1.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
2.
2015 in South Africa
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2015 in South Africa saw a number of social and political protests and movements form. South Africa also saw new xenophobic uprisings taking place, mainly targeted towards Africans from other countries, foreigners were beaten, robbed and murdered during the attacks. In education, South Africa recorded a drop in its matric pass rate from 2013 to 2014, the protest #FeesMustFall was started towards the end of the year and achieved its primary goal of stopping an increase in university fees for 2016. South Africa also saw the discovery of Homo naledi in 2015, the South African national rugby union team came third in the 2015 Rugby World Cup and Trevor Noah started hosting The Daily Show on Comedy Central. 23 – Leaked documents derived from communications between South Africas State Security Agency and various agencies are published by Al Jazeera and The Guardian,1 – Multiple fires break out on the Cape Peninsula, damaging large expanses of vegetation and several houses. 17 – A group of University of Cape Town students demand the removal of a statue in honour of British imperialist Cecil John Rhodes on campus and these protests spur calls for further transformation of South African universities, including a proposed name change for Rhodes University in Grahamstown. 24 – The country sees another resurgence of violence after a statement by Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini calling for foreigners residing in South Africa to pack their belongings. Zwelithini later retracts his statements, saying that his comments were misunderstood,30 – Robin Stransham-Ford, a terminally-ill cancer sufferer, is granted the right to die by the North Gauteng High Court in the first assisted suicide case in South Africa. 12 – Mmusi Maimane succeeds Helen Zille as the Leader of the Democratic Alliance,28 – South African Football Association president Danny Jordaan is elected mayor of the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality. Bashir is, however, allowed to leave South Africa soon afterward, the ensuing controversy results in an inquiry into the academic qualifications of one of Prasas senior engineers, as well as the dismissal of the companys chief executive, Lucky Montana. 17 – More than 100 people are injured after two trains collide near the Booysens Train Station in Johannesburg,25 – Eight former police officers are convicted for the murder of Mozambican immigrant and taxi driver, Mido Macia, in the North Gauteng High Court. 10 – An extinct species of hominin dubbed Homo naledi, fossils of which were discovered in 2013 in the Rising Star cave system in Gauteng, is unveiled at Maropeng in the Cradle of Humankind. 19 – The South African national rugby team suffers a historic 32-34 loss to Japan at the 2015 Rugby World Cup, the Springboks later go on to beat Argentina and achieve an overall third place in the World Cup. 28 South African comedian Trevor Noah succeeds Jon Stewart as host of the American news satire television program, The Daily Show. 29 – The 2015 crime statistics, presented in Parliament by police commissioner Riah Phiyega and minister Nathi Nhleko, indicate an increase in the rate of murder,14 National Police Commissioner, Riah Phiyega is suspended after an inquiry into her fitness to hold office. A temporary bridge collapses over the M1 motorway in Johannesburg near Sandton, student protests erupt at the University of Witwatersrand after it is announced that university fees would be raised by 10. 5%. Similar protests later spread to universities across the country, including the University of Cape Town,21 – The #FeesMustFall protests gain momentum countrywide, culminating in a march of 5000 students to the South African Parliament. Riot police move to disperse the largely peaceful protests using stun grenades, tasers, coloured gas, riot shields
3.
