Perhaps the only safe haven in the neighborhood was the saloon Our House, in 1870, Father Francis Xavier Prefontaine founded Seattles first Catholic Church, the Church of Our Lady of Good Help in the heart of this district, at Third Avenue South and Washington Street. Two decades later, Lou Graham opened the citys most famous parlor house diagonally across the street, Father Prefontaine is commemorated by a street in the neighborhood, Prefontaine Place. By the end of 1889, Seattle had become the largest city in Washington with 40,000 residents and that same year, the Great Seattle Fire resulted in the complete destruction of Pioneer Square. Fortunately for the neighborhood the economy was strong at the time, many of the new buildings show the influence of the Romanesque Revival architectural mode, although influence of earlier Victorian modes is also widespread. Because of drainage problems new development was built at a higher level literally burying the remains of old Pioneer Square, anticipating the planned regrade, many buildings were built with two entrances, one at the old, low level, and another higher up
28.
SoDo, Seattle
–
SoDo, alternatively SODO, is a neighborhood in Seattle, Washington, that makes up part of the citys Industrial District. SoDo was originally named for being located south of the dome, but since the demolition in 2000. The moniker was adopted in the 1990s after the renaming of the Sears building to the SODO Center and it includes Seattles downtown stadium district of Safeco Field and CenturyLink Field. The Mariners popular marketing campaign in the early 2000s used the SoDo moniker in the catchphrase SoDo Mojo, SoDo deliberately echoes SoHo in New York City, where, during the 1970s, cheap spaces vacated by departing factories were converted by artists into lofts and studios. SoDo has undergone a process but has not experienced much of the gentrification experienced by its putative model. Some of SoDos warehouse buildings remain in their use, others have been carved up for artists lofts, art galleries. One building directly across from Safeco Field houses Pyramid Breweries, Inc. downstairs, as one travels further south along First Avenue S. these conversions peter out, and light manufacturing, warehouses, and warehouse-style retail stores predominate. According to the 2000 U. S. Census, SoDo has a population of 2,602, with a median age of 41.2,458 residences are owner-occupied and 536 are rented. The average annual income is given as $42,208, the racial breakdown is 41% White, 28% Asian, 14% Black, 9% Hispanic/Latino, 3% American Indian/Alaska Native. SoDo main thoroughfares are First and Fourth Avenues S. and Alaskan Way S. and S. Lander and Holgate Streets, the western terminus of Interstate 90 is in SoDo, which travels 3,101 miles east towards Boston, Massachusetts. The neighborhood is served by public transit service. Sound Transit operates Central Link light rail service through the neighborhood, the SODO Busway runs along 5th Avenue South and carries bus routes from King County Metro and Sound Transit Express. Seattle/Sodo-Georgetown travel guide from Wikivoyage SoDo rezone pits industry against developers, Seattle Daily Journal of Commerce and its gritty, blue-collar and sometimes home Seattle Post-Intelligencer, April 11,1998 The proposed SODO Urban Art Corridor The SODO Business Association
29.
Trinity Parish Church (Seattle)
–
Trinity Parish Church is an historic church located in the First Hill neighborhood of Seattle, Washington, that was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1991. It is an Episcopal congregation in the Diocese of Olympia, Trinity Parish Church, Seattles first Episcopal church, was established on August 13,1865. The congregations first church building, which was located at Third Avenue and this wooden building was consumed in the Great Fire of 1889. The church then moved to its present site, at 609 Eighth Avenue and it was designed by Chicago-based architect Henry F. Starbuck in English Gothic Revival style, and its construction was overseen by Charles A. Alexander. In 1902, a fire swept through the interior, leaving only the exterior walls, Seattle architect John Graham, Sr. was hired to rebuild the church as well as increase its size. Despite the additions, Graham maintained the English Gothic Revival style while adding German stained glass windows, the stained glass windows were designed by the Franz Mayer & Co. of Munich, Germany. The Carrara marble altar was designed and fabricated in Italy with mother of pearl, ceramic tile, the Rev. Jeffrey Shilling Gill is the current rector of Trinity Parish Church. Trinity is a parish in the The Episcopal Diocese of Olympia, known as the Episcopal Church in Western Washington, the church building was designated a Seattle Landmark in 1976 and has also received state landmark status. It was added to the U. S. National Register of Historic Places, the building was severely damaged in the 2001 Nisqually earthquake, but the altar, reredos and windows all survived fully intact. It was rebuilt, restored and earthquake-retrofitted and this work was completed in late 2005. Architects for this project were Bassetti Architects, media related to Trinity Parish Church at Wikimedia Commons Trinity Parish Church
30.
