1.
Barcelona
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Founded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. Barcelona has a cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre. Particularly renowned are the works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona, the city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments. It is a cultural and economic centre in southwestern Europe, 24th in the world. In 2008 it was the fourth most economically powerful city by GDP in the European Union, in 2012 Barcelona had a GDP of $170 billion, it is leading Spain in both employment rate and GDP per capita change. In 2009 the city was ranked Europes third and one of the worlds most successful as a city brand, since 2011 Barcelona has been a leading smart city in Europe. During the Middle Ages, the city was known as Barchinona, Barçalona, Barchelonaa. Internationally, Barcelonas name is abbreviated to Barça. However, this refers only to FC Barcelona, the football club. The common abbreviated form used by locals is Barna, another common abbreviation is BCN, which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport. The city is referred to as the Ciutat Comtal in Catalan. The origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear, the ruins of an early settlement have been excavated in the El Raval neighbourhood, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC. The founding of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends, the first attributes the founding of the city to the mythological Hercules. In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum centred on the Mons Taber, under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia, or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino. It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens, the city minted its own coins, some from the era of Galba survive. Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, also known as the Basilica La Seu, is said to have founded in 343
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Constitutional Court of Spain
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The Constitutional Court of Spain is the highest body with the power to determine the constitutionality of acts and statutes of the Spanish Government. It is defined in Part IX of the Constitution of Spain, the court is the supreme interpreter of the Constitution, but since the court is not a part of the Spanish Judiciary, the Supreme Court is the highest court for all judicial matters. The Constitutional Court is authorized to rule on the constitutionality of laws, acts and it also may rule on the constitutionality of international treaties before they are ratified, if requested to do so by the Government, the Congress of Deputies, or the Senate. The Constitution further declares that individual citizens may appeal to the Constitutional Court for protection against governmental acts that violate their rights or freedoms. Only individuals directly affected can make this appeal, called a recurso de amparo, the General Electoral Law of June 1985 additionally allows appeals to this court in cases where electoral boards exclude candidates from the ballot. The decisions of the Constitutional Court cannot be appealed by anyone and this court consists of twelve magistrates who serve for nine-year terms. In this instance, it reversed the decision made by the Supreme Court in the same case, austrian System Judiciary Rule of law Rule According to Higher Law This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/
4.
Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia
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The Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia provides Catalonias basic institutional regulations under the Spanish Constitution of 1978. This Law was approved by referendum 18 June 2006 and supplants the Statute of Sau, in 1919, a first project of Statute was started by the Commonwealth of Catalonia. In 1928, a project of Constitution was written in Havana by exiled Catalonian nationalists, Catalonia first obtained a Statute of Autonomy in 1932, during the Second Spanish Republic. This law was abolished by General Francisco Franco after the Spanish Civil War, during periods of his rule, public usage of the Catalan language and culture, and more specifically, Catalan self-government were harshly suppressed. In 1979, during the Spanish transition to democracy, the second Statute was approved by referendum and this referendum was noted for its voter turnout being below 50%. It was also noted for its uneasy forging, since tensions regarding its final edit within the government which originally promoted the Statute led to an early regional election in 2006. The Draft of New Statute of Autonomy for Catalonia of 2005 was a proposal regarding Catalonian self-government. On September 30,2005, the Catalan Parliament approved a proposal for reform of the current Statute of Autonomy, the approved proposal was sent for review and discussion to the Cortes Generales on November 2,2005. The latter filed an objection of unconstitutionality before the Constitutional Court of Spain and its constitutionality has also been contested by some intellectuals and journalists related to liberal or conservative media such as the COPE and the Madrid-based newspapers El Mundo and La Razón. The latter voted against the project in the Spanish Congress of Deputies, ERC voted against it—despite its senior members having had a hand in drafting its content—as a result of the internal tensions within the party which this issue had brought to the surface. Later on both parties, for reasons, supported a no vote in the referendum held afterwards regarding the passing of the new Statute. The president of Catalonia, Pasqual Maragall, decided that Sunday June 18 would be the date on which the text would be put to the Catalan people in the form of a referendum, the referendum approved the Statute, the yes side receiving 74% of votes cast. Voter turnout was 49. 41% of the electorate, an unprecedentedly low figure for this type of vote. The new Statute has been in force since August 9,2006, the 1931 referendum on the Statute of Autonomy registered a voter turnout of 75. 13%, of which 99. 49% voted favourably to its passing, according to the official results released. The 1979 referendum on the Statute of Autonomy registered a voter turnout of 59. 7%, the 2006 referendum on the current version of the Statute registered a voter turnout of 48. 85%. Of the total votes,73. 24% were in favour of the new Statute, Catalonia is an Autonomous Community within the Kingdom of Spain, with the status of historical region in the Spanish Constitution of 1978. In September 2005, the Parliament of Catalonia approved the definition of Catalonia as a nation in the preamble of the new Statute of Autonomy, the 120 delegates of all parties with the exception of the 15 delegates of the Partido Popular approved this definition. In the opinion of the Spanish Government this has a declaratory but not a legal value, the Generalitat de Catalunya is the institution in which the self-government of Catalonia is politically organised
5.
Catalan independence movement
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The Catalan independence movement is a political and popular movement derived from Catalan nationalism, which seeks the independence of Catalonia from Spain. The Estelada flag, in its blue and red versions, has become its main symbol, the political movement began in 1922 when Francesc Macià founded Estat Català. In 1931, Estat Català and other parties formed Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya, Macià proclaimed a Catalan Republic, but after negotiations with the leaders of the new Spanish Republic, he instead accepted autonomy within the Spanish state. In the Spanish Civil War, General Francisco Franco abolished Catalan autonomy in 1938, following Francos death in 1975, Catalan political parties concentrated on autonomy rather than independence. Popular protest against the decision quickly turned into demands for independence, a 2010 protest demonstration against the courts decision, organised by the cultural organisation Òmnium Cultural, was attended by over a million people. The popular movement fed upwards to the politicians, a mass protest on 11 September 2012 explicitly called on the Catalan government to begin the process towards independence. Catalan president Artur Mas called a general election, which resulted in a pro-independence majority for the first time in the regions history. The new parliament adopted the Catalan Sovereignty Declaration in early 2013, the Catalan government announced a referendum, to be held in November 2014, on the question of statehood. The referendum was to ask two questions, Do you want Catalonia to become a State, and Do you want this State to be independent. The Spanish government referred the proposed referendum to the Spanish Constitutional Court, the Catalan government then changed it from a binding referendum to a non-binding consultation. Despite the Spanish court also banning the non-binding vote, the Catalan self-determination referendum went ahead on 9 November 2014, the result was an 81% vote for yes-yes, but the turnout was only 42%. Mas called another election for September 2015, which he said would be a plebiscite on independence, pro-independence parties fell just short of a majority of votes in the September election, although they won a majority of seats. The Spanish government continues to oppose any move in the direction of Catalan independence, the PDeCAT and ERC currently form the coalition Junts pel Sí. Parties opposed to any change in Catalonias position are Ciutadans and the Catalonian branch of the Partido Popular, other parties favour an intermediate form of self-determination, or at least support a referendum on the question. Initially, the territories of Aragon, including Catalonia, kept their own fueros. Catalans revolted against the Spanish crown in the Reapers War of 1640–1652,11 September is still observed as National Day of Catalonia. The beginnings of separatism in Catalonia can be traced back to the mid–19th century, the Renaixença, which aimed at the revival of the Catalan language and Catalan traditions, led to the development of Catalan nationalism and a desire for independence. Between the 1850s and the 1910s, some individuals, organisations, the first pro-independence political party in Catalonia was Estat Català, founded in 1922 by Francesc Macià
6.