President of South Africa
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The President of the Republic of South Africa is the head of state and head of government under the Constitution of South Africa. From 1961 to 1994, the head of state was called the State President, the role was founded to be distinct from the now defunct role of prime minister, but the two roles were merged in the 1983 constitution which specified a four-year term of office. The 1993 and later constitutions limits the time in office to two five-year terms. The first President to be elected under the new constitution was Nelson Mandela, under the interim constitution, there was a Government of National Unity, in which a Member of Parliament from the largest opposition party was entitled to a position as Deputy President. But De Klerk later resigned and went into opposition with his party, a voluntary coalition government continues to exist under the new constitution, although there have been no appointments of opposition politicians to the post of Deputy President. The President is required to be a member of the National Assembly at the time of his election, upon his election, he immediately resigns his seat for the duration of his term. The President may be removed either by a motion of no-confidence or an impeachment trial, a number of manifestations of the office have existed. Aspects of these offices exist within the presidency today, alternating sovereignty as a result of wars culminated in the Vereeniging Treaty signed in which concluded the South African War. The Union of South Africa, a British Dominion, was established on 31 May 1910, upon the declaration of South Africa as a republic on 31 May 1961, the office of State President was created. It was originally a ceremonial post, but became an executive post in 1984 when a new constitution abolished the post of Prime Minister, South Africa has an almost unique system for the election of its president. Contrary to presidential systems around the world, the President of South Africa is elected by the Parliament of South Africa rather than by the people directly and he is thus answerable to it in theory and able to influence legislation in practice as head of the majority party. The president is elected at the first sitting of parliament after an election, the president is elected by the National Assembly, the lower house of parliament, from among its members. The chief justice must oversee the election, once elected, a person is no longer a member of the national assembly. They must then be sworn in as president within five days of the election, should a vacancy arise, the date of a new election must be set by the chief justice, but not more than 30 days after the vacancy occurs. The Constitution has thus prescribed a system combining both parliamentary and presidential systems in a unique manner, only Botswana and a few other countries use a similar system. Between 1996 and 2003 Israel combined the two systems in a way, with an elected prime minister. Although the presidency is the key institution, it is hedged about with numerous checks and balances that prevent its total dominance over the government, the presidential term is five years, with a limit of two consecutive terms. Thus the electoral system attempts to prevent the accumulation of power in the president as was during Apartheid or in many other African countries
4.
Jacob Zuma
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Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma, GCB is the President of South Africa, elected by parliament following his partys victory in the 2009 general election. He was re-elected in the 2014 election, Zuma is the President of the African National Congress, the governing political party, and was Deputy President of South Africa from 1999 to 2005. Zuma is also referred to by his initials JZ and his clan name Msholozi, Zuma became the President of the ANC on 18 December 2007 after defeating incumbent Thabo Mbeki at the ANC conference in Polokwane. He was re-elected as ANC leader at the ANC conference in Mangaung on 18 December 2012, Zuma was also a member of the South African Communist Party, briefly serving on the partys Politburo until he left the party in 1990. On 20 September 2008, Thabo Mbeki announced his resignation after being recalled by the African National Congresss National Executive Committee, Zuma has faced significant legal challenges. He was charged with rape in 2005, but was acquitted and he fought a long legal battle over allegations of racketeering and corruption, resulting from his financial advisor Schabir Shaiks conviction for corruption and fraud. Zuma was born in Nkandla, Natal Province and his father was a policeman who died when Zuma was young, and his mother was a domestic worker. As a child, Zuma constantly moved around Natal Province and the suburbs of Durban in the area of Umkhumbane and he has two brothers, Michael and Joseph. Zuma began engaging in politics at an age and joined the African National Congress in 1959. He became a member of Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1962. Zuma joined the South African Communist Party in 1963 and that year, he was arrested with a group of 45 recruits near Zeerust in the western Transvaal, currently part of the North West Province. Whilst imprisoned, Zuma served as a referee for prisoners association football games, organised by the prisoners own governing body, after his release from prison, Zuma was instrumental in the re-establishment of ANC underground structures in the Natal province. During this time Zuma joined the African National Congress Department of Intelligence where he became the departments Head of Intelligence. Zuma first left South Africa in 1975 and met Thabo Mbeki in Swaziland, and proceeded to Mozambique, Zuma became a member of the ANC National Executive Committee in 1977. He also served as Deputy Chief Representative of the ANC in Mozambique, after signing the Accord, he was appointed as Chief Representative of the ANC. He served on the ANCs political and military council when it was formed in the mid-1980s, in December 1986, the South African government requested Mozambican authorities expel six senior members of the ANC including Jacob Zuma. As a result of the pressure applied by the government on Mozambique, in January 1987. He moved to the ANC Head Office in Lusaka, Zambia, following the end of the ban on the ANC in February 1990, Zuma was one of the first ANC leaders to return to South Africa to begin the process of negotiations
5.
