1.
2011 in Iran
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Events in the year 2011 in the Islamic Republic of Iran. January 9 – Iran Air Flight 277 crashes with 100 people on board near Orumiyeh in the northeast of the country, january 23 – President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad designed Ali Akbar Salehi, then acting Foreign Minister to the Parliament to succeed Manouchehr Mottaki who was dismissed on December. February 11 – Iran marks the 32nd anniversary of its Revolution, February 11 – Iranian opposition leader Mehdi Karroubi is placed under house arrest after calling for demonstrations in support of the uprisings in Egypt and Tunisia. February 13 – Opposition leaders in Iran call for nationwide anti-government rallies on Monday, February 15 – Iranian politicians call for the execution of opposition leaders. February 22 – The Iran Navy sends two ships through the Suez Canal for the first time since the 1979 Iranian Revolution, February 28 – Iran confirms that it is holding two Opposition leaders Mir-Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi under house arrest. March 25 – The Government of Iran rejects a United Nations Human Rights Council investigation into alleged human rights abuses, may 6 - Irans supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issues an ultimatum to the President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to accept his intervention in a cabinet appointment or resign. May 15 - Sepahan F. C. won their championship in Iran Pro League. June 1 – Irans parliament finds that the President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad acted illegally by appointing himself as Oil Minister, june 12 – The United Nations Security Council reports that Iran is buying foreign banks and money-exchange bureaus to sidestep economic sanctions. June 12 –2011 Iranian protests, Iranian authorities disperse and arrest protesters in the capital Tehran marking the anniversary of the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad as President. June 28 – Iran tests 14 surface-to-surface missiles on the day of war games. July 18 – Iranian athlete and Irans Strongest Man Rouhollah Dadashi is killed in a fight which started as an argument with another driver, two of them are arrested by police. July 23 – Daryoush Rezaei, an Iranian scientist, is shot dead outside his home in Tehran and it was reported that the scientist had links to the countrys nuclear programme. August 3 – The Iranian parliament confirms four new ministers including Rostam Ghasemi as Minister of Petroleum, august 5 –2011 Syrian uprising, Turkey confirms it has seized an Iranian arms shipment to Syria. August 14 – Iran confirms the arrest of the second-in-command of the Kurdistan Workers Party, Murat Karayılan, august 25 – Former Iranian Prime Minister Mir-Hossein Mousavi is hospitalized after a heart attack. September 27 – CEOs of Iranian Melli Bank and Saderat Bank resign from their positions as a result of $2.6 billion bank fraud, january 4 – Ali-Reza Pahlavi,44, royal, son of Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, suicide by gunshot. January 29 - Zahra Bahrami,45, dual Dutch-Iranian citizen executed on disputed drug trafficking charges. February 14 - Sane Jaleh,26, student, killed in protests February 15 - Mohammad Mokhtari,21, killed in protests March 8 - Iraj Afshar,85, bibliographer, historian, april 16 - Bijan Pakzad,67, designer of menswear and fragrances
2.
2010 in Iran
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Events in the year 2010 in the Islamic Republic of Iran. January 8 – Mehdi Karroubis car is hit by fire in Qazvin, january 12 – Masoud Alimohammadi, an Iranian nuclear physics professor, is killed in a bomb attack in the capital Tehran, Iran state media accuses Israel and the United States of involvement. January 19 – Iran rejects a deal offered by the International Atomic Energy Agency to exchange low-enriched uranium for nuclear fuel, january 23 – A passenger train in Iran derails, killing at least eight people and wounding at least fifteen others. January 24 – Taban Air Flight 6437, A flight operated by Kolavia on behalf of Taban Air crashes on landing at Mashhad International Airport, Iran, january 28 – Iran executes two opposition supporters for their role in the election protests in the country. February 7 – Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad orders his countrys atomic agency to begin enriching uranium to a higher level, february 11 – President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announces that Iran is now a nuclear state, following a successful 20% uranium enrichment. March 19 – Former Iranian Vice-President Hossein Marashi is jailed after being accused of spreading propaganda, march 31 – Shahram Amiri, a scientist involved in Irans nuclear program, defects to the United States and begins talking to the Central Intelligence Agency. April 5 – Iran invites 60 countries to a nuclear disarmament conference in Tehran on April 17–18, entitled Nuclear energy for everyone. China says it will attend the conference which invites the world to disarm, April 20 – Speaking in Tehran, Iranian Islamic cleric Hojatoleslam Kazem Sedighi blames promiscuous women for causing earthquakes. April 30 – Iran threatens to cut off Israels feet if Israel attacks Syria, may 24 – Irans largest water supply project is inaugurated in Khorramshahr. June 18 – The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran starts designing a newer, July 9 – Iran announces that women convicted of adultery will no longer face stoning to death after international concern. They may, however, still face the death penalty, July 15 – July 2010 Zahedan bombings, More than 20 people are killed and 100 injured in a suicide attack at a mosque in southeastern Iran. July 23 – President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announces plans to launch a shuttle into space by 2019. August 21 – Russian engineers start loading fuel into Irans first nuclear reactor at Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant, september 10 – More than 50 people are injured in an oil pipeline blast in northeastern Iran. September 15 – 2009–2010 detention of American hikers by Iran, Iran releases United States hiker Sarah Shourd from Evin Prison following payment of bail. September 28 – Iranian-Canadian blogger Hossein Derakhshan, the founder of one of the first Persian-language blogs, is sentenced to 19 years imprisonment in an Iranian court for anti-state activity, october 13 – Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad visits Lebanon amidst concern from Israel and United States. October 26 – Iran starts loading fuel into the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant, november 21 – Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad rejects the countrys once effective family planning program as an ungodly Western import and urges girls to marry at age of 16. November 29 – Iranian nuclear scientist Majid Shahriari is killed and his wife injured, Iran says Western governments and Israel may have carried out the killing. January 3 – Ali Safi Golpaygani,96, Iranian Marja, january 12 – Masoud Alimohammadi,50, Iranian nuclear scientist, bomb blast
3.
2009 in Iran
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Events in the year 2009 in the Islamic Republic of Iran. March 7 – Morocco terminates diplomatic relations with Iran, march 18 – Somali pirates hijack an Iranian fishing vessel in the Gulf of Aden. April 18 – Iranian-American journalist Roxana Saberi is charged with espionage, may 4 – A bus collides with a building in Īlām Province, Iran, killing 28 people and injuring nine others. May 20 – Iran launches a Sejjil-2 medium-range surface-to-surface missile, may 30 – A bomb is discovered and defused aboard a Kish Air flight between Ahvaz and Tehran, Iran. June 12 – Iran goes to the polls for its presidential election, June 13 – Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is reelected as the President of Iran, although opposition leader Mir-Hossein Mousavi demands a recount. June 20 – A suicide bomb reportedly explodes at the shrine of former Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, June 22 – The Iranian Revolutionary Guard warns that it will crush any further protests. June 23 – The Guardian Council rules out a re-run of the election saying that there was no sign of serious electoral fraud in the June 12 vote. June 24 – Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei declares the recent election result will stand, july 15 – Caspian Airlines Flight 7908, flying from Tehran to Yerevan, Armenia with 153 passengers and 15 crew members on board, crashes in Iran shortly after takeoff. July 24 – Aria Air Flight 1525 crashes in Mashhad, Iran, killing at least 17 people, july 28 – Iran releases 140 people detained in its post-election unrest as the supreme leader orders a prison where jailed protesters were killed be closed. August 3 – Irans Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei formally approves the second-term presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, august 5 – Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is sworn in as President of Iran for a second term. October 18 –2009 Pishin bombing, a bomber detonated explosives at a meeting in the southeastern Iranian town of Pishin in Sistan and Baluchestan Province. The attack killed at least 43 people including several commanders of Irans Revolutionary Guards. The Sunni rebel organization Jundallah claimed responsibility for the attack, november 4 – Around 700 people are injured in two earthquakes in southern Iran. November 9 – Three American hikers detained on the border between Iraqi Kurdistan and Iran are to be charged for espionage by Iranian authorities, november 29 – The Iranian government approves plans to build 10 new uranium enrichment plants. December 28 – Iran declares martial law in Najafabad following a week of protest and 2 days of violence, january 30 – Safar Iranpak,61, Iranian footballer, lung cancer. February 2 – Ezzat Negahban, c, march 21 – Khadijeh Saqafi,93, Iranian widow of religious/political leader Ruhollah Khomeini, after long illness. May 1 – Delara Darabi,22, Iranian convicted murderer, may 15 – Mohammad-Amin Riahi,86, Iranian historian and literary scholar. May 17 – Mohammad-Taqi Bahjat Foumani,96, Iranian cleric, June 20 – Neda Agha-Soltan,26, Iranian student, shot
4.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
5.
2013 in Iran
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The following lists events that happened during 2013 in the Islamic Republic of Iran. February 3 - Iran indicates the possibility it will attend talks on its program in Kazakhstan if it believes intentions behind them are authentic. March 2 - Giti Pasand Isfahan winner 2012–13 Iranian Futsal Super League, june 13 - Hassan Rouhani is elected as the seventh president of Iran. November 24 - Iran and six world powers reach an interim nuclear accord that sees Iran limit aspects of its program in exchange for sanctions relief. January 1 - Mojtaba Tehrani,79, Iranian Twelver Marja, january 17 - Homayoun Khorram,82, Iranian violinist, colorectal cancer. January 31 - Hassan Habibi,76, Iranian politician and scholar, Minister of Justice, First Vice President, february 21 - Nazem Ganjapour,69, Iranian footballer. February 24 - Farideh Lashai,68, Iranian contemporary artist, march 31 - Ahmad Sayyed Javadi,95, Iranian political activist and politician, Minister of Justice, Minister of Interior. April 1 - Asal Badiee,35, Iranian actress, april 17 - Dariush Safvat,85, Iranian musician, natural causes. April 20 - Hassan Alavikia,102, Iranian spy chief, may 9 - Sadegh Tirafkan,47, Iranian contemporary artist. May 14 - Mohammad Ezodin Hosseini Zanjani,92, Iranian Islamic prelate, Grand Ayatollah, june 2 - Jalal Al-Din Taheri,87, Iranian Islamic cleric. June 16 - Yousef Madani Tabrizi,85, Iranian Grand Ayatollah, june 17 - Jalil Shahnaz,92, Iranian maestro and Tar master, natural causes. June 21 - Abdol-Aziz Mirza Farmanfarmaian,93, Iranian architect, june 25 - Taghi Rouhani,93, Iranian news anchor. July 16 - Hassan Pakandam,79, Iranian Olympic boxer, august 23 - Nasser Sharify,87, Iranian academic and librarian. August 30 - Lotfi Mansouri,84, Iranian opera director, september 7 - Mehdi Mohammadi,60, Iranian football player and coach, heart attack. October 10 - Kazem Sarikhani,35, Iranian Olympic judoka, Asian champion, october 19 - Mahmoud Zoufonoun,93, Iranian traditional musician, Alzheimers disease. November 5 - Habibollah Asgaroladi,81, Iranian politician and presidential candidate, Leader of Islamic Coalition Party, november 10 - Safdar Rahmat Abadi, Iranian government official, deputy industry minister, shot. December 18 - Büyük Jeddikar,84, Iranian footballer, Alzheimers disease
6.