Protest march
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Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
7.
Demonstration (protest)
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Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
8.
Estelada
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The Estelada is an unofficial flag typically flown by Catalan separatists to express their support for either an independent Catalonia or independent Països Catalans. The use of this flag as a protest symbol within Catalan nationalism has become more notable since the 1970s Spanish transition to democracy, the design of the Estelada comprises the red-and-yellow bars of the Senyera, with the addition of a five-pointed star in a triangle at the hoist. The flag dates from the early 20th century, it was most probably designed in 1918 by Vicenç Albert Ballester i Camps, later designs combine the Senyera with a yellow triangle at the hoist containing a five-pointed red star. In both designs the lone star motif means Catalan independence, the star in the flag comes from the early days of nationalism, the lone star symbolising national freedom and independence. An embryonic Catalan estelada flag could already be seen, in the middle of a senyera there was a star with five points. The first star with a clear nationalist intent known in Catalonia is from before 1904 and it is a stamp commemorating the acquisition of the Pi de les Tres Branques by the Catalanist Union. Later, in 1906, an appeared in the nameplate of the magazine Fora Grillons. Published in Santiago de Cuba by Catalan exiles - a publication that had already clearly proclaimed the independence of Catalonia, during the twenties, once the First World War was over, Europe saw a wave of new nation-states being created, with the assistance of President Woodrow Wilson. From the nations that hoped for independence, pressure began to mobilize internationally. In the Catalan case, the Comitè Pro-Catalunya was one of the most active and it was in this context that a need was perceived to have a flag as a symbol of Catalan aspiration, and, of course, a star appeared on it. Since then the flag began to be spoken of. It was probably designed by Vicenç Albert Ballester, with the blue triangle signifying the blue sky of humanity, the first photograph in which the flag appeared was in a publication dated the bulletin L’intransigent in 1918. It shows a group of young Americans and Catalan separatists holding both flags, also in 1918, there was a comic strip in circulation—a stamp without postal value—dedicated to the future Society of Nations, where there was also an estelada. There are several kinds of estelada, one is in the last number of La Tralla, before the coup détat by Miguel Primo de Rivera. The other is in a document published by the Comitè Pro-Catalunya written in Catalan and Arabic, to greet, in Cuba, it appeared for first time in the nameplate of the magazine La Nova Catalunya. The estelada flag went on to appear in other Catalan separatist publications, there are photographs of the volunteers with the estelada in several other places. In 1928, with the presidency of Francesc Macià in the Constituent Assembly of the Catalan independence movement, the estelada was again seen, later, during the period from 1931 to 1936, the estelada still appears numerous times. Some of these only have two colours due to the shortage of money, but the traditional estelada with the blue triangle
9.
National Day of Catalonia
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The National Day of Catalonia is a day-long festival in Catalonia and one of its official national symbols. It commemorates the fall of Barcelona during the War of the Spanish Succession and that meant the loss of the Catalan constitutions under the aegis of the Nueva Planta decrees. Throughout the day, there are demonstrations and cultural events in many Catalan villages. Els Segadors History of Catalonia Decretos de Nueva Planta National Day of Catalonia Documents about the case of the catalans dated on 1714, at the House of Lords, UK. Journal of the House of Lords, volume 19,2 August 1715, Further Articles of Impeachment against E. Oxford brought from H. C
10.
Catalan language
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Catalan is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin and named after the medieval Principality of Catalonia, in northeastern modern Spain and adjoining parts of France. It is the national and only language of Andorra, and a co-official language of the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands. It also has status in the commune of Alghero, situated on the northwestern coast of the island of Sardinia. All these territories are often called Catalan Countries. 4% with Catalan and 47. 5% only Spanish, in order to integrate newcomers, the Generalitat de Catalunya spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories. Catalan evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees, during the Low Middle Ages it saw a golden age as the literary and dominant language of the Crown of Aragon, and was widely used all over the Mediterranean. The union of Aragon with the territories of Spain in 1479 marked the start of the decline of the language. In 1659 Spain ceded Northern Catalonia to France, and Catalan was banned in both states in the early 18th century, 19th-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, which culminated in the 1913 orthographic standardization, and the official status of the language during the Second Spanish Republic. However, the Francoist dictatorship banned the use of Catalan in schools and in the public administration, there is no parallel in Europe for such a large, bilingual, non-state speech community. Catalan dialects are relatively uniform, and are mutually intelligible and they are divided into two blocks, Eastern and Western, differing mostly in pronunciation. The terms Catalan and Valencian are two varieties of the same language, there are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community. Catalan shares many traits with its neighboring Romance languages, thus, the similarities are naturally most notable with eastern Occitan. Nouns have two genders, and two numbers, pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, in terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages. The word Catalan derives from the territory of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology, in English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain. It is attested a language name since at least 1652, Catalan can be pronounced as /ˈkætəlæn/, /kætəˈlæn/ or /ˈkætələn/. The endonym is pronounced /kə. təˈɫa/ in the Eastern Catalan dialects, in the Valencian Community, the term valencià is frequently used instead. The names Catalan and Valencian are two names for the same language, see also status of Valencian below. By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south
11.
Assemblea Nacional Catalana
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The Assemblea Nacional Catalana is an organization that seeks the political independence of Catalonia from Spain, secondarily, it also promotes irredentistic claims to the Catalan Countries. Its current president is Jordi Sànchez i Picanyol, in January 2015, it claimed more than 80,000 members, of which 40,132 were full-paying members and 39,946 were signed up as volunteer collaborators. By 2016, though, some sources cite a dip in paying membership, the ANC has 10 regional subdivisions which are represented on the national board as well as professional sectorial groups and 37 foreign branches around the world. The origin of the organization was the National Conference for the Catalan State, held on April 30,2011 in Barcelona, a Permanent Council and the interim secretariat were elected at this conference. The formal incorporation as an association was held on March 10,2012 at the Palau Sant Jordi in Barcelona. In which the statutes, internal workings, and road map to independence were approved, in April 2012, Carme Forcadell was chosen as President of the ANC, while Carles Castellanos was elected vice-president, Llorenç Sotorres was treasurer, and Jordi Martínez was elected secretary. On June 8,2013, the ANC held elections in which Carme Forcadell was re-elected president, jaume Marfany was elected vicepresident, substituting Carles Castellanos, Jordi Martínez remained as secretary and Oriol Sallas replaced Llorenç Sotorres as treasurer. In May 2015 Jordi Sanchez i Picanyol replaced Carme Forcadell as president of the ANC, at the end of June,2012, the so-called March toward Independence begun in Seu Vella. After a series of festive, symbolic, and protest events, during the meeting, they suggested to him that he called plebescitary elections to the Parliament of Catalonia on independence and that he called for a referendum in 2014. At the beginning of 2013, the ANC began a Fiscal Sovereignty campaign so that private citizens, businesses, from May to July,2013, they organized a crowdfunding campaign at totSuma in order to offer support to all the interested parties. The Catalan National Assembly and Òmnium Cultural organized a concert, the so-called Concert for Freedom, around 90,000 people attended the concert. Between 1.6 and 2 million citizens held their hands along these 400 km, the Catalan Assembly and Òmnium Cultural organized the 2014 edition of the demonstration of the Catalan national day in Barcelona. This demonstration formed a huge Catalan flag all along 11 kilometers between Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes and Diagonal avenue forming a big V for will, voting and victory. According to police there were 1.8 million and according to organizations 2.5 million people to demand for a poll on the 9th of November,2014. The budget for 2015 was slightly over 5 million euros, from which 3.4 million were dedicated to advertising campaigns. Following the detection of 1.5 million euro in unsubstantiated income, Catalan Republic Catalan Countries Catalan nationalism History of Catalonia Catalan language Assemblea Nacional Catalana Catalan National Assembly
12.