Pretoria
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Pretoria is a city in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. It is one of the three capital cities, serving as the seat of the executive branch of government. Pretoria is the part of the Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality which was formed by the amalgamation of several former local authorities including Centurion. There have been proposals to change the name of Pretoria itself to Tshwane, the elder Pretorius had become a national hero of the Voortrekkers after his victory over Dingane and the Zulus in the Battle of Blood River. The elder Pretorius also negotiated the Sand River Convention, in which Britain acknowledged the independence of the Transvaal and it became the capital of the South African Republic on 1 May 1860. The founding of Pretoria as the capital of the South African Republic can be seen as marking the end of the Boers settlement movements of the Great Trek, during the First Boer War, the city was besieged by Republican forces in December 1880 and March 1881. The peace treaty ended the war was signed in Pretoria on 3 August 1881 at the Pretoria Convention. The Second Boer War resulted in the end of the Transvaal Republic, the city surrendered to British forces under Frederick Roberts on 5 June 1900 and the conflict was ended in Pretoria with the signing of the Peace of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902. The Pretoria Forts were built for the defence of the city just prior to the Second Boer War, though some of these forts are today in ruins, a number of them have been preserved as national monuments. The Boer Republics of the ZAR and the Orange River Colony were united with the Cape Colony, Pretoria then became the administrative capital of the whole of South Africa, with Cape Town the legislative capital and Bloemfontein served as the judicial capital. Between 1910 and 1994, the city was also the capital of the province of Transvaal, on 14 October 1931, Pretoria achieved official city status. When South Africa became a republic in 1961, Pretoria remained its administrative capital and it lies at an altitude of about 1,339 m above sea level, in a warm, sheltered, fertile valley, surrounded by the hills of the Magaliesberg range. Pretoria has a subtropical climate with long hot rainy summers and short cool to cold. The city experiences the typical winters of South Africa with cold, clear nights, although the average lows during winter are mild it can get bitterly cold due to the clear skies, with nighttime low temperatures in recent years in the range of 2 to −5 °C. The average annual temperature is 18.7 °C, rain is chiefly concentrated in the summer months, with drought conditions prevailing over the winter months, when frosts may be sharp. Snowfall is a rare event, snowflakes were spotted in 1959,1968 and 2012 in the city. During a nationwide heatwave in November 2011, Pretoria experienced temperatures that reached 39 °C, similar record-breaking extreme heat events also occurred in January 2013, when Pretoria experienced temperatures exceeding 37 °C on several days. The year 2014 was one of the wettest on record for the city, a total of 914 mm fell up to the end of December, with 220 mm recorded in this month alone
6.
Cape Town Stadium
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The Cape Town Stadium in Cape Town, South Africa is a stadium that was built for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. During the planning stage, it was known as the Green Point Stadium, which was the name of the stadium on the site. It is the ground of Premier Soccer League clubs Ajax Cape Town. It has also hosted the South Africa Sevens rugby tournament since 2015, the stadium is located in Green Point, between Signal Hill and the Atlantic Ocean, close to the Cape Town city centre and to the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, a popular tourist and shopping venue. The stadium had a capacity of 64,100 during the 2010 World Cup. The stadium is connected to the waterfront by a new connection, Granger Bay Boulevard. The stadium was built by South African construction contractor Murray & Roberts, during construction, Cape Town Stadium was unofficially known as Green Point Stadium, the name of an older stadium demolished to make way for the new stadium. During October 2009, the city asked for the public to propose names for the new stadium, the stadium is adjacent to the site of the original 18,000 seater stadium Green Point Stadium. It replaces a portion of the Metropolitan Golf Club site which has now been realigned and it also hosted music concerts, including the November 200346664 Concert for the benefit of AIDS victims. The section of the old stadium that remained was redeveloped into the Green Point Athletics Stadium, construction of the Cape Town Stadium, located on the Green Point Common, began in March 2007. In 33 months, joint contractors Murray & Roberts and WBHO completed the project at a cost of R4. 4billion – or approximately US$600million, the project architects were an association between GMP Architects of Germany and two local firms, Louis Karol and Associates and Point Architects. The structural engineers comprised a joint venture between BKS, Henry Fagan & Partners, KFD Wilkinson, Goba, Iliso and Arcus Gibb, Cape Town Stadium was officially handed over to the City of Cape Town on schedule on 14 December 2009. The consortium, called Business Venture Investments 1317, was involved in the management of the stadium from January 2009 onwards. Following the World Cup, temporary rows of seating on either side on the top tier were replaced by events suites and clubrooms, the stadium features corporate hospitality suites, medical, training, and conferencing and banqueting facilities. The consortium will operate the stadium as well as manage and maintain the areas of the surrounding urban park. Ajax Cape Town have used the stadium as their ground from the 2010-11 Premier Soccer League season onwards. Due to the ongoing financial problems, the City of Cape Town had sought to acquire Western Province rugby as an anchor tenant. After four years of talks, Western Province announced in December 2014 that they had decided to remain at Newlands Stadium
7.