2014 in Iran
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Events in the year 2014 in the Islamic Republic of Iran. January 20 The United States rejects the invitation of Iran by the United Nations in peace talks involving Syria, certain sanctions against Iran are lifted by the European Union and the United States through a nuclear deal. Implementation of the six-month Geneva interim agreement on the Iranian nuclear program begins, january 30 - Mohammad-Ali Najafi resigns as Head of Irans Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts and Tourism Organization, marking the first change in President Rouhanis cabinet. February 9 - Iranian officials say that two Iranian Navy warships will be travelling very close to the United States maritime border in the Atlantic Ocean, february 9 - Iran agrees to a United Nations plan to address suspicions that they are working on designing an atomic weapon. March 5 - The Israel Defense Forces captures an Iranian ship carrying long-range artillery rockets to Palestinians in the Gaza Strip, may 21 - Six Iranians that were arrested have been released in Tehran after releasing a fan video set to Pharrell Williams Happy, sparking outcries over the internet. May 22 - Negotiations between Iran and Russia regarding the building of two nuclear reactors at Irans Bushehr power plant take place. May 24 - Mahafarid Amir Khosravi is executed for masterminding the largest fraud case in Iran since the 1979 Revolution, June 2 – A massive dust storm strikes Tehran. June 30 – British-Iranian womens rights activist Ghoncheh Ghavami is arrested after being detained on June 20 for attempting to attend a volleyball match between Iran and Italy. Women are forbidden to attend sporting events in Iran. Her detention in Evin Prison continues, july 22 – Washington Post reporter Jason Rezaian and his wife Yeganeh Salehi, a correspondent for The National, are arrested by Iranian authorities. The authorities have not disclosed their whereabouts or welfare, or the reason for their detention, august 10 – Sepahan Airlines Flight 5915 crashes in Tehran. September 5 - Iranian air traffic control requires a plane chartered by US-led coalition forces in Afghanistan to land issues with the flight plan. The flight later resumes without further incident
7.
2015 in Iran
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The following lists events that happened during 2015 in the Islamic Republic of Iran. President, Hassan Rouhani Vice President, Eshaq Jahangiri Supreme Leader, may 7 – Ethnic Kurds riot in Mahabad following the unexplained death on 4 May 2015 of Farinaz Khosravani, a 25-year-old Kurdish hotel chambermaid. Khosravani fell to her death from a window of the Tara. Anger mounted following reports that Khosravani died attempting to escape an Iranian official who was threatening to rape her, the rioters reportedly set fire to the hotel. Unrest and violence spread to other Kurdish cities in Iran, july 14 – Iran agrees to long-term limits of its nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief
8.
2012
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February 19 – Iran suspends oil exports to Britain and France, following sanctions put in place by the European Union and the United States in January. February 21 – Greek government-debt crisis, Eurozone finance ministers reach an agreement on a second, march 13 – After 244 years since its first publication, the Encyclopædia Britannica discontinues its print edition. March 22 – The President of Mali, Amadou Toumani Touré, is ousted in a coup détat after mutinous soldiers attack government offices, april 6 – The National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad unilaterally declares the independence of Azawad from Mali. April 12 – Mutinous soldiers in Guinea-Bissau stage a coup détat and take control of the capital city and they arrest interim President Raimundo Pereira and leading presidential candidate Carlos Gomes Júnior in the midst of a presidential election campaign. April 13 – Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3, a North Korean Earth observation satellite, the United States and other countries had called the impending launch a violation of United Nations Security Council demands. The launch was planned to mark the centenary of the birth of Kim Il-sung, april 26 – Former Liberian President Charles Taylor is found guilty on 11 counts of aiding and abetting war crimes and crimes against humanity during the Sierra Leone Civil War. May 2 – A pastel version of The Scream, by the Norwegian painter Edvard Munch, sells for US$120 million in a New York City auction, may 12 – August 12 – The 2012 World Expo takes place in Yeosu, South Korea. May 22 – Tokyo Skytree, the tallest self-supporting tower in the world at 634 metres high, is opened to the public, june 5–6 – The centurys second and last solar transit of Venus occurs. The next pair are predicted to occur in 2117 and 2125, june 24 – Lonesome George, the last known individual of the Pinta Island tortoise subspecies, dies in Galápagos National Park, thus making the subspecies extinct. July 4 – CERN announces the discovery of a new particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson after experiments at the Large Hadron Collider, July 27 – August 12 – The 2012 Summer Olympics are held in London, England, United Kingdom. July 30–31 – In the worst power outage in world history, August 6 – Curiosity, the Mars Science Laboratory missions rover, successfully lands on Mars. The move is met with fierce criticism from other countries. September 11–27 – A series of terrorist attacks are directed against United States diplomatic missions worldwide, as well as missions of Germany, Switzerland. In the US, opinions are divided whether the attacks are a reaction to a YouTube trailer for the film Innocence of Muslims. In Libya, among the dead is US ambassador J. Christopher Stevens, october 16 – Seven paintings worth $25 million are stolen from the Kunsthal in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. November 14–21 – Israel launches Operation Pillar of Defense against the Palestinian-governed Gaza Strip, in the following week 140 Palestinians and five Israelis are killed in an ensuing cycle of violence. November 25 – December 9 – Typhoon Bopha, known as Pablo in the Philippines, the typhoon causes considerable damage in the island of Mindanao. November 29 – The UN General Assembly approves a motion granting Palestine non-member observer state status, December 8 – In Qatar, the UN Climate Change Conference agrees to extend the Kyoto Protocol until 2020
9.
Supreme Leader of Iran
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The armed forces, judicial system, state television, and other key governmental organizations are under the control of the Supreme Leader of Iran. Khamenei also makes the decisions on the amount of transparency in elections in Iran. This post was established by the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran in accordance with the concept of the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist. The title Supreme Leader is often used as a sign of respect, however, this terminology is not found in the Constitution, which simply referred to the Leader. The Supreme Leader is more powerful than the President of Iran and appoints the heads of many posts in the military, the civil government. Originally Irans constitution stated that the Supreme Leader must be a Marja-e taqlid, however, in 1989, the constitution was amended to require simply Islamic scholarship of the leader, i. e. the leader could be a lower ranking cleric. In theory, the Supreme Leader is appointed and supervised by the Assembly of Experts, all candidates to the Assembly of Experts, the President and the Majlis, are selected by the Guardian Council, whose members are selected by the Supreme Leader of Iran. As such, the Assembly has never questioned the Supreme Leader, there have been instances when the current Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei has publicly criticized members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal. For example, Khamenei publicly called then-member of the Assembly of Experts Ahmad Azari Qomi a traitor, resulting in Ahmad Azari Qomis arrest, there has also been instances where the Guardian Council reversed its ban for particular people after being ordered to do so by Khamenei. The Supreme Leader is the commander-in-chief of the forces and the provisional Head of the three branches of the state. He appoints and oversees the offices, the President and may also together with a two third majority of the Parliament impeach him. The Chief Justice for a term of 8 years, the members of the Expediency Discernment Council for a term of 5 years,6 of the 12 Members of the Guardian Council from among the members of the Council of Experts the other 6 are chosen by the Parliament. In March 1979, shortly after Ruhollah Khomeini’s return from exile and the overthrow of Irans monarchy, although some groups objected to the wording and choice and boycotted the referendum, 98% of those voting voted yes. The new constitution has been called a hybrid of theocratic and democratic elements with much of it based on the ideas Khomeini presented in his work Islamic Government, Governance of the Jurist. In it Khomeini argued that government must be run in accordance with traditional Islamic sharia, and for this to happen a leading Islamic jurist must provide political guardianship over the people. The leading jurist were known as Marja. ” and the importance of the Supreme Leader. ”Article 107 in the constitution mentions Imam Khomeini by name and praises him as the most learned and talented leader for emulation. The responsibilities of the Supreme Leader are vaguely stated in the constitution, as the rest of the clergy governed affairs on a daily basis, the Supreme Leader is capable of mandating a new decision as per the concept of Vilayat-e Faqih. Shortly before Imam Khomeinis death a change was made in the constitution allowing a lower ranking Shia cleric to become Supreme Leader, montazeri was demoted as a marja and Khomeini chose a new successor, a relatively low-ranking member of the clergy, Ali Khamenei
10.