Air traffic control
–
The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of air traffic, and provide information and other support for pilots. In some countries, ATC plays a security or defensive role, to prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of empty space around it at all times. Many aircraft also have collision avoidance systems, which provide additional safety by warning pilots when other aircraft get too close, in many countries, ATC provides services to all private, military, and commercial aircraft operating within its airspace. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to obey, or advisories that pilots may, at their discretion, disregard. Pursuant to requirements of the International Civil Aviation Organization, ATC operations are conducted either in the English language or the used by the station on the ground. In practice, the language for a region is normally used, however. In 1921, Croydon Airport, London was the first airport in the world to air traffic control. In the United States, air traffic control developed three divisions, the first of air mail radio stations was created in 1922 after World War I when the U. S. Post Office began using techniques developed by the Army to direct, over time, the AMRS morphed into flight service stations. Todays flight service stations do not issue instructions, but provide pilots with many other flight related informational services. They do relay control instructions from ATC in areas where service is the only facility with radio or phone coverage. The first airport traffic control tower, regulating arrivals, departures and surface movement of aircraft at a specific airport, approach/departure control facilities were created after adoption of radar in the 1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around larger airports. The first air traffic control center, which directs the movement of aircraft between departure and destination was opened in Newark, NJ in 1935, followed in 1936 by Chicago. The primary method of controlling the airport environment is visual observation from the airport control tower. The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on the airport grounds, surveillance displays are also available to controllers at larger airports to assist with controlling air traffic. Controllers may use a system called secondary surveillance radar for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position of aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, altitude. In adverse weather conditions the tower controllers may also use surface movement radar, surface movement guidance, remote and virtual tower is a system based on air traffic controllers being located somewhere other than at the local airport tower and still able to provide air traffic control services
31.
Washington State Capitol
–
The Washington State Capitol or Legislative Building in Olympia is the home of the government of the state of Washington. It contains chambers for the Washington State Legislature and offices for the governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, Buildings for the Washington Supreme Court, executive agencies and the Washington Governors Mansion are part of the capitol campus. A two-story wood-frame building was constructed on the site, where the legislature met starting in 1854, the legislature formed the State Capitol Commission in 1893 to oversee the creation of a new capitol on the property in Olympia. The commission had a competition to find an architect and chose the submission of Ernest Flagg. Construction began on Flaggs plan, but was stalled by poor economic conditions with only the foundation completed. When the legislature approved an appropriation of additional funds in 1897. Rogers advocated the purchase of the existing Thurston County Courthouse in downtown Olympia, now known as the Old Capitol, the legislature approved the new location and began meeting there in 1905. Wilder and White’s designs were influenced by the Olmsted brothers who served as consultants from 1911 to 1912, construction of the campus began in 1912, and the Temple of Justice was completed in 1920, followed by the Insurance Building and the power and heating plant. After multiple revisions of the plans, the Legislative Building was completed in 1928, additional buildings on the campus were constructed during the next several decades. Rainier, the Capitol Dome and the Capitol Group of buildings on the hill, the design of the Capitol Campus is a grand example of the City Beautiful style of the Progressive era of the early 20th Century. The Capitol Conservatory, built in 1939 by the Works Progress Administration, the campus also hosts many veterans’ memorials. There is even a version of the seal in the floor of the rotunda. Over time, George Washington’s nose has worn down due to traffic on it and it is now roped-off to prevent further damage. The Legislative Building houses the chambers of the Washington State Legislature, peters Basilica in Rome, St. Pauls Cathedral in London, and St. Isaacs Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Flags with this number of stars were never official because of the admission of Idaho shortly after Washington, the building has a rectangular footprint and is constructed of brick and concrete and faced on the exterior with limestone quarried from Wilkeson, Washington. The structure consists of four floors with the dome at the center that reaches a height of 287 ft on the exterior and 175 ft from the floor, the first floor is within the raised base and houses offices. The second and third floors are surrounded by Doric columns and capped with a cornice that encircles the building, the fourth floor is covered with a gabled roof that is situated behind the cornice on the third floor. On the north facade, the entrance is in a framed by eight Corinthian columns reached by 42 granite steps
32.