Nigeria national football team
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The Nigeria national football team represents Nigeria in international association football and is controlled by the Nigeria Football Federation. They are three time African Champions, with their recent title in 2013, defeating Burkina Faso in the final, during April 1994, the Super Eagles ranked 5th in the FIFA World Rankings, the highest FIFA ranking ever achieved by an African football team. They have qualified for five of the last six FIFA World Cups, missing only the 2006 FIFA World Cup hosted in Germany and their first World Cup appearance was the USA94 World Cup hosted in the United States. After playing other colonies in unofficial games since the 1930s, Nigeria played its first official game in October 1949, the team played warm-up games in England against various amateur teams including Dulwich Hamlet, Bishop Auckland and South Liverpool. The teams first major success was a medal in the 2nd All-Africa games. In 1980, with such as John Chiedozie and Tunji Banjo of Leyton Orient. Nigeria won the football event at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, beating Mexico, Brazil. They were runners-up in the event in Beijing, losing to Argentina in a rematch of the 1996 event. In 1984 and 1988, Nigeria reached the Cup of Nations final, three of the four African titles won by Cameroon have been won by defeating Nigeria. Missing out to Cameroon on many occasions has created a rivalry between both nations. Nigerias national team image has undergone much evolution throughout its history, prior to independence, they were called the Red Devils due to their red topped kits. The name was changed to the Green Eagles after independence in reference to their colors as well as the eagle which adorns the countrys state flag, today, only the senior mens national team uses the nickname. The Womens national team are called the Super Falcons, and Nigerias underage teams are nicknamed the Flying Eagles, many important and long running strings of important matches have been played against various nations who could be considered occasional rivals. Of these nations, Ghana is widely considered to be Nigerias primary rival as the two sides have met one more than any other opponent. The overall record is dominated by Ghana though Nigeria has enjoyed periods of success, the most notable of these periods are at the earliest points of the rivalry in the 1950s, and the early 2000s. FIFA lists the first official match between the two as a World Cup qualifier match which took place in 1960, however both national teams had already engaged in numerous domestic friendlies and tournaments between themselves and other nations dating back to 1950. The national teams of these two West African countries were formed while both were still protectorates of the British Empire, the two sides played for several rivalry and tournament cups during this early period in which full international competition was barred to them. Nigerias direct neighbors to the east, Cameroon, have played Nigeria a number of times over the years, the teams have played three times in the African Cup of Nations Finals with Cameroon winning all three meetings
8.