Ali Khamenei
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Sayyid Ali Hosseini Khamenei is a marja and the second and current Supreme Leader of Iran. Khamenei succeeded the first Supreme Leader, Ruhollah Khomeini, after Khomeinis death and his political career began after the Iranian Revolution, when the former President of Iran, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, then a confidant of Khomeini, brought Khamenei into Khomeinis inner circle. Khamenei then went to serve as President of Iran from 1981 to 1989 while becoming an ally to Khomeini. Today, as Supreme Leader, Khamenei is the head of state of Iran, for this reason, he is considered the most powerful political authority in the country. For example, in August 2016, Khamenei directly warned the current president Hassan Rouhani that there should be no deviation from Khameneis economic policies, the report said that it found no evidence that Khamenei is tapping Setad to enrich himself. As president, he had a reputation of being interested in the military, budget and administrative details. Comparatively, Khamenei is the second longest head of state in the Middle East as well as the second longest-serving Iranian leader of the last century, after Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi. Khamenei has either direct or indirect control over the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government, as well as the military and media. All candidates to the Assembly of Experts, the President and the Majlis, are vetted by the Guardian Council, there have been also instances when the Guardian Council reversed its ban of particular people after being ordered to do so by Khamenei. Khamenei has also fired and reinstated Presidential cabinet appointments, Irans Chief Justice Sadeq Larijani, a Khamenei appointee, has warned the president of Iran against voicing opposition to Khamenei. There have been several protests during Khameneis reign, including the 1994 Qazvin Protests. Khamenei asked to maximize the amount of transparency in elections in Iran, Khamenei was the victim of an attempted assassination in June 1981 that paralysed his right arm. According to his website, Khamenei was arrested six times before being sent into exile for three years during Mohammad Reza Pahlavis reign. Regarding controversial Nuclear program of Iran, Ali Khamenei had issued a fatwa saying that the production, stockpiling, born to Seyyed Javad Khamenei and Khadijeh Mirdamadi in Mashhad, Khamenei is the second of eight children. Two of his brothers are also clerics and his brother, Hadi Khamenei, is a renowned newspaper editor. His elder sister Fatemeh Hosseini Khamenei died in 2015, at age 89 and his descendancy is of ethnic Azerbaijani background, with one source claiming that his mother was an ethnic Persian-speaker from Yazd. Some of his ancestors are from Tafresh in todays Markazi Province, then, he went to Najaf in 1957, but soon returned back to Mashhad due to his fathers unwillingness to let him stay there. In 1958, he settled in Qom where he attended the classes of Seyyed Hossein Borujerdi, Khamenei married a woman named Khojaste in 1964
11.
President of Iran
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The President of Iran is the head of government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The President is the highest popularly elected official in Iran, although the President answers to the Supreme Leader of Iran, Khamenei also makes the final decisions on the amount of transparency in elections in Iran, and has fired and reinstated Presidential cabinet appointments. The President of Iran is elected for a term by the direct vote of the people. The current President of Iran is Hassan Rouhani, who assumed office on August 3,2013 and he succeeded Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who served 8 years in office from 2005 to 2013. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979 and referendum to create the Islamic Republic on March 29 and 30, ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, ordered an election for the Assembly of Experts, the body tasked with writing the constitution. The assembly presented the constitution on October 24,1979, and Supreme Leader Ruhollah Khomeini, the 1979 Constitution designated the Supreme Leader of Iran as the head of state and the President and Prime Minister as the heads of government. The post of Prime Minister was abolished in 1989, the first Iranian presidential election was held on January 25,1980 and resulted in the election of Abulhassan Banisadr with 76% of the votes. Banisadr was impeached on June 22,1981 by Parliament, until the early election on July 24,1981, the duties of the President were undertaken by the Provisional Presidential Council. Mohammad-Ali Rajai was elected President on July 24,1981 and took office on August 2, Rajai was in office for less than one month because he and his prime minister were both assassinated. Once again a Provisional Presidential Council filled the office until October 13,1981 when Ali Khamenei was elected president, the election on August 3,2005 resulted in a victory for Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Ali Khamenei, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Mohammad Khatami and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad were each elected president for two terms, the President of Iran is elected for a four-year term in a national election by universal adult suffrage for everyone of at least 18 years of age. Candidates for the presidency must be approved by the Council of Guardians, within these guidelines the Council vetoes candidates who are deemed unacceptable. The approval process is considered to be a check on the presidents power, in the 1997 election, for example, only four out of 238 presidential candidates were approved by the council. Western observers have criticized the approvals process as a way for the Council and Supreme Leader to ensure that only conservative. However, the council rejects the criticism, citing approval of reformists in previous elections, the council rejects most of the candidates stating that they are not a well-known political figure, a requirement by the current law. The President must be elected with a majority of the popular vote. If no candidate receives a majority in the first round, an election is held between the top two candidates. According to the Iranian constitution, when the President dies or is impeached, the President automatically becomes the Head of the Supreme National Security Council and the Head of the Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution
12.
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
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Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is an Iranian politician who was the sixth President of Iran from 2005 to 2013. He was also the political leader of the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran. An engineer and teacher from a background, Ahmadinejad joined the Office for Strengthening Unity after the Iranian Revolution. Appointed a provincial governor, he was removed after the election of President Mohammad Khatami, tehrans council elected him mayor in 2003. He took a hard line, reversing reforms of previous moderate mayors. His 2005 presidential campaign, supported by the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran, garnered 62% of the election votes. During his presidency, Ahmadinejad was viewed as a figure within Iran. He has been criticized domestically for his policies and disregard for human rights. Internationally, he is criticized for his hostility towards some countries, most notably Saudi Arabia, Israel, the United Kingdom, and the United States and other Western and Arab nations. In 2007, Ahmadinejad introduced a gas rationing plan to reduce the fuel consumption. His election to a term in 2009 was widely disputed and caused widespread protests domestically. On 14 March 2012, Ahmadinejad became the first president of the Islamic Republic of Iran to be summoned by the Islamic Consultative Assembly to answer questions regarding his presidency, limited to two terms under the current Iranian constitution, Ahmadinejad supported Esfandiar Rahim Mashaeis campaign for president. On 15 June 2013, Hassan Rouhani was elected as Ahmadinejads successor, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was born on 28 October 1956 near Garmsar, in the village of Aradan, in Semnan province. His mother, Khanom, was a Sayyida, a title given to those believed to be direct bloodline descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. His father, Ahmad, was a grocer, barber who was a religious Shia who taught the Quran, when Mahmoud was one year old, his family moved to Tehran. Mahmouds father changed their name from Saborjhian or Sabaghian to Ahmadinejad in 1960 to avoid discrimination when the family moved to the city. Sabor is Persian for thread painter, a common occupation within the Semnan carpet industry. Ahmadinejads uncle and his brother Davoud Ahmadinejad have confirmed that the surname was Sabbaghian
13.
Vice President of Iran
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The Vice President of Iran is defined by article 124 of the Constitution of Iran, as anyone appointed by the President of Iran to lead an organization related to Presidential affairs. As of July 2009, there are 12 Vice Presidents in Iran, the First Vice President is the most important as he or she leads cabinet meetings in the absence of the president. The role of First Vice President was created in the revision of the Constitution in 1989 and it took over some of the responsibilities of Prime Minister. According to Article 124, First Vice President will be chairing the board of ministers and coordinate the other vice presidencies, according to Article 131, First Vice President takes over as acting President in cases where the President in incapacitated, but only if permitted by the Supreme Leader. According to the same Article, First Vice President must make sure that a new president is elected in fifty days, according to Article 132, during the time an Acting President is serving, the Majlis cannot impeach ministers and it cant disapprove newly introduced ministers. Also, referendums and revisions to the Constitution are forbidden, the President may or may not choose vice presidents for specific issues, but their existence is not obligatory
14.
Mohammad Reza Rahimi
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Mohammad Reza Rahimi is an Iranian politician who was first vice president from 13 September 2009 until 3 August 2013. His previous posts included governor of the Kurdistan province and vice president for parliamentary affairs, on 15 February 2015, Rahimi was convicted of corruption and is currently jailed in Evin Prison. He was allegedly head of the Fatemi Circle, Rahimi was born into a Kurdish Shiite family on 11 January 1949 in a village, Serishabad, in Irans Kurdistan province. He received a law degree from Tehran University, Rahimi also claims to hold a Ph. D. from Oxford University but no record of his name has been found in the university and also this claim has been vastly disputed by many Iranian sources. Rahimi is considered to be the second high-ranking member of Ahmadinejads administration to have lied about receiving a PhD from Oxford University and he has also claimed to have a Ph. D. from Belford University, characterized as just one of hundreds of diploma mills easily accessible online. Alef, an Iranian site that belongs to Ahmad Tavakkoli, published documents purporting to show fraudulent documents created by Rahimi, Rahimi worked as a public prosecutor in Qorveh and Sanandaj. He headed the city council of Sanandaj, too, during this period, he taught law at the school of law at Tehran Azad University and served as head of the school for a short time. Rahimi was elected as member of the Parliament of Iran from his province of birth Kurdistan in Legislative election of 1980 as a member of Islamic Republican Party and he was in Parliament until 1992 when he resigned from his seat. He held many positions when he was a MP such as head of arts commission, Rahimi was not in Khatamis list of governors. During his governorship, he firstly met Mahmoud Ahmedinejad and he was active in Presidential campaign of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad during 2005 presidential election. Ahmadinejad named Rahimi as his vice president for legal and parliamentary affairs in 2008 and he was acting president of Iran from 20 April 2011 to 1 May 2011 when president Ahmadinejad boycotted his official duties. He run for the presidency of Iran in the 2013 elections, after the election of Hassan Rouhani as the president, his term ended as first vice president. Based on the claims of at least two members of the Iranian Parliament, Rahimi was the head of a band that became known as Fatemi Circle. This circle had an office in Fatemi street in Tehran, naderan, a member of Majlis who is close to Ahmad Tavakkoli, has criticized the judicial system for not arresting him. Motahari, another member of Majlis, has asked Ahmadinejad to cooperate with judicial system on this issue, in January 2015, Iran’s judiciary announced that Rahimi has been sentenced to 5 years in prison and an equivalent of $1 million fine. On 1 September 2014, Rahimi was sentenced to a prison term, the sentence needs to be finalized by a Court of Appeal for details of the indictment to be revealed. On 21 January 2015, Irans supreme court sentenced Rahimi to five years and 91 days in prison, Rahimi was also ordered to pay a compensation equivalent to 28.5 billion rials. Rahimi stated that the Talmud teaches how to destroy non-Jews so as to protect an embryo in the womb of a Jewish mother and he stated his proof is that there is not one single Zionist who is an addict
15.