Association of Municipalities for Independence
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The Association of Municipalities for Independence is a Catalan organization of town councils and other administration entities created with the goal of achieving the independence of Catalonia. This entity was born in December 14,2011 in the city of Vic, nowadays it has the support of 786 town councils out of the 948 total in Catalonia. In addition,39 out of 42 county councils give support to the association, there are six major parties in Catalonia that support the right of self-determination. In 2012, these were the proportions of mayors of each party who have signed for the association, CUP, 4/4. Without party 46/53 Other parties 4/4 Administrated by public committee 0/1 As stated in the articles of the association. Promote and defend Catalan national rights, develop the citizen need for Catalonia to exercise her right to self-determination. Create a promotion network abroad, mainly within the framework of the European Union, establish synergies in other areas, such as business and finance. As of 10 October 2013,71. 3% of the territory supported the AMI
13.
Lleida
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Lleida is a city in the west of Catalonia, Spain. It is the city of the province of Lleida. Geographically, it is located in the Catalan Central Depression, the metro area has about 250,000 inhabitants. It is also the city of the Segrià comarca, as well as the largest city in the province. It had 137,387 inhabitants as of 2010, including the municipalities of Raimat. Lleida is one of the oldest towns in Catalonia, with recorded settlements dating back to the Bronze Age period, until the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the area served as a settlement for an Iberian people, the Ilergetes. The town became a municipality, named Ilerda, under the reign of Augustus and it was reconquered in 1149, after being ruled by the Moors for many centuries, who had conquered the town in the 8th century. In 1297, the University of Lleida was founded, becoming the third oldest in the whole of Spain, during the following centuries, the town was damaged by several wars such as the Reapers War in the 17th century and the Spanish Civil War in the 20th century. Since then, the city has been in a constant urban, commercial, in ancient times the city, named Iltrida and Ilerda, was the chief city of the Ilergetes, an Iberian tribe. Indíbil, king of the Ilergetes, and Mandoni, king of the Ausetanes, under the Romans, the city was incorporated into the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis, and was a place of considerable importance, historically as well as geographically. Its situation induced the legates of Pompey in Spain to make it the key of their defense against Caesar and it ended by the capitulation of Afranius and Petreius, who were conquered as much by Caesars generosity as by his strategy. In consequence of the battle, the Latin phrase Ilerdam videas is said to have used by people who wanted to cast bad luck on someone else. Under the Roman empire, Ilerda was a flourishing city. It had a stone bridge over the Sicoris. In the time of Ausonius the city had fallen into decay and it was part of Visigothic and Muslim Hispania until it was conquered from the Moors by Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona in 1149. It used to be the seat of a university, the oldest in the Crown of Aragon, until 1717. The University of Lleida is nowadays active again since 1991, during the Reapers War, Lleida was occupied by the French and rebel forces. In 1644 the city was conquered by the Spanish under D. Felipe da Silva, Lleida served as a key defense point for Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War, and fell to the Insurgents, whose air forces bombed it extensively, in 1937 and 1938
14.
Autonomous University of Barcelona
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The Autonomous University of Barcelona also known as UAB is a public university mostly located in Cerdanyola del Vallès, near the city of Barcelona in Catalonia, Spain. As of 2012, it consists of 57 departments in the experimental, life, social and human sciences, all these centers together award a total of 85 qualifications in the form of first degrees, diplomas, and engineering degrees. Moreover, almost 80 doctoral programs, and more than 80 other postgraduate programs are offered, UAB has more than 40,000 students and more than 3,600 academic and research staff. The UAB is an institution in terms of fostering research. The UAB is considered to be the best University in Spain by the 2012 QS World University Rankings, which ranked the university 176th overall in the world. Its subject rankings were, 144th in Life Sciences & Biomedicine, 92nd in Arts & Humanities, 106th in Natural Sciences, 95th in Social Sciences, most UAB academic activity is done on the Cerdanyola campus. Several centres exist in Manresa, Sabadell, Terrassa, Sant Cugat del Vallès, the UAB campus is about 20 km away from the centre of Barcelona. It is accessible by air, by train, by coach, the Autonomous University of Barcelona was officially created by legislative decree on June 6,1968. On July 27, a disposition to the decree was added, starting the creation of the Faculty of Letters, the Faculty of Medicine, the Faculty of Science, and the Faculty of Economical Sciences. Around ten weeks later, on October 6, the first course of the Faculty of Letters was inaugurated at Sant Cugat del Vallès Monastery, during the same month, the Faculty of Medicine was created at the Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona. In 1969, an agreement was signed for the acquisition of the land where the university campus is currently located, during that year, the Faculty of Sciences and the Faculty of Economical Sciences started running. During the following three years, several faculties and professional schools were created, and the works on the campus land took place. At the end of period, most existing Faculties and Schools are settled in the campus. Two years later, after the approval of the Catalan Statute, during the period between 1985 and 1992, the University underwent several faculty reforms and the creation of several new faculties. In 1993, the University Ville was inaugurated as a student residence integrated inside the Campus complex, vila Universitària is the residential complex of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, located on its campus, which has 812 apartments with a total accommodation capacity for 2193 persons. Computer Vision Center is a computer vision research center based at UAB and it was established in 1994 by the Generalitat de Catalunya and the UAB. In 2002, the publication of Electronic Letters on Computer Vision. It participated in the Pascal Challenge in 2009, the Port dInformació Científica is a research center and institution at the campus of the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona
15.
Government of Spain
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Spain is a parliamentary monarchy whose government is defined by the Constitution of Spain. This was approved by a referendum of the people of Spain in 1978. The final interpretation of the Constitution, in the case of dispute, is the business of the Constitutional Court of Spain, the king is also the commander in chief of the Spanish Armed Forces in which capacity he suppressed the 23-F Spanish coup détat attempt in February 1981. The king, currently Felipe VI, has held this position since 19 June 2014 and his predecessor, Juan Carlos I, abdicated the throne. Daughters can inherit only if the monarch has no sons, the heir presumptive is Leonor, Princess of Asturias. The Military Chief of Staff is General of the Army Fernando Alejandre Martínez, President of the Government, sometimes misleadingly called the Spanish President, is the first minister and is elected by the Congress of Deputies. He is informally but internationally and commonly referred to as the Prime Minister, the current holder is Mariano Rajoy Brey, who was elected on 21 December 2011. He appoints a number of vice-presidents ordered numerically according to rank and responsible for their respective major ministries such as Finance, Foreign affairs, Domestic administration, etc. Minister for the Presidency and Vice President, María Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría Antón, the following is the list of members of the Cabinet of Spain formed after the 2016 general election. Shown here is the logo of the Government of Spain. Below it is a variant design for the Ministry of Finance, Spanish cabinets from 1931 to 2004 Official website Law 50/1997, of the Government Boe. es
16.
