1.
Red Square
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Red Square is a city square in Moscow, Russia. It separates the Kremlin, the royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia. Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow since Moscows major streets, the name Red Square neither originates from the pigment of the surrounding bricks nor from the link between the colour red and communism. Rather, the name came about because the Russian word красная, several ancient Russian towns, such as Suzdal, Yelets, and Pereslavl-Zalessky, have their main square named Krasnaya ploshchad. The rich history of Red Square is reflected in paintings by Vasily Surikov, Konstantin Yuon. The square was meant to serve as Moscows main marketplace and it was also the site of various public ceremonies and proclamations, and occasionally a coronation for Russias Tsars would take place. The square has been built up since that point and has been used for official ceremonies by all Russian governments since it was established. The relevant decrees were issued in 1493 and 1495 and they called for the demolition of all buildings within 110 sazhens of the wall. Three square gates existed on this side of the wall, which in the 17th century, were known as, the last two are directly opposite Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basils Cathedral. In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, from this gate, wooden and stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – raskats, the Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto. The square was called Veliky Torg or simply Torg, then Troitskaya by the name of the small Troitskaya Church, after that, the square held the name Pozhar, which means burnt. It was not until 1661–62, when it was first mentioned by its contemporary Krasnaya – Red name, Red Square was the landing stage and trade centre for Moscow. Ivan the Great decreed that trade should only be conducted from person to person, but in time, after a fire in 1547, Ivan the Terrible reorganised the lines of wooden shops on the Eastern side into market lines. The streets Ilyinka and Varvarka were divided into the Upper lines, Middle lines and Bottom lines, after a few years, the Cathedral of Intercession of the Virgin, commonly known as Saint Basils Cathedral, was built on the moat under the rule of Ivan IV. This was the first building which gave the square its present-day characteristic silhouette, in 1595, the wooden market lines were replaced with stone. By that time, a platform for the proclamation of the tsars edicts. Red Square was considered a sacred place, during the expulsion of Poles from Moscow in 1612, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky entered the Kremlin through the square
2.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
3.
Vladimir Putin
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Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin is a Russian politician. Putin is the current President of the Russian Federation, holding the office since 7 May 2012 and he was Prime Minister from 1999 to 2000, President from 2000 to 2008, and again Prime Minister from 2008 to 2012. During his second term as Prime Minister, he was the Chairman of the ruling United Russia Party, born in Leningrad, Putin studied German in high school and speaks the language fluently. He studied Law at the Saint Petersburg State University, graduating in 1975, Putin was a KGB Foreign Intelligence Officer for 16 years, rising to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel before retiring in 1991 to enter politics in Saint Petersburg. He moved to Moscow in 1996 and joined President Boris Yeltsins administration, rising quickly through the ranks and becoming Acting President on 31 December 1999, when Yeltsin resigned. Putin won the subsequent 2000 Presidential election by a 53% to 30% margin, thus avoiding a runoff with his Communist Party of the Russian Federation opponent and he was re-elected President in 2004 with 72% of the vote. During Putins first presidency, the Russian economy grew for eight straight years, the growth was a result of the 2000s commodities boom, high oil prices, and prudent economic and fiscal policies. Because of constitutionally mandated term limits, Putin was ineligible to run for a third presidential term in 2008. The 2008 Presidential election was won by Dmitry Medvedev, who appointed Putin Prime Minister, in September 2011, after presidential terms were extended from four to six years, Putin announced he would seek a third term as president. He won the March 2012 Presidential election with 64% of the vote, under Putins leadership, Russia has scored poorly on both the Democracy index and the Corruption index. Putin has enjoyed high approval ratings during his career. In 2007, he was the Time Person of the Year, in 2015, he was #1 on the Times Most Influential People List. Forbes ranked him the Worlds Most Powerful Individual every year from 2013 to 2016, Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin was born on 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, the youngest of three children of Vladimir Spiridonovich Putin and Maria Ivanovna Putina. His birth was preceded by the death of two brothers, Viktor and Albert, born in the mid-1930s, Albert died in infancy and Viktor died of diphtheria during the Siege of Leningrad. Putins mother was a worker and his father was a conscript in the Soviet Navy. Early in World War II, his father served in the battalion of the NKVD. Later, he was transferred to the army and was severely wounded in 1942. On 1 September 1960, Putin started at School No.193 at Baskov Lane and he was one of a few in the class of approximately 45 pupils who was not yet a member of the Young Pioneer organization
4.