Islamic Consultative Assembly
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The Islamic Consultative Assembly, also called the Iranian Parliament, the Iranian Majlis, is the national legislative body of Iran. The Parliament currently has 290 representatives, changed from the previous 272 seats since the 18 February 2000 election, the most recent election took place on 26 February 2016 and the new parliament was opened on 28 May 2016. Before the Islamic Revolution, Majlis was also the name of the house of the Iranian Legislature from 1906 to 1979. It was created by the Iran Constitution of 1906 and first convened on 7 October 1906, women were not allowed to vote or be elected to the Parliament until 1963, as part of reforms under the Shahs White Revolution. The twenty-first National Consultative Assembly, which included female representatives, opened on 6 October 1963, the last session of the Pre-Revolution Parliament was held on 7 February 1979. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Senate of Iran was abolished and was replaced by the Guardian Council thus the Iranian legislature remained bicameral. In the 1989 revision of the constitution, the National Consultative Assembly became the Islamic Consultative Assembly, the Parliament of Iran has had six chairmen since the Iranian Revolution. Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani was the first chairman, from 1980 to 1989, then came Mehdi Karroubi, Ali Akbar Nategh-Nouri, Mehdi Karroubi, Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel and Ali Larijani since 2008. The Islamic Consultative Assembly can legislate laws on all issues within the limits of the Constitution, the Assembly cannot, for instance, enact laws contrary to the canons and principles of the official religion of the country or to the Constitution. Government bills are presented to the Islamic Consultative Assembly after receiving the approval of the Council of Ministers, the Islamic Consultative Assembly has the right to investigate and examine all the affairs of the country. International treaties, protocols, contracts, and agreements must be approved by the Islamic Consultative Assembly, receiving and issuing national or international loans or grants by the government must be ratified by the Islamic Consultative Assembly. The President must obtain, for the Council of Ministers, after being formed and before all other business, all legislation passed by the Islamic Consultative Assembly must be sent to the Guardian Council. The Guardian Council must review it within a maximum of ten days from its receipt with a view to ensuring its compatibility with the criteria of Islam, if it finds the legislation incompatible, it will return it to the Assembly for review. Otherwise the legislation will be deemed enforceable, currently, there are 290 members of Parliament, fourteen of whom represent non-Muslim religious minorities, and are popularly elected for four-year terms. About 8% of the Parliament are women, while the average is 13%. The Parliament can force the dismissal of cabinet ministers through no-confidence votes, although the executive proposes most new laws, individual deputies of the Parliament also may introduce legislation. Deputies also may propose amendments to bills being debated, the Parliament also drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Peoples House of Iran candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council, candidates must pledge in writing that they are committed, in theory and in practice, to the Iranian constitution
16.
Ali Larijani
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Ali Larijani is an Iranian philosopher, conservative politician and the current chairman of the Parliament of Iran. Larijani was the Secretary of the Supreme National Security Council from 15 August 2005 to 20 October 2007, appointed to the position by President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Larijani was one of the two representatives of the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei to the council, the other being Hassan Rouhani. In his post as secretary he effectively functioned as the top negotiator on issues of national security, Ali Larijani was born on 3 June 1957 in Najaf, Iraq to Iranian parents. He hails from a family based in Behshahr in the province of Mazandaran. His father is a cleric, Ayatollah Mirza Hashem Amoli. His parents moved to Najaf in 1931 due to pressure of then ruler Reza Shah, Larijani is a graduate of the Haqqani school in Qom. He also holds a bachelor of degree in computer science and mathematics from Sharif University of Technology and holds a masters degree. Initially, he wanted to continue his studies in computer science. Larijani has published books on Immanuel Kant, Saul Kripke, Larijani is a former commander of the Revolutionary Guards. From 1981 to 1989, Larijani served as the deputy minister of labour, following the election of Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani as President of Iran, he was appointed deputy minister of information and communications technology. After Mohammad Khatamis resignation as minister of culture and Islamic guidance, he was appointed as acting minister, in March 1994, he was appointed as head of the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting, replacing Mohammad Hashemi Rafsanjani in the post. He was in office until 21 July 2004 and was succeeded by Ezzatollah Zarghami after serving ten years in the post and he became security adviser to Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei in August 2004. Larijani was a candidate for the 2005 presidential elections, where he ranked sixth. He was considered the most important presidential candidate of the alliance for the 2005 presidential elections. He was supported by the Islamic Society of Engineers, among other conservative groups, but he proved to be the least popular of the three conservative candidates, the others being Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf. In 2005, Larijani was appointed secretary of the Supreme National Security Council and he replaced Hassan Rouhani in the post. Larijani took a line on the nuclear file before his appointment as negotiator. ”As chief nuclear negotiator, Iranian analysts said he differed with the president over how to pursue negotiations with his European counterparts. In the March 2008 parliamentary election, Larijani won a seat from Qom and he said that he was willing to work with Ahmadinejad, according to Larijani, he did not disagree with Ahmadinejad on ideological issues and they had only differences in style
17.
Judicial system of Iran
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A nationwide judicial system in Iran was first implemented and established by Abdolhossein Teymourtash under Reza Shah, with further changes during the second Pahlavi era. After the 1979 overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty by the Islamic Revolution, the legal code is now based on Islamic law or sharia, although many aspects of civil law have been retained, and it is integrated into a civil law legal system. According to the constitution of the Islamic Republic, the judiciary in Iran is an independent power, parliamentary bills pertaining to the constitution are vetted by the Council of Guardians. Some aspects of the law remained in the hands of the mullahs. Among the ways law in Iran and the rest of the Muslim world differed from European law was in its lack of a law code. Thirteen centuries of Islamic—more particularly Shiah—tradition called for jurists to base decisions on their training as it applied to the situation being judged. There was also no appeal in traditional Islamic law, as far as the judicial system is concerned, the changes were quite minor until the end of the nineteenth century. As European military and technological power began to be felt in 19th century Iran, the Europeans insisted on this legal veto right—called the regime of capitulations—on the grounds that Iran had no written legal code so that no one knew what laws foreigners would be judged by. Iran followed traditional Islamic practice of each giving his own interpretation of Islamic law for a given litigation. Under the secularist reign of Reza Shah many changes were made in Irans judicial system, by April 1927 Iran had 600 newly appointed judges in Tehran. Davar subsequently attempted to expand the new system into other cities of Iran through a programme involving training of 250 judges, Reza Shah represented his legal reforms as tentative experiments and allowed the religious judges to keep their courts for matters such as inheritance. In 1936, however, the new system was made permanent, however, there were still sharia courts that ruled on issues of family and inheritance up to the Islamic Revolution. In 1979 the secular, westernizing Pahlavi Dynasty was overthrown and replaced by an Islamic Republic under the rule of Ayatollah Khomeini, between 1979 and 1982, the entire pre-Revolutionary judiciary was purged, and their duties replaced by Revolutionary Tribunals set up in every town. These tribunals ruled on Islamic law, but were in practice unfair, biased, many people were executed or given harsh punishments for both political and criminal acts. There were no appeals either, and trials often lasted minutes in an un-orthodox court, in 1982, the regular court system was reinstated, but with the judges now trained in Islamic law. In 1982, in response to military threats, a separate Military Revolutionary Court was formed. The Retribution Law of 1982 replaced sections of the Public Punishment Law, the 1979 Constitution of the Islamic Republic called for the judiciary to be an independent power, and charges it with investigating and passing judgement on grievances. Supervising the proper enforcement of laws, uncovering crimes, prosecuting, punishing, and chastising criminals, taking suitable measures to prevent crime and reform criminals
18.
Sadeq Larijani
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Sadeq Ardeshir Larijani, more known as Amoli Larijani, is an Iranian cleric, politician and the current and fifth head of the judicial system of Iran after the 1979 revolution. He was born in 1339 solar in Najaf and his father, the late Ayatollah Mirza Hashem Amoli, was an eminent Mujtahid of his time who worked in Najaf after being exiled by Mohammad Reza Shah. The family moved to Iran after the Iranian Revolution in 1979, larinjani became familiar with both religious sciences and modern sciences as child. He began his school in 1345 solar and finished high school in 1356 solar. Following high school, he began his studies in Qom. He finished his studies in 1368 solar then began to teach in both seminary and university. He became a member of scientific staffs of Qom University and taught courses in theology. Larijani is a brother of Ali Larijani, Mohammad Javad Larijani, Bagher Larijani and he is fluent in Persian, Arabic, and English. Larijani served as one of the 12 members of the Guardian Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran for eight years. According to leading Iranian human rights defense lawyer Mohammad Seifzadeh, the head of the Judicial System of Iran is required to be a Mojtahed with significant experience in the field. Larijani, however, was neither an experienced jurist nor a highly ranked cleric, shortly after his appointment, Larijani appointed Saeed Mortazavi to the post of deputy prosecutor general of Iran. Mortazavi was prosecutor general of Tehran for more than seven years during which he was involved in murdering and torturing a number of Iranian civilians, one of the high-profile deaths attributed to Mortazavi is that of Canadian-Iranian photojournalist Zahra Kazemi. The police refused to give a receipt of the items, the office was organized by Mehdi Karroubi and Mir Hossein Mousavi for supporting the victims of torture in Iranian prisons. That same month, the authorities from the Judiciary System began targeting the children of leaders of the opposition groups, the Judiciary released her after twenty-four hours in the South of Tehran in an inappropriate condition. In 2015, he said it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, in 2016, he warned president Hassan Rouhani against voicing opposition to Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. Sadegh Larijani stated that the government does not derive its legitimacy from the votes of the nation and he is a well-known critic of ex-president Mohammad Khatami and his reforms. In March 1998 an article by him attacking Khatamis call for a civil Islamic society, at the same time he considered as leading figure in the sphere of philosophy of law or fiqh. Larijani condemned protesters and those who expressed doubts in the 2009 presidential election results, calling the protests illegal, on 23 May 2012, Larijani was put into the sanction list of the European Union, which was published in the Official Journal of the Union
19.