Spanish transition to democracy
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The Spanish transition to democracy, or simply the Transition refers to the restoration of democracy in Spain after the death of Francisco Franco in 1975. Though faced with political and economic crises at the time, the transition to democracy was one of the factors that allowed Spain to join the European Economic Community and NATO. Francisco Franco came to power in 1939 following the Spanish Civil War, in 1969, he designated Prince Juan Carlos, grandson of Spains former king, Alfonso XIII, as his official successor. For the next six years, Prince Juan Carlos initially remained in the background during public appearances, once in power as King of Spain, however, he facilitated the development of a constitutional monarchy as his father, Don Juan de Borbón, had advocated since 1946. The transition was a plan that counted on ample support both within and outside of Spain. Western governments, headed by the United States, now favoured a Spanish constitutional monarchy, as did many Spanish, nevertheless, the transition proved challenging, as the spectre of the Civil War still haunted Spain. Francoists on the far right enjoyed considerable support within the Spanish Army, King Juan Carlos began his reign as head of state without leaving the confines of Francos legal system. Only in his speech before the Cortes did he indicate his support for a transformation of the Spanish political system, in this manner he would formally act within the Francoist legal system and thus avoid the prospect of military intervention in the political process. Suárez was appointed as the 138th Prime Minister of Spain by Juan Carlos on 3 July 1976, a call for democratic elections in June 1977 to elect a Cortes charged with drawing up a new democratic constitution. This program was clear and unequivocal, but its realization tested the capacity of Suárez. Despite these challenges, Suárezs project was carried out without delay between July 1976 and June 1977, in this short period of time Suárez had to act on many fronts to achieve his aims. The draft of the Law for Political Reform was written by Don Torcuato Fernández-Miranda, speaker of the Cortes, the project was approved by the Suarez Government in September 1976. Throughout the month of November the Cortes, under the presidency of Fernández-Miranda, debated this law, which it ultimately approved with 425 votes in favor,59 against. The Suárez government sought to gain legitimacy for the changes through a popular referendum. On 15 December 1976, with a 77. 72% participation rate, with this part of his plan fulfilled, Suárez had to resolve a crucial issue, should he include the opposition groups who had not participated at the beginning of the transition. Suárez also had to deal with another issue, coming to terms with the anti-Francoist opposition. Suárez adopted a series of measured policies to add credibility to his project, in July 1976 he issued a partial political amnesty, freeing 400 prisoners. He extended this in March 1977, and finally granted an amnesty in May of the same year
17.
2010 Catalan autonomy protest
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The number of people taking part in the demonstration was estimated at between 1.1 million and 1.5 million, while Madrid-based newspaper El País estimated the number of demonstrators at 425,000. The mobilisation was described as unprecedented by the mayor of Barcelona, the Barcelona daily newspaper El Periódico de Catalunya described it as without a doubt one of the biggest protest marches that has ever occurred in Catalonia, possibly the biggest. It is thought that the 2012 Catalan independence demonstration involved more people, the demonstration was led by a banner with the slogan in Catalan Som una nació. The new Statute was approved by 91% of the Parliament of Catalonia, by the Cortes Generales, albeit in a curtailed form, almost immediately, the opposition Peoples Party launched a legal challenge to declare unconstitutional much of the new Statute. The debate went on for four years, with one dying in the meantime. A compromise was reached on 28 June 2010, and passed by six votes to four. The summary judgment published the same day revealed that the Court had declared parts of 14 out of 277 articles unconstitutional, the full judgment was released on 9 July 2010. C. The march had planned to start at 18,00 CEST at the junction between the Avinguda Diagonal and the Passeig de Gràcia 41. 3965°N2. 1595°E /41.3965,2.1595. By 19,30, it had reached the Gran Via 41. 3894°N2. 1683°E /41.3894,2.1683. Smaller parallel demonstrations by Catalan nationals living abroad also took place in London, Berlin, Brussels, Catalonia Autonomous communities of Spain Catalan nationalism The Demonstration web Somunanació. cat Aerial video footage of the demonstration 360° photography of the demonstration
18.
Catalonia
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Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, located on the northeastern extremity of the Iberian Peninsula. It is designated as a nationality by its Statute of Autonomy, Catalonia consists of four provinces, Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. The capital and largest city is Barcelona, the second-most populated municipality in Spain, Catalonia comprises most of the territory of the former Principality of Catalonia. It is bordered by France and Andorra to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the east, the official languages are Catalan, Spanish, and the Aranese dialect of Occitan. The eastern counties of these marches were united under the rule of the Frankish vassal the Count of Barcelona, in the later Middle Ages Catalan literature flourished. Between 1469 and 1516, the King of Aragon and the Queen of Castile married and ruled their kingdoms together, retaining all their distinct institutions, Courts, and constitutions. During the Franco-Spanish War, Catalonia revolted against a large and burdensome presence of the Royal army in its territory, within a brief period France took full control of Catalonia, at a high economic cost for Catalonia, until it was largely reconquered by the Spanish army. In the nineteenth century, Catalonia was severely affected by the Napoleonic, in the second half of the century Catalonia experienced industrialisation. As wealth from the industrial expansion grew, Catalonia saw a cultural renaissance coupled with incipient nationalism while several workers movements appeared. In 1914, the four Catalan provinces formed a Commonwealth, and with the return of democracy during the Second Spanish Republic, after the Spanish Civil War, the Francoist dictatorship enacted repressive measures, abolishing Catalan institutions and banning the official use of the Catalan language again. Since the Spanish transition to democracy, Catalonia has regained some political and cultural autonomy and is now one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain, the origin of the name Catalunya is subject to diverse interpretations because of a lack of evidence. During the Middle Ages, Byzantine chroniclers claimed that Catalania derives from the medley of Goths with Alans. Other less plausible theories suggest, Catalunya derives from the land of castles, having evolved from the term castlà or castlan. This theory therefore suggests that the names Catalunya and Castile have a common root, the source is of Celtic origin, meaning chiefs of battle. Although the area is not known to have been occupied by Celts, the Lacetani, an Iberian tribe that lived in the area and whose name, due to the Roman influence, could have evolved by metathesis to Katelans and then Catalans. In English, Catalonia is pronounced /kætəˈloʊniə/, the native name, Catalunya, is pronounced in Central Catalan, the most widely spoken variety whose pronunciation is considered standard. The Spanish name is Cataluña, and the Aranese name is Catalonha, the first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of the Middle Palaeolithic. From the next era, the Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic, important remains survive
19.
Artur Mas
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Artur Mas i Gavarró is a politician from Catalonia, Spain. He was President of the Generalitat of Catalonia from 2010 to 2015, in 2001 Mas was named general secretary of CDC, then, in 2012 he was named president of the party until the party was refounded in July 2016 as PDeCAT, which he currently presides. From 2003 to 2015 Mas has run five times for the Catalan presidency, four heading the –nowadays defunct– CiU ticket and he attained the presidency in two elections,2010 and 2012 but neither with an absolute majority. In the absence of single party majorities, both tenures were marked by instability and ended with Mas calling a snap election. Mas is an economist who obtained his degree from the University of Barcelona and his ideology tends to be considered liberal from the economic point of view and supportive of Catalan independence. From the social point of view, he has supported a moderate agenda in numerous issues, such as gay rights. In 2010 for the first time Mas indicated he would vote yes on a referendum to secede from Spain. Since then, sovereignty and Catalan independence have become the part of his political agenda. Mas was born in Barcelona as one of the four children of a wealthy industrialist family and his mother was originally from Sabadell and his father from Poblenou. He studied at the Lycée Français de Barcelone, and is fluent in French, English, Catalan. Later he graduated in Economics from the University of Barcelona and married Helena Rakòsnik, before acquiring political responsibilities in Catalonia, Mas held different posts in both the private and public sectors, especially relating to the internationalization of Catalan enterprises. He was a member of the Barcelona City Council from 1987 to 1995 and his first high responsibilities in the Catalan government came during the presidency of Jordi Pujol, President of the Generalitat de Catalunya from 1980 to 2003. Artur Mas ran for the 2003 elections to the Catalan government and won a plurality of seats in the parliament, however, the latter obtained a slightly larger number of votes. Finally PSCs Pasqual Maragall was elected President, having forged a coalition with two other left-wing parties, the Republican Left of Catalonia and Initiative for Catalonia – Greens, Mas ran again for president in the 2006 elections. The Refoundation of Catalanism that Mas is actively leading calls for Catalonia to obtain the so-called Right to decide on matters that affect it and this implicitly includes the possibility of putting independence from Spain to a hypothetical referendum. The Catalan elections that took place on 28 November 2010 were to determine the political future of Mas. In the event, CiU won 62 of the 135 seats in the Catalan Parliament, the agreement with the PSC proved fragile, which forced Mas to seek new allies in the regional parliament, this time engaging in talks with the Popular Party. By negotiating PPs abstention, Mas was eventually able to pass the 2012 public budget, in April 2014 the proposal was presented to the Spanish Parliament and it was defeated by a vote of 299–47
20.