Brazil national football team
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The Brazil national football team represents Brazil in international mens association football. Brazil is administered by the Brazilian Football Confederation, the body for football in Brazil. They have been a member of the FIFA since 1923 and member of the CONMEBOL since 1916, Brazil is the most successful national football team in the FIFA World Cup with five championships,1958,1962,1970,1994 and 2002. Brazil is the national team to have played in all World Cup editions without any absence nor need for playoffs. The seleção is also the most successful team in the FIFA Confederations Cup with four titles,1997,2005,2009 and 2013. They have also won their continental championship. Brazil is the national team to have won the World Cup on four different continents, once in Europe, once in South America, twice in North America. They also share with Spain a record of 35 consecutive international matches undefeated, a common quip about football is, Os ingleses o inventaram, os brasileiros o aperfeiçoaram. Brazil won 2–0 with goals by Oswaldo Gomes and Osman, though it is claimed that the match was a 3–3 draw, in contrast to its future success, the national teams early appearances were not brilliant. Other early matches played during that time include several friendly games against Argentina, Chile, however, led by the goalscoring abilities of Arthur Friedenreich, they were victorious at home in the South American Championships in 1919, repeating their victory, also at home, in 1922. In 1930, Brazil played in the first World Cup, held in Uruguay in 1930, the squad defeated Bolivia but lost to Yugoslavia, being eliminated from the competition. They lost in the first round to Spain in 1934 in Italy, Brazil were the only South American team to participate in this competition. After being victorious in a third South American Championship in 1949 Brazil first achieved prominence when it hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup. The team went into the last game of the round, against Uruguay at Estádio do Maracanã in Rio. Uruguay, however, won the match and the Cup in a known as the Maracanazo. The match led to a period of national mourning, Brazil reached the quarter-final, where they were beaten 4–2 by tournament favourites Hungary in one of the ugliest matches in football history, known as the Battle of Berne. For the 1958 World Cup, Brazil were drawn in a group with England and they beat Austria 3–0 in their first match, then drew 0–0 with England. Before the match, coach Vicente Feola made three substitutions that were crucial for Brazil to defeat the Soviets, Zito, Garrincha and Pelé
9.
FNB Stadium
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First National Bank Stadium or simply FNB Stadium, also known as Soccer City and The Calabash, is a stadium located in Nasrec, bordering the Soweto area of Johannesburg, South Africa. It is located next to the South African Football Association headquarters where both the FIFA offices and the Local Organising Committee for the 2010 FIFA World Cup were housed. Designed as the association football stadium for the World Cup. However its maximum capacity during the 2010 FIFA World Cup was 84,490 due to reserved seating for the press, the stadium is also known by its nickname The Calabash due to its resemblance to the African pot or gourd. It was the site of Nelson Mandelas first speech in Johannesburg after his release from prison in 1990 and it was also the site of Chris Hanis funeral. It was also the venue for the 2010 FIFA World Cup Final, the World Cup closing ceremony on the day of the final saw the final public appearance of Mandela. The stadium has been known as FNB Stadium since it was opened in 1989. This was due to a rights deal with First National Bank. During the 2010 FIFA World Cup, as well as in the month before the tournament and this was done as FIFA does not allow stadiums to be referred to by sponsored names during FIFA-sanctioned tournaments. The stadiums current name is FNB Stadium, the stadium underwent a major upgrade for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, with a new design inspired by the shape of an African pot, the calabash. The number of suites in the stadium was increased to 195, grinaker-LTA and BAM international won the R1.5 billion tender to upgrade the stadium. The construction was completed on Wednesday,21 October 2009 and was marked by a celebration at the stadium. No spectator is seated more than 100 metres from the field, the stands in the FNB Stadium are articulated by ten black vertical lines, nine are aligned geographically with the nine other stadiums involved in the 2010 World Cup. Because 9 is considered to be a number in South African traditional culture. This tenth line is aimed at Berlins Olympic Stadium, which hosted the previous World Cup final in 2006, before the upgrade, the stadium had a capacity of 80,000. The newly reconstructed stadium retains part of the structures west upper tier, although this. The lower tier was completely reconstructed and divided into two segments which enabled the creation of a new lower concourse linked to the ground level concourse. FNB Stadium served as the venue for the tournament
10.