Sergey Shoygu
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Sergey Kuzhugetovich Shoygu is a Russian politician who has served in the Government of Russia as Minister of Defence since 2012. Previously, Shoygu was Minister of Emergency Situations from 1991 to 2012, Shoygu holds the military rank of General of the Army. Shoygu is also the President of the International Sport Federation of Firefighters and Rescuers, Shoygu was born on 21 May 1955 in Chadan, Tuva, to a Tuvan father and a Russian mother. He graduated School No.1 of Kyzyl city in Tyva Republic, in 1977, Shoygu graduated from the Krasnoyarsk Polytechnic Institute with a degree in civil engineering. Following graduation in 1977, Shoygu worked in the construction projects nationwide for the next decade, in 1988, Shoygu became a minor functionary in the Abakan branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and then in Komsomol for a few years. In 1990, Shoygu moved to Moscow from Siberia, and was appointed Deputy Chief of State Architecture and he became popular because of his hands-on management style and high visibility during emergency situations, such as floods, earthquakes and acts of terrorism. In 1999 he became one of the leaders of the Russian pro-government party Unity and he was awarded Russias most prestigious state award – Hero of the Russian Federation – in 1999. In March 2012, he was announced as one of the candidates for the Governor of Moscow Oblast. On 5 April 2012, he was elected by Moscow Oblast Duma as the 3rd Governor of Moscow Oblast, on 6 November 2012, Shoygu was appointed Minister of Defence when Putin ousted his longtime ally, Anatoly Serdyukov. But Putin didn’t want to them, so he took the neutral figure Shoygu. On 7 November 2012, the decided to resurrect the tradition of Suvorov and Nakhimov cadets participating in the 9 May parade. In August that year he ordered to dress all Defense Ministry civilian workers, other staff, in July 2014, Ukraine opened a criminal case against Shoygu, he was accused of helping to form illegal military groups in Eastern Ukraine who at the time fought against the Ukrainian army. At the initiative of Shoygu were created Arctic troops intended to ensure the safety of Russias Arctic region, with the 30 September 2015, Russia conducted a military operation in Syria. The operation carried out by forces created by 1 August 2015 the Space Forces, with the support of the Russian Navy. Also he led the Tuvan State Archives and spent six years editor of the newspaper Pravda, wrote the novel Time and People, Feather black vulture, Tannu Tuva, born in the village of Yakovlev in the Oryol Oblast. From there, shortly before the war, her moved to Kadievka in the Luhansk Oblast. Sisters — Larisa Kuzhugetovna Shoygu and Irina Zakharova, President of the business tourism company Expo-EM. Sergey Shoygu enjoys studying the history of Russia of Peter the Greats time, Shoygu is fond of sports and is a fan of the CSKA Moscow hockey team
5.
Russian Ground Forces
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The Ground Forces of the Russian Federation are the land forces of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, formed from parts of the collapsing Soviet Army in 1992. The formation of these forces posed economic challenges after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the primary responsibilities of the Ground Forces are the protection of the state borders, combat on land, the security of occupied territories, and the defeat of enemy troops. The Ground Forces must be able to achieve goals both in nuclear war and non-nuclear war, especially without the use of weapons of mass destruction. Furthermore, they must be capable of protecting the interests of Russia within the framework of its international obligations. The Main Command of the Ground Forces is officially tasked with the objectives, The training of troops for combat. The improvement of troops structure and composition, and the optimization of their numbers, the development of military theory and practice. The development and introduction of training manuals, tactics. The improvement of operational and combat training of the Ground Forces, the newly re-emergent Russia retained most of the ranks of the Soviet Army, with some minor changes. The principal difference from the usual Western style is some variation in generals rank titles—in at least one case, Colonel General, the gallery below shows a selection of insignia, common to the Ground Forces – LF. As the Soviet Union dissolved, efforts were made to keep the Soviet Armed Forces as a military structure for the new Commonwealth of Independent States. The last Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union, Marshal Yevgeny Shaposhnikov, was appointed commander of the CIS Armed Forces in December 1991. Among the numerous treaties signed by the republics, in order to direct the transition period, was a temporary agreement on general purpose forces. Thirty-seven divisions had to be withdrawn from the four groups of forces and the Baltic States, some idea of the scale of the withdrawal can be gained from the division list. For the dissolving Soviet Ground Forces, the withdrawal from the former Warsaw Pact states and the Baltic states was a demanding, expensive. However, the facilities in those districts were inadequate to house the flood of personnel and equipment returning from abroad, the need for destruction and transfer of large amounts of weaponry under the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe also necessitated great adjustments. The Ministry of Defence newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda published a plan on 21 July 1992. Later one commentator said it was put together by the General Staff to satisfy the public demand for radical changes. The General Staff, from that point, became a bastion of conservatism, the reform plan advocated a change from an Army-Division-Regiment structure to a Corps-Brigade arrangement
6.