Amir Mirza Hekmati
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Amir Mirza Hekmati is a former United States Marine who was arrested in August 2011 for allegedly spying for the CIA in Iran. On 9 January 2012, he was sentenced to death for the charges, on 5 March 2012, the Iranian Supreme Court overturned the death sentence and ordered a retrial, saying the verdict against Hekmati was not complete. On January 16,2016, Hekmati was released and allowed to leave Iran as part of a trade between the U. S. and Iran. He returned to the United States on January 21,2016 and he sued the Government of Iran on May 11,2016. Hekmati was born in Flagstaff, Arizona, on July 27,1983, he has a twin sister, Leila. Hekmatis parents, Ali and Behnaz Hekmati, left Iran in 1979 during the Iranian Revolution and settled in Arizona, the family lived in Flint and later Flint Township. Hekmati attended Carman-Ainsworth High School before transferring to Flint Central High School for his last two years of school, he graduated in 2001. In August 2001, Hekmati enlisted in the U. S. Marine Corps, Amir completed his undergraduate degree in Economics at the University of Michigan. Hekmati served in the U. S. Marine Corps from 20 August 2001 to 19 August 2005, Hekmati completed recruit training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, followed by the School of Infantry at Camp Pendleton, California, where he trained as a rifleman. Amir also graduated from the Defense Language Institute having completed the Arabic Language course and he was awarded the Combat Action Ribbon while deployed as a rifleman, and translator in Iraq, but he received no military intelligence training. After his discharge, Hekmati founded Lucid Linguistics LLC in February 2006 and worked as a military contractor translating Arabic, Amir also developed a language, and cultural training app for the Department of Defense, that was later acquired by Vcom3d, and dubbed the Vcommunicator Mobile. Between 2005 and 2007 he is alleged to have worked on a report on two-way translation systems published by Mitre Corporation for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and he is cited in the Acknowledgements section of Applying Automated Metrics to Speech Translation Dialogs, a paper published by Mitre Corporation. He was later employed by Kuma Reality Games to work on a video game for the United States Department of Defense. Between March and September 2010 Hekmati worked in Kansas for BAE Systems, Hekmati worked in Iraq between September 2010 and May 2011 as a culture and language expert. C. In August 2011, Hekmati was arrested while visiting his grandmother and other relatives in Iran, Hekmati allegedly entered Iran from Bagram Airfield via Dubai. On 18 December 2011, a confession by Hekmati appeared on Iranian state television, Hekmatis family said that the confession was coerced, and that he was not a spy. The family is represented by a U. S. Attorney former Ambassador at Large Pierre-Richard Prosper, Iran alleges that Hekmatis mission was to implicate the country in state-sponsored terrorist activities. On 24 December 2011, Switzerland, which manages diplomatic relations between Iran and the United States, applied for access to Hekmati
20.
Iranian legislative election, 2012
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More than 5,000 candidates registered but more than a third were disqualified by the Guardian Council leaving about 3,400 candidates to run for the 290 seat representing the 31 provinces. Iranian officials and state media have described the election as a sign of Iranians trust in the Islamic Republic, although no final election turnout figures were released, state media emphasized that voter turnout was high. The parliament has no control over key foreign and security policy matters but some influence over those policies. In the wake of the crushing of reformist protest against the 2009 election results, the new parliament was opened on 27 May 2012. After two consecutive wins in 2004 and 2008, the conservatives are hoping to secure yet another majority in the parliament. The parliament elected Ali Larijani, an opponent of Ahmadinejad in the 2005 presidential election as the chairman. The first disagreement with the government was the vote of no confidence and dismissal of then Interior Minister, Ali Kordan, the presidential election was held in June 2009 in which Ahmadinejad was re-elected as the president. This was very despite with the results, opposition repudiated the result and claimed that there was fraud in the election. The inauguration ceremony, held in parliament on 5 August 2009, was not attended by more than 60 of the 290 members of Parliament, Parliament also rejected three of the introduced ministers of Ahmadinejads second cabinet. The registration of candidates was handled by the Interior Ministry and candidates are vetted by the Guardian Council, since 2007, Iran has been divided into 207 electoral districts. These districts are based on geography, but shaped according to the number of voters so that each district holds roughly the same number of registered voters. 202 districts are Muslim majority and 5 districts belong to the religious minorities. Therefore, these districts do not correspond to the borders of top administrative divisions within Iran, the legal term of the parliament is four years. The elections must be held before the dissolution of the parliament, the new members must be sworn three months after their elections in the first day of opening of the parliament. The speaker and deputy speakers are elected in the opening day, if in a district, no one can earn ¼ of the votes, a second round election will be held after four weeks. If an elected MP dies, resigns or leaves office for other reasons, none of the candidates can nominate herself/himself in more than one district. If so, her/his candidacy will be canceled and they will be disenfranchised, voting must be an official holiday. The chief of the Council of Guardians, Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati, has said that reformists he labeled as traitors need not participate, therefore, the council has decided that it won’t issue any election list and won’t support anyone
21.
Ali Daei
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Ali Daei OCI is an Iranian former footballer and current coach and businessman. Daei currently manages Persian Gulf Pro League club Naft Tehran and he is the former captain of the Iran national football team, having played for clubs such as Bayern Munich and Hertha BSC, and is the worlds all-time leading goalscorer in mens international matches. From June 2007 until 2013, Daei was a member of the FIFA Football Committee and he graduated from Sharif University of Technology in the field of Metallurgical Engineering. Daei also holds Daei Sport Company as its CEO, Daei was born in Ardabil, Iran and is an Iranian Azerbaijani. Daei graduated from Sharif University of Technology in Materials Engineering with a B. Sc. degree, born in Ardabil, he played for his hometown club, Esteghlal Ardabil, when he was 19. His next club was Taxirani F. C. in Tehran and he stayed four years with Bank Tejarat, missing out on a chance to play in the J. League due to military service. Daeis fame is attributed mostly to his goal scoring ability. He managed to frequently for his clubs, although due to the league schedule at the time he did not play many matches per season. His impressive performance at his club finally got results, Daei became the first Asian player to feature in a UEFA Champions League match. Yet at Bayern he found himself low in the pecking order and this coupled with the Iranian national teams scheduling, Daei had found very little time for playing. Daei was unhappy with his position in the club and decided to make a move to Hertha BSC before the end of his three-year contract, when Bayern won the championship title in the 1999 Bundesliga. He scored his first and second goal in the UEFA Champions League on 22 September 1999 in group match against Chelsea won by Hertha with 2–1. His famous match against Chelsea gained him a lot of recognition, yet even at Hertha he was not a hugely important player, since he was only amongst one of the squads many successful players, who were to fulfill Herthas Bundesliga and UEFA Champions League dreams. Daei was playing in numerous friendlies against world class opposition. In 2001, he was not among the top scorers in the Asian Qualifying round and he joined the UAE league at 34 years of age, signing a contract with Al-Shabab as a free agent. In 2003, Daei quit the UAE team and joined his old team in Tehran, Daei moved from Persepolis to Saba Battery on a free transfer for a modest contract of around $300,000. He spent two years at Saba Battery, scoring 23 goals, winning the Hazfi Cup and participating in the Asian Champions League. After World Cup 2006 and the arrival of Saba Batterys new manager, Farhad Kazemi, it was announced that he was no longer needed on the team, despite rumours of retirement, he signed for another industry-linked club from Tehran, Saipa, on 1 August 2006
22.
Iran national football team
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The National football team of Iran, also known as Team Melli, represents Iran in international football competitions and is governed by the Iran Football Federation. The national football team of Iran, known as Team Melli, ranks 1st in Asia, Iran is one of the most successful national teams in Asia with three Asian Cup championships. Iran has qualified for the World Cup four times but has never advanced past the group stage, Irans only win in the World Cup has been a 2–1 victory against the United States in 1998. The Iranian Football Federation was founded in 1920, in 1926 Tehran XI traveled across the border to Baku, USSR, this was the first away football match for an Iranian team. This Tehran Select team is the predecessor of Irans national football team. The first match that Team Melli played was on 23 August 1941, away at Kabul in a 1–0 win against British India, while Irans first FIFA international match was on 25 August 1941, away at Afghanistan. Iran won the Asian Cup three consecutive times, to which the team has not been able to add since, Iran lost two of three group stage matches against the Netherlands and Peru. After the 1979 Revolution, football was somewhat neglected and cast aside, during the 1980s, the Iranian national team did not feature in World Cup competitions due to the Iran–Iraq War and domestic football suffered the inevitable effects of conflict. The national team withdrew from the Asian qualifiers for the 1982 World Cup, the war and political upheavals left Iran without major club competitions until 1989 when the Qods League was established. A year later, the Qods League was renamed the Azadegan League, both games finished undecided, but Iran managed to qualify due to the away goals rule. Iran held Australia to a 1–1 draw at home, and a 2–2 draw in Melbourne, however, since Iran had scored more away goals, they were able to qualify for the Cup. At their first game of the Group F at the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Iran played well against Yugoslavia, losing narrowly 1–0, only to a free kick goal by Siniša Mihajlović. Iran recorded their first World Cup victory in the game, beating the United States 2–1, with Hamid Estili. The Iran vs USA World Cup match was preheated with much excitement because of each countrys political stance after the Iranian revolution and the Iran hostage crisis. However, in an act of defiance against all forms of hatred or politics in sports, following defeat against Iran, the United States was eliminated from the World Cup. Iran played against Germany in the third game, the goals were scored by Oliver Bierhoff and Jürgen Klinsmann. The one win and two losses meant Iran came third in the group standing and failed to make it to the next round. Iran finished first in the stage of the tournament
23.
Piracy off the coast of Somalia
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Piracy off the coast of Somalia has been a threat to international shipping since the second phase of the Somali Civil War in the early 21st century. Since 2005, many organizations have expressed concern over the rise in acts of piracy. Piracy impeded the delivery of shipments and increased shipping expenses, costing an estimated $6.6 to $6.9 billion a year in trade in 2011 according to Oceans Beyond Piracy. According to the German Institute for Economic Research, an industry of profiteers also arose around the piracy. Insurance companies significantly increased their profits from the attacks, as the firms hiked rate premiums in response. In response, the fishermen began forming armed groups to stop the foreign ships and they eventually turned to hijacking commercial vessels for ransom as an alternate source of income. The pirates also believed that they were protecting their fishing grounds and exacting justice and this is reflected in the names adopted by some of the pirate networks, such as the National Volunteer Coast Guard, which are testimony to the pirates initial motivations. However, as piracy became more lucrative, other reports have speculated that financial gain became the primary motive for the pirates. Combined Task Force 150, a multinational task force, took on the role of fighting piracy off the coast of Somalia by establishing a Maritime Security Patrol Area within the Gulf of Aden. The increasing threat posed by piracy has also caused concern in India since most of its trade routes pass through the Gulf of Aden. The Indian Navy responded to concerns by deploying warships in the region on October 2008. In September 2008, Russia announced that it too would join international efforts to combat piracy. By the end of 2011, pirates had managed to only four ships off the coast of Somalia,22 fewer than the 26 they had captured in each of the two previous years. They also attempted unsuccessful attacks on 52 other vessels,16 fewer than the year prior, as of October 2016, there were no major vessels or hostages remaining in pirate captivity. According to another source, there were 151 attacks on ships in 2011, compared to 127 in 2010 –, pirates had held 10 vessels and 159 hostages in February 2012. In 2011, pirates earned $146m, an average of $4.87 million per ship, an estimated 3,000 to 5,000 pirates operated. By February 20121,000 had been captured and were going through legal processes in 21 countries. About 25 military vessels from EU and NATO countries, China, Russia, India and Japan patrolled approximately 8.3 million km2 of ocean, on 16 July 2012, the EU launched a new operation, EUCAP Nestor
24.