Soweto
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Soweto is a township of the city of Johannesburg in Gauteng, South Africa, bordering the citys mining belt in the south. Its name is an English syllabic abbreviation for South Western Townships, formerly a separate municipality, it is now incorporated in the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality, Suburbs of Johannesburg. George Harrison is today credited as the man who discovered an outcrop of the Main Reef of gold on the farm Langlaagte in February 1886. Within ten years of the discovery of gold in Johannesburg,100,000 people flocked to this part of the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republic in search of riches and they were of all races and all nationalities. In October 1887 the government of the ZAR bought the portion of the farm Braamfontein. There were large quantities of clay, suitable for brickmaking, along the stream, the government decided that more money was to be made from issuing brick makers licences at five shillings per month. The result was that many landless Dutch-speaking burghers of the ZAR settled on the property and they also erected their shacks there. Soon the area was known either Brickfields or Veldschoendorp, soon other working poor, Coloureds, Indians and Africans also settled there. The government, who sought to differentiate the white working class from the black, laid out new suburbs for the Burghers, Coolies, Malays and Kaffirs, in April 1904 there was a bubonic plague scare in the shanty town area of Brickfields. The town council decided to condemn the area and burn it down, beforehand most of the Africans living there were moved far out of town to the farm Klipspruit, south-west of Johannesburg, where the council had erected iron barracks and a few triangular hutments. The rest of them had to build their own shacks, the fire brigade then set the 1600 shacks and shops in Brickfields alight. Thereafter the area was redeveloped as Newtown, Pimville was next to Kliptown, the oldest Black residential district of Johannesburg and first laid out in 1891 on land which formed part of Klipspruit farm. The future Soweto was to be out on Klipspruit and the adjoining farm called Diepkloof. It is important to note that in die Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek and the subsequent Transvaal Colony it was not unlawful for people of colour to own fixed property, consequently, the township of Sophiatown was laid out in 1903 and Blacks were encouraged to buy property there. For the same reasons Alexandra, Gauteng was planned for Black ownership in 1912, the subsequent Natives Land Act of 1913 did not change the situation because it did not apply to land situated within municipal boundaries. In 1923 the Parliament of the Union of South Africa passed the Natives Act, the purpose of the Act was to provide for improved conditions of residence for natives in urban areas, to control their ingress into such areas and to restrict their access to intoxicating liquor. The Act required local authorities to provide accommodation for Natives lawfully employed, pursuant to this Act the Johannesburg town council formed a Municipal Native Affairs Department in 1927. It bought 1300 morgen of land on the farm Klipspruit No.8, the township was named after the chairman of the Native Affairs committee, Mr. Edwin Orlando Leake
11.
Travel visa
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A visa is a conditional authorization granted by a country to a foreigner, allowing them to enter and temporarily remain within, or to leave that country. Visas are associated with the request for permission to enter a country and thus are, in countries, distinct from actual formal permission for an alien to enter. In each instance, a visa is subject to permission by an immigration official at the time of actual entry. A visa is most commonly a sticker endorsed in the applicants passport or other travel document, some countries do not require visas for short visits. Some countries require that their citizens, as well as foreign travelers, uniquely, the Norwegian special territory of Svalbard is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty. Some countries – such as those in the Schengen Area – have agreements with other countries allowing each others citizens to travel between them without visas, the World Tourism Organization announced that the number of tourists who require a visa before traveling was at its lowest level ever in 2015. Some countries do not require a visa in some situations, such as a result of reciprocal treaty arrangements, the possession of a visa is not in itself a guarantee of entry into the country that issued it, and a visa can be revoked at any time. A visitor may also be required to undergo and pass security or health checks upon arrival at the border, in Western Europe in the late 19th century and early 20th century, passports and visas were not generally necessary for moving from one country to another. The relatively high speed and large movements of people traveling by train would have caused bottlenecks if regular passport controls had been used, passports and visas became usually necessary travel documents only since World War I. Long before that, in ancient times, passports and visas were usually the type of travel documents. In the modern world, visas have become separate secondary travel documents and these agencies are authorized by the foreign authority, embassy, or consulate to represent international travelers who are unable or unwilling to travel to the embassy and apply in person. Private visa and passport services collect a fee for verifying customer applications, supporting documents. If there is no embassy or consulate in ones home country, alternatively, in such cases visas may be pre-arranged for pickup on arrival at the border. The issuing authority, usually a branch of the foreign ministry or department. Some countries ask for proof of status, especially for long-term visas, some countries deny such visas to persons with certain illnesses. The exact conditions depend on the country and category of visa, notable examples of countries requiring HIV tests of long-term residents are Russia and Uzbekistan. However, in Uzbekistan, the HIV test requirement is not strictly enforced. Other countries require a medical test which includes an HIV test even for short term tourism visa, for instance Cuban citizens and international exchange students require such a test approved by a medical authority to enter Chilean territory
12.