United States Armed Forces
–
The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
33.
Boeing
–
The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
34.
Alaskan Way Viaduct
–
The Alaskan Way Viaduct is an elevated highway in Seattle, Washington built in three phases from 1949 through 1953 and opened on April 4,1953. It features an elevated section of State Route 99 that runs along the Elliott Bay waterfront in the industrial district. It is the smaller of the two major traffic corridors through Seattle, carrying up to 110,000 vehicles per day. The viaduct was damaged in the 2001 Nisqually earthquake, the initial phase of demolition and removal of the southern viaduct began on October 21,2011. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake destroyed the similarly designed Cypress Street Viaduct in Oakland, the 2001 Nisqually earthquake damaged the viaduct and its supporting Alaskan Way Seawall and required the Washington State Department of Transportation to invest US$14.5 million in emergency repairs. Experts give a 1-in-20 chance that the viaduct could be shut down by an earthquake within the next decade, since the Nisqually earthquake occurred, semi-annual inspections have discovered continuing settlement damage. Due to damage from continuing settlement, a group of researchers, the tunnel would have a south portal in SoDo, near CenturyLink Field, and a north portal near Thomas Street, north of the Battery Street Tunnel. The project is estimated to cost $4.25 billion, with the state, city, the announcement did little to quell the long and heated debate over the viaducts replacement, with several factions expressing their criticism over the tunnel decision. Boring of the tunnel by the boring machine Bertha began on July 30,2013. Tunneling stopped on December 6,2013, after the boring machine struck a steel pipe, boring resumed briefly on January 28–29,2014, stopping again due to damage to the seal system which protects the machines main bearing and damage to several of the butting blades. This caused a delay as it was necessary to dig a 120-foot vertical shaft recovery pit from the surface in order to access and lift the cutterhead for repair. Work was initially expected to resume by March 2015, it was December 2015 before tunnelling recommenced,23 days later boring was halted again after a sinkhole developed on the ground in front of the machine, but resumed a month later. The tunnel is not expected to be completed until 2019, four years behind schedule, in 2016, a citywide ballot measure attempted to build an elevated park along the waterfront after the demolition of the viaduct, utilizing a portion of the existing structure. The attempt failed, with more than 80 percent of voters in Seattle rejecting the measure, heading northbound on State Route 99, the viaduct begins about a mile north of the First Avenue South Bridge, passing over the west end of the Industrial District. Then, at approximately Pike Street, the bridge reverts to an alignment for about ½ mile until the viaducts north end at the entrance to the Battery Street Tunnel. Although the structure of the building only a few inches into the viaduct, it is nonetheless unusual to see part of a building in the road. Embarcadero Freeway, an elevated freeway along the waterfront in San Francisco that was demolished. Gardiner Expressway, a freeway in Toronto with similar future plans
35.
Alaskan Way Seawall
–
The Alaskan Way Seawall is a seawall which runs for approximately 7,166 feet along the Elliott Bay waterfront southwest of downtown Seattle from Bay Street to S. Washington Street. The seawall is being rebuilt in the 2010s as part of a waterfront redevelopment megaproject estimated to cost over one billion dollars, the seawall was built to provide level access to Seattles piers and supports the Alaskan Way Viaduct and Alaskan Way itself, which is a surface street. Completed in 1934, the seawall was built on top of wood piling, despite efforts to prevent marine pest damage when the seawall was designed, after the 2001 Nisqually earthquake, SDOT found that gribbles had consumed all the wooden supports in some places. In addition, everything behind the seawall from Alaskan Way to Western Avenue is built on top of fill, the seawall rebuild project was estimated to cost $350 million as part of an overall waterfront redevelopment budgeted in 2012 at $1.07 billion. Construction began in 2013 and it is scheduled to be complete in 2017, more than a year later and costing $409 million as of September 2015
36.