Maldives
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The Maldives, officially the Republic of Maldives, is a South Asian island country, located in the Indian Ocean, situated in the Arabian Sea. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka, the chain of twenty-six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu City in the south. Malé is the capital and most populated city, traditionally called the Kings Island for its central location. With an average elevation of 1.5 metres above sea level, it is the worlds lowest country, with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world. Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea-levels, the government pledged in 2009 to make the Maldives a carbon-neutral country by 2019, the Maldives have been historically and culturally linked to the Indian subcontinent since the fourth century BCE. The Maldivian archipelago was Islamised in the 12th century and consolidated as a sultanate, developing commercial and cultural ties with Asia. From the mid 16th-century, the region came under the influence of European colonial powers. Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965 and a republic was established in 1968 with an elected Peoples Majlis. The ensuing decades have been characterised by political instability, efforts at democratic reform, the Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. It is also a member of the United Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the World Bank classifies the Maldives as having an upper middle income economy. Fishing has historically been the dominant economic activity, and remains the largest sector by far, along with Sri Lanka, it is one of only two South Asian countries rated high on the Human Development Index, with its per capita income the highest among SAARC nations. The name Maldives may derive from the Malayalam words maala and dweepu or the Tamil maalai and theevu, the Maldivian people are called Dhivehin. The word theevu means island, and Dhives means islanders, the ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning garland. Jan S Hogendorn, Grossman Professor of Economics, theorises that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa, in Tamil, Garland of Islands can be translated as Malai Theevu. In Malayalam, Garland of Islands can be translated as Maladweepu, in Kannada, Garland of Islands can be translated as Maaledweepa. This is the name inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian/Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat, the Dutch referred to the islands as the Maldivische Eilanden, while the British anglicised the local name for the islands first to the Maldive Islands and later to Maldives. One such community are the Giraavaru people and they are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule in Malé
25.
Great power
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A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, while some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is no definitive list of them. Sometimes the status of great powers is formally recognized in such as the Congress of Vienna or the United Nations Security Council. Accordingly, the status of great powers has also been formally and informally recognised in such as the G7. The term great power was first used to represent the most important powers in Europe during the post-Napoleonic era, the Great Powers constituted the Concert of Europe and claimed the right to joint enforcement of the postwar treaties. The formalization of the division between small powers and great powers came about with the signing of the Treaty of Chaumont in 1814, since then, the international balance of power has shifted numerous times, most dramatically during World War I and World War II. In literature, alternative terms for power are often world power or major power. There are no set or defined characteristics of a great power and these characteristics have often been treated as empirical, self-evident to the assessor. However, this approach has the disadvantage of subjectivity, as a result, there have been attempts to derive some common criteria and to treat these as essential elements of great power status. Later writers have expanded this test, attempting to define power in terms of military, economic. These expanded criteria can be divided into three heads, power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status, as noted above, for many, power capabilities were the sole criterion. However, even under the more expansive tests, power retains a vital place and this aspect has received mixed treatment, with some confusion as to the degree of power required. Writers have approached the concept of power with differing conceptualizations of the world situation. This differed from earlier writers, notably from Leopold von Ranke and these positions have been the subject of criticism. All states have a scope of interests, actions, or projected power. This is a factor in distinguishing a great power from a regional power. It has been suggested that a power should be possessed of actual influence throughout the scope of the prevailing international system. Arnold J. Toynbee, for example, observes that Great power may be defined as a political force exerting an effect co-extensive with the widest range of the society in which it operates, the Great powers of 1914 were world-powers because Western society had recently become world-wide
26.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
28.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
29.
Nuclear program of Iran
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The nuclear program of Iran has included several research sites, two uranium mines, a research reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include three known uranium enrichment plants. In 1970, Iran ratified the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, making its nuclear program subject to International Atomic Energy Agency verification, the program was launched in the 1950s with the help of the United States as part of the Atoms for Peace program. The participation of the United States and Western European governments in Irans nuclear program continued until the 1979 Iranian Revolution that toppled the Shah of Iran, following the 1979 Revolution, most of the international nuclear cooperation with Iran was cut off. In 1981, Iranian officials concluded that the nuclear development should continue. Negotiations took place with France in the late 1980s and with Argentina in the early 1990s, in the 1990s, Russia formed a joint research organization with Iran, providing Iran with Russian nuclear experts and technical information. In the 2000s, the revelation of Irans clandestine uranium enrichment program raised concerns that it might be intended for non-peaceful uses, the IAEA launched an investigation in 2003 after an Iranian dissident group revealed undeclared nuclear activities carried out by Iran. In 2006, because of Irans noncompliance with its NPT obligations, in 2007, the United States National Intelligence Estimate stated that Iran halted an alleged active nuclear weapons program in fall 2003. Irans first nuclear plant, the Bushehr I reactor, was completed with major assistance from the Russian government agency Rosatom. The Russian engineering contractor Atomenergoprom said the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant would reach capacity by the end of 2012. As of 2015, Irans nuclear program has cost $100 billion in lost oil revenues, in 1967, the Tehran Nuclear Research Center was established, run by the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran. The TNRC was equipped with a U. S. -supplied, 5-megawatt nuclear research reactor, Iran signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968 and ratified it in 1970, making Irans nuclear program subject to IAEA verification. The Shah approved plans to construct up to 23 nuclear power stations by 2000, in March 1974, the Shah envisioned a time when the worlds oil supply would run out, and declared, Petroleum is a noble material, much too valuable to burn. We envision producing, as soon as possible,23,000 megawatts of electricity using nuclear plants, U. S. and European companies scrambled to do business in Iran. Bushehr, the first plant, would supply energy to the city of Shiraz, in 1975, the Erlangen/Frankfurt firm Kraftwerk Union AG, a joint venture of Siemens AG and AEG, signed a contract worth $4 to $6 billion to build the pressurized water reactor nuclear power plant. Construction of the two 1,196 MWe, and was to have completed in 1981. In 1975 Swedens 10% share in Eurodif went to Iran, the French government subsidiary company Cogéma and the Iranian Government established the Sofidif enterprise with 60% and 40% shares, respectively. In turn, Sofidif acquired a 25% share in Eurodif, which gave Iran its 10% share of Eurodif, mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi lent 1 billion dollars for the construction of the Eurodif factory, to have the right of buying 10% of the production of the site. President Gerald Ford signed a directive in 1976 offering Tehran the chance to buy, the deal was for a complete nuclear fuel cycle
30.
Ministry of Petroleum (Iran)
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The Ministry of Petroleum manages the oil industry, the producer of oil and petrochemical products. MoP is in charge of all pertaining to exploration, extraction, exploitation, distribution and exportation of crude oil and oil products. In addition, according to the Imports and Exports Regulation Act, according to BP, Irans has 137.6 billion barrels of proven oil reserves and 29.61 trillion cubic meters of proven gas reserves. Iran ranks third in the world in oil reserves and second in gas reserves and this is also the case in other fields of the Ministry of Petroleums activities. Iran plans to invest $500 billion in the oil sector until 2025, as of 2010, US$70 billion worth of oil and gas projects are under construction. Irans annual oil and gas revenues will reach $250 billion by 2015, the Iranian constitution prohibits the granting of petroleum rights on a concessionary basis or direct equity stake. However, the 1987 Petroleum Law permits the establishment of contracts between the ministry, state companies and local and foreign persons and legal entities. Since the 1979 revolution in Iran, the country has been under constant US unilateral sanctions, the first U. S. sanctions against Iran were formalized in November 1979, and during the hostage crisis, many sanctions were leveled against the Iranian government. By 1987 the import of Iranian goods into the United States had been banned, specifically the ministry has been on the sanction list of the European Union since 16 October 2012. National Iranian Oil Company is in charge of oil and gas exploration and production, refining, National Iranian Tanker Company, a subsidiary of NIOC, controls the second largest fleet of tankers in OPEC. National Iranian South Oil Company is also an important subsidiary of NIOC, NISOC is producing about 83% percent of all crude oil and 16% percent of natural gas produced in Iran. National Iranian Gas Company manages gathering, treatment, processing, transmission, distribution, Irans gas reserves are exploited primarily for domestic use. National Petrochemical Company handles petrochemical production, distribution, and exports, National Iranian Oil Refining and Distribution Company handles oil refining and transportation, with some overlap to NIOC. Abundance of basic material, like gas, in the country provide favorable conditions for development. Iran’s total revenues from the sale of oil amounted to $77 billion in Iranian year 1387, the average sale price of Iran’s crude oil during that year was $100 per barrel. According to the National Iranian Oil Company, Iran’s average daily production of crude oil stood at 4 million barrels per day, of this amount, 55% was exported and the remainder was consumed domestically. As of 2010, oil accounts for 80% of Irans foreign currency revenues. Iran exported over 844 million barrels of oil in the one year to 21 March 2010, the exports included around 259 million barrels of light crude and more than 473 million barrels of heavy crude oil
31.