Convergence and Union
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Convergence and Union was a Catalan nationalist electoral alliance in Catalonia, Spain. It was a federation of two constituent parties, the larger Democratic Convergence of Catalonia and its counterpart, the Democratic Union of Catalonia. It was dissolved on June 17,2015, CiU was a Catalan nationalist coalition. There is some debate as to whether the coalition was conservative or centrist, liberal tendencies dominate the larger CDC, while the smaller UDC is a Christian democratic party. In general, the CDC tends to be supportive of Catalan sovereignty, while the UDC is considered closer to traditional Catalan autonomism. In the most recent regional elections, held on 25 September 2012 and it lost 12 seats in the Catalan Parliament, bringing them to a total of 50 deputies. While they have more than twice as many deputies as any other party, after the election, they entered into coalition with the Republican Left of Catalonia. El Periódico de Catalunya reported in August 2013 that the coalition may break due to fractions within the union about Catalan independence. On June 18,2015, CDC spokespersons declared the CiU federation finished and this occurred after an ultimatum had been issued by President Mas to UDC, due to their diverging positions on the Catalan independence process. CiU used to defend the notion of Catalonia as a nation within Spain, however, it has recently become a pro-secession party. CiU is generally considered a Catalan nationalist party, this is also the term it uses to describe itself, both the Spanish and Catalan media perceive it as a moderate nationalist force. However, its liberal fraction has a strong current which advocates Catalan independence from Spain. Many high ranking exponents of the Democratic Convergence define CiU as an independentist political force, on the other hand, the Christian democratic part of the coalition, the Democratic Union of Catalonia, is less favourable to the idea of an independent Catalonia. Nevertheless, several prominent members of the Democratic Union have also supported independence, however, the supporters of independence within the Democratic Union are a minority with much less influence than their counterparts in the Democratic Convergence. At the Catalan level, CiU ruled the autonomous Catalan government during the 1980s until 2003 for 23 consecutive years led by Jordi Pujol, Pujol was succeeded in the party leadership by Artur Mas, while Uniós leader is Josep Antoni Duran i Lleida. The party won 10 seats in the Congress of Deputies at the March 2008 elections, CiU supported changes to the Catalan Statute of Autonomy to further increase Catalonias autonomy. On Sunday,28 November 2010 CiU regained control of the parliament after seven years in opposition, winning about 38 per cent of the popular vote. Its platform was broadly centrist, and somewhat ambiguous about independence from Spain, in the 2010 elections the turnout was just above 60%, and the Socialists Party of Catalonia were considered the biggest losers, holding only 28 seats of their former 37
21.
People's Party (Spain)
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The Peoples Party is a conservative and Christian democratic political party in Spain. It is one of the four parties of modern Spanish politics. The new party combined the conservative AP with several small Christian democratic, in 2002, Manuel Fraga received the honorary title of Founding Chairman. The PP was until November 2011 the largest opposition party in the Congress of Deputies, with 153 out of 350 deputies, and its youth organization is New Generations of the Peoples Party of Spain. In the elections of November 2011, the PP won a majority, the PP is a member of the center-right European Peoples Party, and in the European Parliament its 16 MEPs sit in the EPP Group. The PP is also a member of the Centrist Democrat International, the PP was also one of the founding organizations of the Budapest-based Robert Schuman Institute for Developing Democracy in Central and Eastern Europe. The party has its roots in the Peoples Alliance founded on 9 October 1976 by former Francoist minister Manuel Fraga, although Fraga was a member of the reformist faction of the Franco regime, he supported an extremely gradual transition to democracy. However, he underestimated the publics distaste for Francoism. Additionally, while he attempted to convey a reformist image, the number of former Francoists in the party led the public to perceive it as both reactionary and authoritarian. In the June 1977 general election, the AP garnered only 8.3 percent of the vote, in the months following the 1977 elections, dissent erupted within the AP over constitutional issues that arose as the draft document was being formulated. Fragas wing won the struggle, prompting most of the disenchanted reactionaries to leave the party, the AP then joined with other moderate conservatives to form the Democratic Coalition. In the March 1979 general election, however, the CD received 6.1 percent of the vote, at the APs Second Party Congress in December 1979, party leaders re-assessed their involvement in the CD. Many felt that the creation of the coalition had merely confused the voters, Fraga resumed control of the party, and the political resolutions adopted by the party congress reaffirmed the conservative orientation of the AP. In the early 1980s, Fraga succeeded in rallying the various components of the right around his leadership and he was aided in his efforts to revive the AP by the increasing disintegration of the UCD. In the general held in October 1982, the AP gained votes both from previous UCD supporters and from the far right. It became the opposition party to the Spanish Socialist Workers Party. Whereas the APs parliamentary representation had dropped to 9 seats in 1979, the increased strength of the AP was further evidenced in the municipal and regional elections held in May 1983, when the party drew 26 percent of the vote. A significant portion of the electorate appeared to support the APs emphasis on law, subsequent political developments belied the partys aspirations to continue increasing its base of support
22.
Mariano Rajoy
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Mariano Rajoy Brey is a Spanish politician who is the Prime Minister of Spain. He became leader of the Peoples Party in 2004 and Prime Minister in 2011 following the Peoples Party landslide victory in that general election. He was the Leader of the Opposition between 2004 and 2011 under José Luis Rodríguez Zapateros government and he is the son of Mariano Rajoy Sobredo, a jurist, and president of the Provincial Court of Pontevedra, the city where he grew up. Later on, his father was transferred to León and the family moved there. He was duly enrolled, together with his brothers Luis and Enrique, after finishing secondary school he started university, enrolling in the Law Faculty in Santiago de Compostela. He was assigned to Padrón, Villafranca del Bierzo and Santa Pola, in that year, Rajoy sustained facial injuries in a traffic accident. Since then, he has worn a beard to cover the scars from these injuries. Rajoy married Elvira Viri Fernández Balboa on 28 December 1996, in La Toja island, while on the campaign trail in 2011, Rajoy published his autobiography, En Confianza. Rajoy started his career in 1981 as a member of the right-wing party Peoples Alliance. In 1982, he was appointed by Galician regional President, Xerardo Fernández Albor, on 11 June 1986, Rajoy was elected President of the Provincial Council of Pontevedra, a position he held until July 1991. He occupied this position until the end of September 1987. In May 1988 he was elected General Secretary of the PA in Galicia during a congress of the regional party. When in 1989 the AP merged with other parties to form the Peoples Party, with Manuel Fraga as its president, Rajoy was named a member of its National Executive Committee and he was reelected to parliament in 1993. Before the PPs triumph in the 1996 elections, he was a PP-designated member of the Commission of Parliamentary Control of the RTVE. In April, the president of Castile and León and presidential candidate of the government general elections in 1989. Confirmed in the National Executive, Mariano Rajoy was appointed deputy secretary general of the party and he was re-elected in Pontevedra in the election on 6 June 1993. On 3 March 1996, the PP won the parliamentary elections and formed a government with the support of the Basque Nationalist Party, Convergence and Union. He changed his portfolio on 20 January 1999 and replaced Esperanza Aguirre as Minister of Education, just after his appointment, he was reelected vice-secretary general of the PP during its thirteenth national conference
23.