George W. Bush
–
George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts
37.
Hypocenter
–
A hypocenter is the point of origin of an earthquake or a subsurface nuclear explosion. It is a synonym of the focus, confusingly, the term hypocenter is also used as a synonym for ground zero, the surface point directly beneath a nuclear airburst. An earthquakes hypocenter is the position where the energy stored in the rock is first released. This occurs directly beneath the epicenter, at a known as the focal or hypocentral depth. The focal depth can be calculated from measurements based on wave phenomena. Computing the hypocenters of foreshocks, main shock, and aftershocks of earthquakes allows the three-dimensional plotting of the fault along which movement is occurring, the wave reaches each station based upon how far away it was from the hypocenter. A number of things need to be taken into account, most importantly variations in the speed based upon the materials that it is passing through. With adjustments for velocity changes, the estimate of the hypocenter is made, then a series of linear equations is set up. The equations express the difference between the arrival times and those calculated from the initial estimated hypocenter. The system iterates until the location is pinpointed within the margin of error for the velocity computations, the dictionary definition of hypocenter at Wiktionary Media related to Hypocenters at Wikimedia Commons
38.
1994 Northridge earthquake
–
The 1994 Northridge earthquake occurred on January 17, at 4,30,55 a. m. PST and had its epicenter in Reseda, a neighborhood in the north-central San Fernando Valley region of Los Angeles and it had a duration of approximately 10–20 seconds. The peak ground velocity at the Rinaldi Receiving Station was 183 cm/s, in addition, two 6.0 Mw aftershocks occurred, the first about one minute after the initial event and the second approximately 11 hours later, the strongest of several thousand aftershocks in all. The death toll was 57, with more than 8,700 injured, in addition, property damage was estimated to be between $13 and $40 billion, making it one of the costliest natural disasters in U. S. history. The earthquake struck in the San Fernando Valley about 20 miles northwest of downtown Los Angeles, although given the name Northridge, the epicenter was located in the community of Reseda, it took several days to pinpoint the epicenter in detail. This was the first instance with a hypocenter directly beneath a U. S. city since the 1933 Long Beach earthquake, the National Geophysical Data Center placed the hypocenters geographical coordinates at 34°12′47″N 118°32′13″W and at a depth of 11.4 miles. It occurred on a previously undiscovered fault, now named the Northridge blind thrust fault, several other faults experienced minor rupture during the main shock and other ruptures occurred during large aftershocks, or triggered events. Damage occurred up to 85 miles away, with the most damage in the west San Fernando Valley, the exact number of fatalities is unknown, with sources estimating it at 60 or over 60, to 72, where most estimates fall around 60. The official death toll was placed at 57,33 people died immediately or within a few days from injuries sustained, some counts factor in related events such as a mans suicide possibly inspired by the loss of his business in the disaster. More than 8,700 were injured including 1,600 who required hospitalization, the Northridge Meadows apartment complex was one of the well-known affected areas in which sixteen people were killed as a result of the buildings collapse. The Northridge Fashion Center and California State University, Northridge also sustained very heavy damage—most notably, the earthquake also gained worldwide attention because of damage to the vast freeway network, which serves millions of commuters every day. Because of the morning darkness, he likely did not realize that the elevated roadway below him had collapsed. When the interchange was rebuilt one year later, it was renamed the Clarence Wayne Dean Memorial Interchange in his honor. Additional damage occurred about 50 miles southeast in Anaheim as the scoreboard at Anaheim Stadium collapsed onto several hundred seats, the stadium was vacant at the time. Although several commercial buildings also collapsed, loss of life was minimized because of the morning hour of the quake. Also, because of seismic activity in California, area building codes dictate that buildings incorporate structural design intended to withstand earthquakes. However, the damage caused revealed that some structural specifications did not perform as intended, because of these revelations, building codes were revised. Some structures were not red-tagged until months later, because damage was not immediately evident, the quake produced unusually strong ground accelerations in the range of 1.0 g
39.