National Iranian Oil Company
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Current NIOC production capacities include over 4 million barrels of crude oil and in excess of 500 million cubic meters of natural gas per day. Irans overall export crude oil was valued at US$85 billion in 2010, in May 1901, William Knox DArcy was granted a concession by the Shah of Iran to search for oil, which he discovered in May 1908. This was the first commercially significant find in the Middle East, in 1935, Rezā Shāh requested the international community to refer to Persia as Iran, which was reflected in the name change of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. AIOC and the pro western Iranian government led by Prime Minister Ali Razmara, in March 1951, Ali Razmara was assassinated, and Mohammed Mossadeq, a nationalist, was elected as the new prime minister by the Majlis of Iran. In April 1951, the Majlis nationalised the Iranian oil industry by unanimous vote, the APOC withdrew its management from Iran, and organised an effective worldwide embargo of Iranian oil. The British government, which owned the APOC, contested the nationalisation at the International Court of Justice at The Hague, but its complaint was dismissed. By spring of 1953, incoming US President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorised the Central Intelligence Agency, to organise a coup against the Mossadeq government, known as the 1953 Iranian coup détat. In August 1953, the coup brought pro-Western general Fazlollah Zahedi as the new PM, the anti-Mossadeq plan was orchestrated under the code-name Operation Ajax by CIA, and Operation Boot by SIS. In 1954, the APOC became the British Petroleum Company, the return of the shah did not mean that British Petroleum would be able to monopolise Iranian oil as before. Under the pressure from United States, British Petroleum reluctantly accepted membership in a consortium of companies, founded in October 1954 and it was incorporated in London as a holding company called Iranian Oil Participants Ltd. The founding members of IOP included British Petroleum, Gulf, Royal Dutch Shell, the four Aramco partners - Standard Oil of California - Standard Oil of New Jersey - Standard Oil Co. of New York - Texaco - each held an 8% stake in the holding company. All IOP members acknowledged that NIOC owned the oil and facilities in Iran, to facilitate that, IOP established two operating entities incorporated in Netherlands, and both were delegated to NIOC. The negotiations leading to the creation of the consortium, during 1954-55, was considered as a feat of skillful diplomacy, in Iran, IOP continued to operate until the Islamic Revolution in 1979. The new regime of Ayatollah Khomeini confiscated all of the assets in Iran. According to the companys Web site, The victory of the Islamic revolution annulled the Consortium Agreement of 1954, the taking of power by the Islamic Republic led to the withdrawal of foreign employees from Irans oil industry, domestic employees took full control of its affairs. According to OPEC, NIOC recoverable liquid hydrocarbon reserves at the end of 2006 was 1,384 billion barrels, after 2003 Iran made some significant discoveries which led to addition of another 7.7 billion barrels of oil to the recoverable reserves of Iran. The vast majority of Irans crude oil reserves are located in giant onshore fields in the south-western Khuzestan region near the Iraqi border, overall, Iran has 40 producing fields –27 onshore and 13 offshore. Irans crude oil is medium in sulfur and in the 28°-35 °API range
32.
Malware
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Before the term malware was coined by Yisrael Radai in 1990, malicious software was referred to as computer viruses. The first category of malware propagation concerns parasitic software fragments that attach themselves to some existing executable content, the fragment may be machine code that infects some existing application, utility, or system program, or even the code used to boot a computer system. Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the computer user and it can take the form of executable code, scripts, active content, and other software. Malware is often disguised as, or embedded in, non-malicious files, as of 2011 the majority of active malware threats were worms or trojans rather than viruses. In law, malware is sometimes known as a computer contaminant, Software such as anti-virus and firewalls are used to protect against activity identified as malicious, and to recover from attacks. Many early infectious programs, including the first Internet Worm, were written as experiments or pranks, today, malware is used by both black hat hackers and governments, to steal personal, financial, or business information. Malware is sometimes used broadly against government or corporate websites to gather guarded information, however, malware is often used against individuals to gain information such as personal identification numbers or details, bank or credit card numbers, and passwords. Left unguarded, personal and networked computers can be at considerable risk against these threats, since the rise of widespread broadband Internet access, malicious software has more frequently been designed for profit. Since 2003, the majority of viruses and worms have been designed to take control of users computers for illicit purposes. Infected zombie computers are used to email spam, to host contraband data such as child pornography. Programs designed to monitor users web browsing, display unsolicited advertisements, spyware programs do not spread like viruses, instead they are generally installed by exploiting security holes. They can also be hidden and packaged together with unrelated user-installed software, ransomware affects an infected computer in some way, and demands payment to reverse the damage. For example, programs such as CryptoLocker encrypt files securely, some malware is used to generate money by click fraud, making it appear that the computer user has clicked an advertising link on a site, generating a payment from the advertiser. It was estimated in 2012 that about 60 to 70% of all active malware used some kind of click fraud, Malware is usually used for criminal purposes, but can be used for sabotage, often without direct benefit to the perpetrators. One example of sabotage was Stuxnet, used to very specific industrial equipment. Such attacks were made on Sony Pictures Entertainment and Saudi Aramco, preliminary results from Symantec published in 2008 suggested that the release rate of malicious code and other unwanted programs may be exceeding that of legitimate software applications. According to F-Secure, As much malware produced in 2007 as in the previous 20 years altogether, malwares most common pathway from criminals to users is through the Internet, primarily by e-mail and the World Wide Web. With the amount of malware currently being distributed, some percentage of computers are currently assumed to be infected, for businesses, especially those that sell mainly over the Internet, this means they need to find a way to operate despite security concerns
33.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
34.
Saudi Arabia
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Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba and it is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of arid desert and mountains. The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four regions, Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud and he united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been a monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called the predominant feature of Saudi culture, with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the state has a total population of 28.7 million, of which 20 million are Saudi nationals and 8 million are foreigners. The states official language is Arabic, petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the worlds largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the second largest oil reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G-20 major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, the state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment. Saudi Arabia is an autocracy, has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world. Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and middle power, in addition to the GCC, it is an active member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC. Following the unification of the Hejaz and Nejd kingdoms, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Suʻūdīyah by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, Abdulaziz Al Saud. Although this is translated as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in English it literally means the Saudi Arab kingdom. Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning family of or House of, in the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynastys 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud. There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago
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Cairo
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Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Cairo has long been a center of the political and cultural life. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab world, as well as the worlds second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city, with a population of 6.76 million spread over 453 square kilometers, Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live in proximity to the city. Cairo, like many other mega-cities, suffers from high levels of pollution, Cairos metro, one of only two in Africa, ranks among the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, Egyptians often refer to Cairo as Maṣr, the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the citys importance for the country. In Coptic the city is known as Kahire, meaning Place of the Sun, possibly referring to the ancient city of Heliopolis, the location of the ancient city is the suburb of Ain Shams. The ancient Egyptian name for the area is thought to be Khere-Ohe, The Place of Combat, sometimes the city is informally referred to as Kayro. The area around present-day Cairo, especially Memphis, had long been a point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location just upstream from the Nile Delta. However, the origins of the city are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium. Around the turn of the 4th century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance and this fortress, known as Babylon, remained the nucleus of the Roman, and, later, the Byzantine, city and is the oldest structure in the city today. It is also situated at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, many of Cairos oldest Coptic churches, including the Hanging Church, are located along the fortress walls in a section of the city known as Coptic Cairo. Following the Muslim conquest in 640 AD the conqueror Amr ibn As settled to the north of the Babylon in an area became known as al-Fustat. Originally a tented camp Fustat became a permanent settlement and the first capital of Islamic Egypt, in 750, following the overthrow of the Ummayad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became their capital. This was known as al-Askar as it was laid out like a military camp, a rebellion in 869 by Ahmad ibn Tulun led to the abandonment of Al Askar and the building of another settlement, which became the seat of government. This was al-Qattai, to the north of Fustat and closer to the river, Al Qattai was centred around a palace and ceremonial mosque, now known as the Mosque of ibn Tulun. In 905 the Abbasids re-asserted control of the country and their returned to Fustat
36.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
37.
Mosquito
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Mosquitoes are small, midge-like flies that constitute the family Culicidae. Females of most species are ectoparasites, whose tube-like mouthparts pierce the skin to consume blood. The word mosquito is Spanish for little fly, thousands of species feed on the blood of various kinds of hosts, mainly vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and even some kinds of fish. Some mosquitoes also attack invertebrates, mainly other arthropods, though the loss of blood is seldom of any importance to the victim, the saliva of the mosquito often causes an irritating rash that is a serious nuisance. Much more serious though, are the roles of species of mosquitoes as vectors of diseases. The oldest known mosquito with a similar to modern species was found in 79-million-year-old Canadian amber from the Cretaceous. An older sister species with more primitive features was found in Burmese amber that is 90 to 100 million years old, two mosquito fossils have been found that show very little morphological change in modern mosquitoes against their counterpart from 46 million years ago. These fossils are also the oldest ever found to have blood preserved within their abdomens, the Old and New World Anopheles species are believed to have subsequently diverged about 95 million years ago. The mosquito Anopheles gambiae is currently undergoing speciation into the M and S molecular forms, consequently, some pesticides that work on the M form no longer work on the S form. Over 3,500 species of the Culicidae have already been described and they are generally divided into two subfamilies which in turn comprise some 43 genera. These figures are subject to change, as more species are discovered. The two main subfamilies are the Anophelinae and Culicinae, with their genera as shown in the subsection below, the distinction is of great practical importance because the two subfamilies tend to differ in their significance as vectors of different classes of diseases. Roughly speaking, arboviral diseases such as fever and dengue fever tend to be transmitted by Culicine species. Some transmit various species of malaria, but it is not clear that they ever transmit any form of human malaria. Some species do however transmit various forms of filariasis, much as many Simuliidae do, Anopheline mosquitoes, again not necessarily in the genus Anopheles, sometimes bear pathogenic arboviruses, but it is not yet clear that they ever transmit them as effective vectors. However, all the most important vectors of malaria are Anopheline. Anophelinae Culicinae Mosquitoes are members of a family of nematocerid flies, superficially, mosquitoes resemble crane flies and chironomid flies. In particular, the females of species of mosquitoes are blood-eating pests and dangerous vectors of diseases
38.
Quantum field theory
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QFT treats particles as excited states of the underlying physical field, so these are called field quanta. In quantum field theory, quantum mechanical interactions among particles are described by interaction terms among the corresponding underlying quantum fields and these interactions are conveniently visualized by Feynman diagrams, which are a formal tool of relativistically covariant perturbation theory, serving to evaluate particle processes. The first achievement of quantum theory, namely quantum electrodynamics, is still the paradigmatic example of a successful quantum field theory. Ordinarily, quantum mechanics cannot give an account of photons which constitute the prime case of relativistic particles, since photons have rest mass zero, and correspondingly travel in the vacuum at the speed c, a non-relativistic theory such as ordinary QM cannot give even an approximate description. Photons are implicit in the emission and absorption processes which have to be postulated, for instance, the formalism of QFT is needed for an explicit description of photons. In fact most topics in the development of quantum theory were related to the interaction of radiation and matter. However, quantum mechanics as formulated by Dirac, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger in 1926–27 started from atomic spectra, as soon as the conceptual framework of quantum mechanics was developed, a small group of theoreticians tried to extend quantum methods to electromagnetic fields. A good example is the paper by Born, Jordan & Heisenberg. The basic idea was that in QFT the electromagnetic field should be represented by matrices in the way that position. The ideas of QM were thus extended to systems having a number of degrees of freedom. The inception of QFT is usually considered to be Diracs famous 1927 paper on The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation, here Dirac coined the name quantum electrodynamics for the part of QFT that was developed first. Employing the theory of the harmonic oscillator, Dirac gave a theoretical description of how photons appear in the quantization of the electromagnetic radiation field. Later, Diracs procedure became a model for the quantization of fields as well. These first approaches to QFT were further developed during the three years. P. Jordan introduced creation and annihilation operators for fields obeying Fermi–Dirac statistics and these differ from the corresponding operators for Bose–Einstein statistics in that the former satisfy anti-commutation relations while the latter satisfy commutation relations. The methods of QFT could be applied to derive equations resulting from the treatment of particles, e. g. the Dirac equation, the Klein–Gordon equation. Schweber points out that the idea and procedure of second quantization goes back to Jordan, in a number of papers from 1927, some difficult problems concerning commutation relations, statistics, and Lorentz invariance were eventually solved. The first comprehensive account of a theory of quantum fields, in particular
39.