Ara (newspaper)
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Ara (Catalan pronunciation, is a Catalan daily newspaper that began publication on 28 November 2010, coinciding with the Catalan parliamentary elections. Between 60,000 and 90,000 copies are printed each day and it is the third most read daily newspaper in Catalonia, and the most read daily newspaper written exclusively in the Catalan language. Its regional edition, Ara Balears, is the most widespread Catalan language newspaper on the Balearic Islands, the publisher is Carles Capdevila, the president is Ferran Rodés, and the CEO and Editor is Mònica Terribas. The newspapers advisory council includes journalists Antoni Bassas, Albert Om and Toni Soler, all known for their work with the Catalan public television channel, Aras content includes Catalan translations of reports and articles from the New York Times International Edition. In September 2010, Antoni Bassas announced that he would participate as a shareholder, the first edition of Ara was published on 28 November 2010, selling out the 120,000 copies printed. In 2015 Ara received the 17th European Newspaper Award in the category of regional newspaper, the newspaper is closely associated with Catalan independentism. Unlike two of its competitors, La Vanguardia and El Periódico de Catalunya, Aras editorial policies are not considered to be supportive of any particular party or specific political ideology. Hence, the newspaper is considered as centrist regarding the left-right divide. The newspapers third main competitor, El Punt Avui, born in 2011 of the fusion of the long-standing Avui, the newspaper is printed in Barcelona and distributed throughout Catalonia. Since 2011, distribution was launched also on the Balearic Islands, in February 2012, the distribution was extended to some areas of the Valencian Community, especially in the Province of Castelló and in the city of Valencia
24.
Telecinco
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Telecinco is a Spanish commercial television channel operated by Mediaset España Comunicación. Launched in 1990 as Tele 5, it was the fifth of the terrestrial television channels. In 1997, Tele 5 was rebranded as Telecinco, dropping the logo seen in other Mediaset channel logos. In 2014, Telecinco was the most viewed channel in Spain with a share of 14, Telecinco is a general channel catering for all audiences. It shows popular films, series, entertainment shows, the channel is also known for its reality shows, having produced a number of popular series in the last decade, Gran Hermano, Supervivientes, Hotel Glam, Operación Triunfo, amongst others. Reality shows feed many of the other programmes such as the morning show El Programa de Ana Rosa, the afternoon and famous show Sálvame. All of these experienced a substantial ratings boost thanks to the Reality Effect. Telecinco had digitalised their production facilities and it allowed them to broadcast their channels in up to Spanish and original language, stereo sound, interactive services and high-definition television
25.
La Rioja (Spain)
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La Rioja is an autonomous community and a province in Spain, located in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Other cities and towns in the province include Calahorra, Arnedo, Alfaro, Haro, Santo Domingo de la Calzada and it has an estimated population of 322,415 inhabitants. It covers part of the Ebro valley towards its north and the Iberian Range in the south, the community is a single province, so there is no County Council, and it is organized into 174 municipalities. It borders the Basque Country to the north, Navarre to the northeast, Aragón to the southeast, the area was once occupied by pre-Roman Berones, Pellendones and Basques. After partial recapture from the Muslims in the tenth century, the region became part of the Kingdom of Pamplona, later being incorporated into Castile after a century. The name Rioja is first attested in 1099, the region is well known for its wines under the brand Denominación de Origen Calificada Rioja. In Roman times the territory of La Rioja was inhabited by the tribes of the Berones, Autrigones and it was part of the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In medieval times La Rioja was often a disputed territory, the Visigoths created the Duchy of Cantabria that probably included most of La Rioja, as a border march against the Vascones. The area was invaded by the Muslims at the beginning of the eighth century, after the Muslim invasion of 711, La Rioja fell into the Muslim domains of Al Andalus. Most of the territory was reconquered in 923 by Sancho I of Pamplona, acting for the Kingdom of Pamplona together with the Kingdom of León, the lower region around Arnedo came under control of his allies the Banu Qasi of Tudela. The territory to the east of the Leza River remained under Muslim control, later there was a dispute between the Castilian Count Fernán González and the kings of Pamplona-Navarra, involving great battles. It was decided in favour of the Navarrese after the imprisonment of the Counts family in Cirueña, La Rioja briefly formed the independent Kingdom of Viguera from 970 to about 1005, at which point it became a part of the Kingdom of Pamplona. Sancho Garcés moved the capital of the Kingdom of Pamplona to Nájera, creating the so-called kingdom of Nájera-Pamplona which was, due to its large size, the first Spanish Empire. After the independence of Castile in 1035, this new kingdom fiercely fought against Pamplona for the possession of Bureba, La Rioja, in 1076, after the murder of Sancho VI, Navarre was divided among Castile and Aragon. Castile obtained La Rioja, together with other Navarrese lands, the name La Rioja first appears in written records in the Miranda de Ebro charter of 1099. The territory was centred on the site of Logroño, the 12th-century church Iglesia de Santa Maria de Palacio recalls its origin as a chapel of the administrative palace. The region was awarded to Castile in a judgement by Henry II of England and its importance lay in part in the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela, the Camino de Santiago, which crossed the River Ebro on the stone bridge, the Puente de Piedra. Up to the 19th century the territory remained divided between the provinces of Burgos and Soria, the region was taken by Napoleonic forces in the Peninsular War and remained solidly in French hands until 1814
26.