Dalai Lama
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The Dalai Lama /ˈdɑːlaɪ ˈlɑːmə/, /ˌdælaɪ ˈlɑːmə/ is a monk of the Gelug or Yellow Hat school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest of the schools of Tibetan Buddhism founded by Je Tsongkhapa. The Dalai Lama title was created by Altan Khan in 1578, the 14th and current Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso. The Dalai Lama has always been an important figure of the Gelug tradition, although finding dominance in Central Tibet, the Dalai Lama has been an important figure beyond sectarian boundaries. The Dalai Lama figure is important for many reasons, since the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama his personage has always been a symbol of unification of the state of Tibet, where he has represented Buddhist values and traditions. The Dalai Lama is considered to be the successor in a line of tulkus who are believed to be incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, the name is a combination of the Mongolic word dalai meaning ocean and the Tibetan word བླ་མ་ meaning guru, teacher, mentor. The Tibetan word lama corresponds to the better known Sanskrit word guru, special Features of the Gelug Tradition. This government also enjoyed the patronage and protection of firstly Mongol kings of the Khoshut and Dzungar Khanates and this is according to The Book of Kadam, the main text of the Kadampa school, to which the First Dalai Lama, Gendun Drup, first belonged. In fact, this text is said to have ‘laid the foundation’ for the Tibetans later identification of the Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara and it traces the legend of the bodhisattva’s incarnations as early Tibetan kings and emperors such as Songsten Gampo and later as Dromtönpa. This lineage has been extrapolated by Tibetans up to and including the Dalai Lamas, thus, according to such sources, an informal line of succession of the present Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara stretches back much further than Gendun Drub. First, Tsongkhapa established three great monasteries around Lhasa in the province of Ü before he died in 1419, the 1st Dalai Lama soon became Abbot of the greatest one, Drepung, and developed a large popular power base in Ü. He later extended this to cover Tsang, where he constructed a great monastery, Tashi Lhunpo. The 2nd studied there before returning to Lhasa, where he became Abbot of Drepung, having reactivated the 1sts large popular followings in Tsang and Ü, the 2nd then moved on to southern Tibet and gathered more followers there who helped him construct a new monastery, Chokorgyel. He also established the method by which later Dalai Lama incarnations would be discovered through visions at the oracle lake, the 3rd built on his predecessors fame by becoming Abbot of the two great monasteries of Drepung and Sera. Thus most of Mongolia was added to the Dalai Lamas sphere of influence, after being given the Mongolian name Dalai, he returned to Tibet to found the great monasteries of Lithang in Kham, eastern Tibet and Kumbum in Amdo, north-eastern Tibet. The 4th was then born in Mongolia as the grandson of Altan Khan. Finally, in fulfilment of Avalokiteśvaras master plan, the 5th in the succession used the vast popular power base of devoted followers built up by his four predecessors, overall, they have played a monumental role in Asian literary, philosophical and religious history. Gendun Drup was the name of the monk who came to be known as the First Dalai Lama. Tsongkhapa largely modelled his new, reformed Gelugpa school on the Kadampa tradition, therefore, although Gendun Drup grew to be a very important Gelugpa lama, after he died in 1474 there was no question of any search being made to identify his incarnation