Particle physics
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Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. By our current understanding, these particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model, in more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum field theory. All particles and their interactions observed to date can be described almost entirely by a field theory called the Standard Model. The Standard Model, as formulated, has 61 elementary particles. Those elementary particles can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of species of particles that have been discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is a description of nature. In recent years, measurements of mass have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model. The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates from at least the 6th century BC, in the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a variety of particles were found in collisions of particles from increasingly high-energy beams. It was referred to informally as the particle zoo, the current state of the classification of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, the species of gauge bosons are the gluons, W−, W+ and Z bosons, and the photons. The Standard Model also contains 24 fundamental particles, which are the constituents of all matter, finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson. Early in the morning on 4 July 2012, physicists with the Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced they had found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is expected from the Higgs boson, the worlds major particle physics laboratories are, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, which collides heavy ions such as gold ions and it is the worlds first heavy ion collider, and the worlds only polarized proton collider. Its main projects are now the electron-positron colliders VEPP-2000, operated since 2006 and its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider, which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the worlds most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions and its main facility is the Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage, which collides electrons and positrons with protons
40.
Masoud Alimohammadi
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He was assassinated on the morning of 12 January 2010 in front of his home in Tehran, while leaving for university. Majid Jamali Fashi was convicted of his killing and executed on 15 May 2012, according to Time Magazine, Western intelligence confirmed that the confession of Majid Jamali Fashi was genuine. Alimohammadi was the first PhD graduate student in physics of the Sharif University of Technology and he entered Shiraz University in 1978 where he obtained his BSc in 1985. He subsequently moved to the Sharif University of Technology in Tehran, in 1988 he began with his PhD studies at this University as one of its first PhD students in physics. He obtained his PhD there in 1992 and he was a quantum field theorist with interests in such diverse fields as Condensed matter physics, cosmology and string theory. Quantum field theory is a matter quite distinct from nuclear physics, nuclear engineering in general. Irans Atomic Energy Agency has in a statement rejected media reports that Alimohammadi was associated with Irans nuclear program. However, in an interview published in the Christian Science Monitor in July 2014, Alimohammadi was a Council Member of International Centre for Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science Applications in the Middle East. He was a professor at Tehran Universitys Physics faculty, some sites claimed he was a professor at Imam Hossein University. But Iranian analyst Muhammad Sahimi writes He was not affiliated with the IRGC-controlled universities, namely Malek-e Ashtar, Ali Moghari, the director of the science department of Tehran University, described Mr. Ali Mohammadi as an apolitical professor. He was a professor but was not politically active. Ahmad Shirzad writes In general his beliefs and actions were close to that of moderate Muslims, during the past couple of years he had ideologically become very close to the reformist movement. In the past few elections before the recent presidency election, he had voted for the reformist candidates and had been campaigning for them too, Shirzad adds that Alimohammadi told him how he and his students took part in 2009 Iranian election protests,16 June. The governmental media portrayed him as a revolutionary and staunch supporter of Islamic Revolution and it was claimed by Tehran University’s Basij, or voluntary Islamist student militia, that his name was on a list of sanctioned individuals connected with Iranian nuclear program. But, he was not on a compiled list, Mohammadi was among 240 university professors who signed a letter before the 2009 Presidential Election expressing support for the main opposition candidate, Mir Hossein Moussavi. On reporting his burial, Al Jazeera reported on his lack of political involvement deepening the confusion over what motivation could have been behind the murder and they reported, one of Ali Mohammadis close friends as saying that the professor was never a political activist, and that. Mohammadi had very deep reformist tendencies but never mixed it up with his professional character, Ali Moghara, who heads the physics faculty at Tehran University, said Ali Mohammadi was just a world famous physicist who engaged in no political activity. He was married to Mansoureh Karami before his assassination, at 07,58 am, a booby-trapped motorbike parked near his car exploded while he was leaving home in Gheytariyeh neighbourhood of northern Tehran, for university
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Antisemitism
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Antisemitism is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite, Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a term for Judenhass Jew-hatred. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes, The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, avner Falk similarly writes, The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile. Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renans false ideas about how Semitic races were inferior to Aryan races and he coined the phrase the Jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism. In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum, vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both Jewry and jewishness. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of Anti-Semitism as a designation which recently came into use, on 19 July 1882, the editor says, This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The related term philosemitism was coined around 1885, from the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, though antisemitism has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen, for example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to the notion that there is an entity Semitism which anti-Semitism opposes. Objections to the usage of the term, such as the nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s. Because of this bad nature, Jews have to be not as individuals. Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies, Jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist, bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest
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United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
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Illegal drug trade
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The illegal drug trade is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of drugs that are subject to drug prohibition laws. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of types of drugs through the use of drug prohibition laws. A UN report has stated that the drug trade generated an estimated US$321.6 billion in 2003. With a world GDP of US$36 trillion in the same year, consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally. Chinese edicts against opium smoking were made in 1729,1796 and 1800, addictive drugs were prohibited in the west in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the early 19th century, a drug trade in China emerged and as a result. The Chinese government responded by enforcing a ban on the import of opium that led to the First Opium War between the United Kingdom and Qing dynasty China, the United Kingdom won and forced China to allow British merchants to trade opium. Trading in opium was lucrative, and smoking opium had become common in the 19th century, the Second Opium War broke out in 1856, with the British joined this time by the French. In 1868, as a result of the use of opium. Between 1920 and 1933, by the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the beginning of the 21st century saw a drug use increase in North America and Europe, with a particularly increased demand for marijuana and cocaine. As a result, international organized crime such as the Sinaloa Cartel. Another illicit drug with increased demand in Europe is hashish, Drug trafficking is widely regarded by lawmakers as a serious offense around the world. Penalties often depend on the type of drug, the quantity trafficked, if the drugs are sold to underage people, then the penalties for trafficking may be harsher than in other circumstances. Drug smuggling carries severe penalties in many countries, sentencing may include lengthy periods of incarceration, flogging and even the death penalty. In December 2005, Van Tuong Nguyen, a 25-year-old Australian drug smuggler, was hanged in Singapore after being convicted in March 2004, in 2010, two people were sentenced to death in Malaysia for trafficking 1 kilogram of cannabis into the country. The countries of production and transit are some of the most affected by the drug trade. For example, Ecuador has absorbed up to 300,000 refugees from Colombia who are running from guerrillas, paramilitaries, while some applied for asylum, others are still illegal immigrants. The drugs that pass from Colombia through Ecuador to other parts of South America create economic, Honduras, through which an estimated 79% of cocaine passes on its way to the United States, has the highest murder rate in the world
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Judaism
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Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
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Talmud
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The Talmud is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It is also referred to as Shas, a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the six orders. Talmud translates literally as instruction in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah, the entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works, though some may have made private notes, for example of court decisions. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing, the earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, the Oral Torah was far from monolithic, rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel, in general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud. The oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the Munich Talmud, each tractate is divided into chapters,517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several pages, each perek will contain several mishnayot with their accompanying exchanges that form the building-blocks of the Gemara, the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya. A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah, in a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim, and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed, in instances, the final word determines the practical law. There is a literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist, see under #Logic. The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates, statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject, or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim, the Mishnahs topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara, also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah. In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the time or shortly thereafter
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European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
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Kenya
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Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in Africa and a founding member of the East African Community. Its capital and largest city is Nairobi and it is bordered by Tanzania to the south and southwest, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya covers 581,309 km2, and had a population of approximately 48 million people in January 2017, Kenya has a warm and humid tropical climate on its Indian Ocean coastline. The climate is cooler in the grasslands around the capital city, Nairobi, and especially closer to Mount Kenya. Further inland are highlands in Central and Rift Valley regions where tea, in the West are Nyanza and Western regions, there is an equatorial, hot and dry climate which becomes humid around Lake Victoria, the largest tropical fresh-water lake in the world. This gives way to temperate and forested areas in the neighbouring western region. The north-eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes, Kenya is known for its world class athletes in track and field and rugby. The African Great Lakes region, which Kenya is a part of, has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic period, by the first millennium AD, the Bantu expansion had reached the area from West-Central Africa. Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 97% of the nations residents, European and Arab presence in coastal Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, which starting in 1920 gave way to the Kenya Colony, Kenya obtained independence in December 1963. Following a referendum in August 2010 and adoption of a new constitution, Kenya is now divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties, the capital, Nairobi, is a regional commercial hub. The economy of Kenya is the largest by GDP in East, agriculture is a major employer, the country traditionally exports tea and coffee and has more recently begun to export fresh flowers to Europe. The service industry is also an economic driver. Additionally, Kenya is a member of the East African Community trading bloc, the Republic of Kenya is named after Mount Kenya. The origin of the name Kenya is not clear, but perhaps linked to the Kikuyu, Embu and Kamba words Kirinyaga, Kirenyaa, if so, then the British may not so much have mispronounced it, as misspelled it. In the 19th century, the German explorer Johann Ludwig Krapf was staying with the Bantu Kamba people when he first spotted the mountain. On asking for the name of the mountain, he was told Kĩ-Nyaa or Kĩĩma- Kĩĩnyaa probably because the pattern of black rock, the Agikuyu, who inhabit the slopes of Mt. Kenya, call it Kĩrĩma Kĩrĩnyaga in Kikuyu, which is quite similar to the Kamba name. Ludwig Krapf recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by most to be a corruption of the Kamba version, others say that this was—on the contrary—a very precise notation of a correct African pronunciation /ˈkɛnjə/