Esperanza Aguirre
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Esperanza Aguirre y Gil de Biedma, Countess of Murillo and Bornos, Grandee of Spain is a Spanish politician and a former President of Madrid. She was President of Madrids Peoples Party and the first female politician to have held the office of President of the Senate and Minister of Education, Aguirre is a former member of Unión Liberal, Partido Liberal and Popular Alliance, which changed its name to Partido Popular in 1989. Since her early years she has been a member of the Club Liberal of Madrid, in 2016, Aguirre resigned from her position as regional party president, ostensibly due to the many corruption cases in the Madrid PP under her watch. She is a niece of the late Catalan poet, Jaime Gil de Biedma and she studied in the La Asunción School and in the British Council School of Madrid and earned a degree in Law in Complutense University in 1974. She is fluent in English and French, Aguirre joined the Technical Division of the Ministry of Information and Tourism as a civil servant in 1976. She was head of the Department of Publicity and Tourism, where she remained until 1979, subsequently, she had many different jobs in the Ministry of Culture, serving several Ministers during the Democratic Centre Union governments, especially designated by the Prime Minister himself. In 1979, she was chief of staff of the General Director of Literature and she was appointed Deputy General Director of Studies of the Technical General Secretariat of the Ministry of Culture in 1980. In 1981, she was appointed Deputy General Director in the Advisory Staff of the Secretary of State of Culture and her last position with the Administration was as Deputy General Director of Cultural Associations. Esperanza Aguirre first became a councillor with the defunct Coalición Popular, between 1983 and 1986 she held a seat on Madrid City Council as a member of Peoples Coalition. While in opposition, she was a member of the Standing Committee of the City Council, a CP spokeswoman on the areas of Culture, Education, Youth and Sports Affairs, and the Moncloa district. When Liberal Union merged with the Liberal Party, in December 1984, she held different positions in the National Executive, in 1987 she left the Liberal Party and joined Popular Alliance, which later became the Peoples Party. In the new executive, she was designated head of the Department of the Environment. In 1991, under José María Álvarez del Manzano, the Peoples Party won a council majority, two years later, she was designated as Head of the Culture Department and controlled the areas of Sports, Education and Hygiene. In 1995 she became the spokeswoman of Peoples Party in Madrid City Council and was appointed by the City Council to the Caja Madrid Board of Governors, the then new President, José María Aznar, appointed her to be Minister of Education, Culture and Sports. She was succeeded in those posts in 1999 by Mariano Rajoy, Aguirre, a Senator since 1996, was elected President of the Senate in February 1999, the first woman to do so. In March 2000, she was re-elected Senator for Madrid, becoming the candidate in Spain with 1.55 million votes and 50. 7% of the popular vote. She resigned in 2002 to run for the Presidency of the Autonomous Community of Madrid in the regional Assembly elections of 2003 and she was substituted as President of the Senate by Juan José Lucas. When the regional elections took place in May 2003, the Peoples Party won a plurality of seats, the Peoples Party won 55 seats in the Madrid Assembly, being the only party of the right in the Assembly
27.
Galicia (Spain)
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Galicia is an autonomous community of Spain and historic nationality under Spanish law. It had a population of 2,718,525 in 2016 and has an area of 29,574 km2. Galicia has over 1,660 km of coastline, including its islands and islets, among them Cíes Islands, Ons, Sálvora, Cortegada. Galicia was incorporated into the Roman Empire at the end of the Cantabrian Wars in 19 BC, in 410, the Germanic Suebi established a kingdom with its capital in Braga, this kingdom was incorporated into that of the Visigoths in 585. The Governor also presided the Real Audiencia do Reino de Galicia, from the 16th century, the representation and voice of the kingdom was held by an assembly of deputies and representatives of the cities of the kingdom, the Cortes or Junta of the Kingdom of Galicia. This institution was forcibly discontinued in 1833 when the kingdom was divided into four provinces with no legal mutual links. During the 19th and 20th centuries, demand grew for self-government and this resulted in the Statute of Autonomy of 1936, soon frustrated by Francos coup detat and subsequent long dictatorship. After democracy was restored the legislature passed the Statute of Autonomy of 1981, approved in referendum and currently in force, the interior of Galicia is characterized by a hilly landscape, mountain ranges rise to 2,000 m in the east and south. The coastal areas are mostly a series of rías and cliffs. The climate of Galicia is usually temperate and rainy, with drier summers. Its topographic and climatic conditions have made animal husbandry and farming the primary source of Galicias wealth for most of its history, allowing for a relative high density of population. With the exception of shipbuilding and food processing, Galicia was based on a farming and fishing economy until after the mid-20th century, in 2012, the gross domestic product at purchasing power parity was €56,000 million, with a nominal GDP per capita of €20,700. There are smaller populations around the cities of Lugo and Ourense. The political capital is Santiago de Compostela, in the province of A Coruña, Vigo, in the province of Pontevedra, is the most populous municipality, with 292,817, while A Coruña is the most populous city, with 215,227. 56% of the Galician population speak Galician as their first language and these Callaeci were the first tribe in the area to help the Lusitanians against the invading Romans. The Romans applied their name to all the tribes in the northwest who spoke the same language. In any case, Galicia, being per se a derivation of the ethnic name Kallaikói, the name evolved during the Middle Ages from Gallaecia, sometimes written Galletia, to Gallicia. This coincides with the spelling of the Castilian Spanish name, the historical denomination Galiza became popular again during the end of the 19th and the first three-quarters of the 20th century, and is still used with some frequency today
28.
Autonomous communities of Spain
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Spain is not a federation, but a highly decentralized unitary state. Some scholars have referred to the system as a federal system in all. There are 17 autonomous communities and two cities that are collectively known as autonomies. The two autonomous cities have the right to become autonomous communities, but neither has yet used this right and this unique framework of territorial administration is known as the State of Autonomies. The autonomous communities are governed according to the constitution and their own organic laws known as Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical in nature, the scope of competences vary for each community, but all have the same parliamentary structure. Spain is a country made up of different regions with varying economic and social structures, as well as different languages. While the entire Spanish territory was united under one crown by the 16th century, the constituent territories—be it crowns, kingdoms, principalities or dominions—retained much of their former institutional existence, including limited legislative, judicial or fiscal autonomy. These territories also exhibited a variety of customs, laws. From the 18th century onwards, the Bourbon kings and the government tried to establish a more centralized regime, leading figures of the Spanish Enlightenment advocated for the building of a Spanish nation beyond the internal territorial boundaries. This culminated in 1833, when Spain was divided into 49 provinces and these were the Basque Country and Catalonia. This gave rise to peripheral nationalisms along with Spanish nationalism, therefore, economic and social changes that had produced a national cultural unification in France had the opposite effect in Spain. In a response to Catalan demands, limited autonomy was granted to Catalonia in 1913 and it was granted again in 1932 during the Second Spanish Republic, when the Generalitat, Catalonias mediaeval institution of government, was restored. During General Francos dictatorial regime, centralism was most forcefully enforced as a way of preserving the unity of the Spanish nation, peripheral nationalism, along with communism and atheism were regarded by his regime as the main threats. When Franco died in 1975, Spain entered into a phase of transition towards democracy, the then Prime Minister of Spain, Adolfo Suárez, met with Josep Tarradellas, president of the Generalitat of Catalonia in exile. An agreement was made so that the Generalitat would be restored and limited competencies would be transferred while the constitution was still being written. In the end, the constitution, published and ratified in 1979, found a balance in recognizing the existence of nationalities and regions in Spain, within the indissoluble unity of the Spanish nation. The starting point in the organization of Spain was the second article of the constitution. In order to exercise this right, the established a open process whereby the nationalities
29.