Nisqually River
–
The Nisqually River /nɪˈskwɑːli/ is a river in west central Washington in the United States, approximately 81 miles long. It drains part of the Cascade Range southeast of Tacoma, including the southern slope of Mount Rainier and its outlet was designated in 1971 as the Nisqually Delta National Natural Landmark. The Nisqually River forms the Pierce-Lewis county line, as well as the boundary between Pierce and Thurston counties, the river rises in southern Mount Rainier National Park, fed by the Nisqually Glacier on the southern side of Mt. Rainier. It flows west through Ashford and Elbe along Route 706 and it is then impounded for hydroelectricity by the Alder Dam, completed in 1944, and the LaGrande Dam, completed in 1912 and rebuilt in 1945. They hold back Alder Reservoir and the inaccessible two-mile long LaGrande Reservoir, before the construction of the dams, a natural fish barrier prevented anadromous fish from ascending the Nisqually above what is now La Grande Reservoir. Below Elbe, the river flows northwest through the foothills, passes near McKenna, Washington, and through Fort Lewis, the river crosses beneath Interstate 5 and into the Nisqually River Delta, which is the location of the Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge. The delta as a whole, including federal, state, the Nisqually enters the Nisqually Reach portion of Puget Sound approximately 15 miles east of Olympia. The Nisqually River is the territorial center of the Nisqually tribe that shares its name. The Nisqually were moved from the river and much of the region after the signing of the treaty. After a period of resistance by the Nisqually tribe, including such leaders as Chief Leschi, in 1917, the US Army occupied the Nisqually reservation, ordered people from their homes, and later condemned most of the reservation to build Fort Lewis. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Nisqually pursued their fishing rights along the river, Nisqually tribal members, acting in concert with the nearby Puyallup tribe, endured harassment and arrest to fish in traditional waters. Nisqually-1, a specimen of Populus trichocarpa, grew on the bank of the Nisqually River and its genome sequence was published in 2006
40.
Tacoma, Washington
–
Tacoma is a mid-sized urban port city in and the county seat of Pierce County, Washington, United States. The city is on Washingtons Puget Sound,32 miles southwest of Seattle,31 miles northeast of the capital, Olympia. The population was 198,397, according to the 2010 census, Tacoma is the second-largest city in the Puget Sound area and the third largest in the state. Tacoma also serves as the center of activity for the South Sound region. Tacoma adopted its name after the nearby Mount Rainier, originally called Takhoma or Tahoma and it is locally known as the City of Destiny because the area was chosen to be the western terminus of the Northern Pacific Railroad in the late 19th century. The decision of the railroad was influenced by Tacomas neighboring deep-water harbor, by connecting the bay with the railroad, Tacomas motto became When rails meet sails. Today, Commencement Bay serves the Port of Tacoma, a center of trade on the Pacific Coast. Like most central cities, Tacoma suffered a decline in the mid-20th century as a result of suburbanization. Neighborhoods such as the 6th Avenue District have become revitalized, tacoma-Pierce County has been named one of the most livable areas in the United States. In 2006, Tacoma was listed as one of the most walkable cities in the country and that same year, the womens magazine Self named Tacoma the Most Sexually Healthy City in the United States. In contrast, Tacoma was also ranked as the most stressed-out city in the country in a 2004 survey, Tacoma gained notoriety in 1940 for the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which earned the nickname Galloping Gertie. The city of Tacoma and surrounding areas were inhabited for thousands of years by American Indians, predominantly the Puyallup people, mcCarver, who named his project Tacoma City, derived from the indigenous name for the mountain. Tacoma was incorporated on November 12,1875, following the merger of Old Tacoma, the transcontinental link was effected in 1887, but the railroad built its depot on New Tacoma, two miles south of the Carr-McCarver development. The two communities together and joined. The population grew from 1,098 in 1880 to 36,006 in 1890, rudyard Kipling visited Tacoma in 1889 and said it was literally staggering under a boom of the boomiest. George Francis Train was a resident for a few years in the late 19th century, in 1890, he staged a global circumnavigation starting and ending in Tacoma to promote the city. A plaque in downtown Tacoma marks the start and finish line, in November 1885, white citizens led by then-mayor Jacob Weisbach expelled several hundred Chinese residents peacefully living in the city. The next day two Chinese settlements were burned to the ground, the discovery of gold in the Klondike in 1898 led Tacomas prominence in the region to be eclipsed by the booming development of Seattle
41.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
–
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