Democratic Convergence of Catalonia
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The Democratic Convergence of Catalonia was a Catalan nationalist, and liberal party in Catalonia. It was the largest political organization in the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, the last president of Democratic Convergence of Catalonia before its refoundation was Artur Mas, and its General Secretary were Josep Rull i Andreu and Jordi Turull i Negre. Rather than using its full acronym the party was referred to just as Convergència. Until their split in 2015, both parties partnered in a coalition which dominated Catalan regional politics since the 1980s until the early 2000s, cDCs founder, Jordi Pujol, was the regional president of Catalonia for 23 consecutive years. The minority government era in Catalan politics started in 2010, introducing previously unseen variable geometry in the regions politics, hence, CiU partnered initially with the Socialists Party of Catalonia, then with the Popular Party. Eventually, none of these tactical agreements held and a period of instability followed, substantiated in successive snap elections. During this period, Convergència, led by Mas, initiated a progressive but fast turn into separatism, by 2015 Convergència was openly advocating and trying to lead Catalan separatism. One of the consequences of the separatist turn was the termination of the CiU coalition with Unió Democràtica for the 2015 election, at that point, Convergència together with Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya formed a new coalition Junts pel Sí which explicitly demanded independence for Catalonia. The situation remained unstable, as Junts pel Sí could not attain an absolute majority, as of 2016 it runs a minority government led by CDC member, Carles Puigdemont. Once CiU split, in the 2015 Spanish general election, the party run as the member of the Democracy. CDC was affiliated with the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party, during the late 1970s and 1980s it claimed a social-democratic strand within its ranks, namely personified in militants such as Ramon Trias Fargas or Miquel Sellarès. CDC had a current which advocated Catalan independence from Spain and this current grew stronger after 2006. The main exponents of the independentist current within CDC were Felip Puig, Oriol Pujol, David Madí, the section of CDC in the Occitan-speaking Val dAran is known as the Aranese Democratic Convergence. Led by its president, Artur Mas, on July 8,2016, Mas retained the presidential role in the refounded party. Eventually, the party chose to re-style itself as Partit Demòcrata Català, however, that name was suspended, since it is nearly identical with the one of another existing political party. Finally, the new party chose the name Partit Demòcrata Europeu Català, liberalism and radicalism in Spain Democratic Convergence of Catalonia
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European Commission
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Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
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Roda de Ter
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Roda de Ter is a municipality in the comarca of Osona, province of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, near Vic, on the Ter River above the Sau Reservoir. Its church is dedicated to St. Peter, main monuments, Pont Vell and the Capella del Sòl del Pont. The Virgin Mary, La Mare de Déu del Sòl del Pont is the patron of the village, on the site of an Iberian town a Roman villa was established. In its later fortified state it existed until 826, when was destroyed by Aissó, many years passed before it was repopulated and grew slowly. The fierce independence of the people of northern Catalonia manifested itself in banditry in which villagers were encouraged to participate, even by their silence. The bandit leaders might be peasants or local noblemen, on one occasion in 1646, the whole of the village of Roda de Ter was briefly incarcerated as fautors for their part in sheltering members of a local gang. One of them, Francesc Macià i Ambert, who came from Roda de Ter, is memorialized in Barcelona by a street and a metro station that bear his nom de guerre Bac de Roda. Before the comarca was called simply Roda, it took the name of Roda de Ter in late 20th century when the municipality was split into Roda de Ter, Roda de Ter lies on Catalan route C-153. The foundry Fundiciones de Roda produced fine cast iron components for hydraulics, the Catalan poet Miquel Martí i Pol was born in Roda de Ter, March 19,1929. Childrens author Miquel Obiols is also from Roda
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Calldetenes
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Calldetenes is a municipality in the comarca of Osona in Catalonia, Spain. The Michelin-starred restaurant Can Jubany is located here, panareda Clopés, Josep Maria, Rios Calvet, Jaume, Rabella Vives, Josep Maria. Guia de Catalunya, Barcelona, Caixa de Catalunya
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Free Catalan Territory
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From its new condition, the council of Sant Pere de Torelló announced that the October 12, holiday becomes an ordinary weekday, directly conflicting the Spanish legislation. Since then, more joined this initiative and approved similar declarations to Sant Pere de Torellós. Also, there are municipalities that preferred approving independentist motions. The October 11th 2012 the first comarcal declaration was approved, the Comarcal Council of La Garrotxa approved a collective motion to declare all that region Free and Sovereign Catalan Territory. Since September 3,2012,197 Catalan municipalities and five Comarcal councils have declared themselves Free Catalan Territory, representing approximately 20. 2% of whole Catalonias lands
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Spanish Army
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The Spanish Army is the terrestrial army of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldest active armies - dating back to the late 15th century, the Spanish army has existed continuously since the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. During the 16th century, Habsburg Spain saw a growth in its military power. The Italian Wars resulted in an ultimate Spanish victory and hegemony in northern Italy by expelling the French, during the 16th century this formation evolved into the tercio infantry formation. The new formation and battle tactics were developed because of Spains inability to field sufficient cavalry forces to face the heavy French cavalry, with such numbers involved, Spain had trouble funding the war effort on so many fronts. The non-payment of troops led to many mutinies and events such as the Sack of Antwerp, the Thirty Years War drew in Spain alongside most other European states. Nevertheless, Spanish armies continued to win battles and sieges throughout this period across large swathes of Europe. French entry into the war in 1635 put additional pressure on Spain, by the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Spain was forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic. In the second half of the century, a reduced and increasingly neglected Spanish army became infamous for being poorly equipped. Spain remained an important naval and military power, depending on sea lanes stretching from Spain through the Caribbean and South America, and westwards towards Manila. The Army was reorganised on the French model and in 1704 the old Tercios were transformed into Regiments, the first modern military school was created in Segovia in 1764. Finally, in 1768 King Charles III sanctioned the Royal Ordinances for the Regime, Discipline, Subordination and Service in his Armies, in the late 18th century, Bourbon-ruled Spain had an alliance with Bourbon-ruled France, and therefore did not have to fear a land war. Its only serious enemy was Britain, which had a powerful Royal Navy, when the French Revolution overthrew the Bourbons, a land war with France became a danger which the king tried to avoid. The officer corps was selected primarily on the basis of royal patronage, about a third of the junior officers have been promoted from the ranks, and they did have talent, but they had few opportunities for promotion or leadership. The rank-and-file were poorly trained peasants, elite units included foreign regiments of Irishmen, Italians, Swiss, and Walloons, in addition to elite artillery and engineering units. Equipment was old-fashioned and in disrepair, the army lacked its own horses, oxen and mules for transportation, so these auxiliaries were operated by civilians, who might run away if conditions looked bad. In combat, small units fought well, but their tactics were hardly of use against the Napoleonic forces. When war broke out with France in 1808, the army was deeply unpopular, leading generals were assassinated, and the army proved incompetent to handle command-and-control
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Via Laietana
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Via Laietana is a major thoroughfare in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, in the Ciutat Vella district. It can be seen as an extension of Carrer de Pau Claris in Eixample, via Laietana was named after the Laietanii, an Iberian people who inhabited the region around Barcelona, Maresme, Vallès, and Baix Llobregat. The construction of Via Laietana was first projected in 1879 and started in 1907, with the aim of communicating Eixample with the waterfront, the demolition of a large number of houses and the removal of the streets in the area was required to do so. As some of the guilds of the city, some dating back to the Middle Ages, were located there, they had to be relocated in different parts of Barri Gòtic. The first section to be built was named Carrer de Bilbao, the avenue was finished in 1926. Francesc Cambó, a prominent politician of the time, built his residence in the avenue. During the years of the Spanish Civil War it was renamed Via Durruti, as an avenue built in the early 20th century, its buildings reflect the aesthetic ideals of the period, and of the different political regimes. The style of some of its buildings has no other referent in Barcelona and has more in common with the architecture that can be seen in Madrid. A number of buildings are being converted into hotels. Casa Bulbena-Salas by Joan A. Roig, edifici del Col·legi dEnginyers Industrials by Antoni Ferrater. Casa Artur Suqué by Adolf Florensa, Caixa Catalunya building by José Yárnoz Larrosa and Luis Menéndez Pidal Álvarez - Its been the Caixa Catalunya headquarters since 1955, but originally hosted Banco de España. Casa dels Velers by Juan Garrido i Bertrán Foment del Treball building by Adolf Florensa - rationalist building, edifici de Tabacs by Francesc Guàrdia Vidal. Edifici de Correus (1926-1927 by Josep Goday Casals and Jaume Torres Grau, palau de la Música Catalana Santa Caterina market Cathedral of Santa Eulàlia Via Laietana hosted two metro stations that were finally dismantled and abandoned because of different reasons. Correos was closed because of changes in the metro line that crossed the area
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Bird's eye view