2010 Moscow Victory Day Parade
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The Moscow Victory Day Parade of 2010 was held on 9 May 2010 to commemorate the 65th anniversary of the capitulation of Nazi Germany in 1945. The parade marks the Soviet Unions victory in the Great Patriotic War, also taking part for the first time were the Yakovlev Yak-130 jet trainer aircraft and the Mil Mi-26 heavy helicopter. The mobile ICBM Topol-M missile, that first appeared at the 2009 parade, was here again for the second consecutive year. The 2010 Parade marked the first time that foreign and Commonwealth of Independent States soldiers joined Russian forces on Red Square for the parade, battalions from the CIS included Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan and Ukraine among them. Upon request from the government of Turkmenistan, the contingent from Turkmenistan was led by an officer riding on horseback, Poland was represented by the Representative Battalion of the Polish Armed Forces. The United States was represented by the 2nd Battalion of the 18th Infantry Regiment, France was represented by pilots and aircraft from the Normandie-Niemen Air Regiment. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev called the inclusion of troops in the parade recognition of their common victory in World War II. The inclusion of troops in the parade was not without controversy. The Communist Party of the Russian Federation held a May Day rally in Moscow, a poll run by the Levada Center saw 20 percent of respondents disapproving of the presence of foreign troops, with 8 percent being strongly opposed. Only the victorious are going, what will the defeated do there, king Michael of Romania, one of the last heads of state alive from World War II, was invited by Russian president Medvedev to attend the ceremony. German Chancellor Angela Merkel confirmed her attendance on 30 April, as did Acting President of Poland Bronisław Komorowski, chinese President Hu Jintao confirmed his attendance at the parade on 3 May. The following day Slovak President Ivan Gašparovičs attendance was confirmed, on 8 May Sarkozy and Berlusconi announced that they wouldnt be attending the parade in Moscow, so that they could tackle the European sovereign debt crisis. Both the United Kingdom and the United States had planned to send high-profile representatives, according to The Guardian, both figures were rejected by Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, however, in what both countries perceived as a diplomatic snub. The UK and US were instead represented by their ambassadors to Russia, Dame Anne Pringle, the event then began with the display of the flag of Russia and the Victory Banner. At 10, 14am, Serdyukov reported to Supreme Commander-in-Chief, and Russian President, after this President Medvedev made a speech in which he stated, Sixty-five years ago Nazism was vanquished. The machine that was wiping out whole nations was stopped, peace returned to our country and to Europe as a whole. An end was put to the ideology that was destroying the fundamentals of civilisation, Medvedev also emphasised the role the Soviet Union played in the war, bearing the brunt of Nazi attacks, in which some three-quarters of their military forces participated. Some 10,500 thousand troops marched, and approximately 1,000 troops from the Commonwealth of Independent States, Poland, the United Kingdom, France and the United States also marched
7.
President of the People's Republic of China
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The President of the Peoples Republic of China is the head of state of the Peoples Republic of China. Under the constitution, the presidency is a ceremonial office with limited powers. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, the current President is Xi Jinping, who took office in March 2013. Since 1993, apart from periods of transition, the top leader of China simultaneously serves as the President, the head of the party. This individual then carries out different duties under separate titles, the office was first established in the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China in 1954 and successively held by Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi. Liu fell into disgrace during the Cultural Revolution, after which the office became vacant. The office was abolished under the Constitution of 1975, then reinstated in the Constitution of 1982, the official English-language translation of the title was Chairman, after 1982, this translation was changed to President, although the Chinese title remains unchanged. The President is limited to serve up to two terms of five years each, according to the current Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China, the President must be a Chinese citizen with full electoral rights who has reached the age of 45. The Presidents term of office is the same as the term of the National Peoples Congress, the President is elected by the National Peoples Congress, Chinas highest state body, which also has the power to remove the President and other state officers from office. Elections and removals are decided by a majority vote. According to the Organic Law of the NPC, the President is nominated by the NPC Presidium, in practice, however, the ruling Communist Party of China reserves the post of President for its current General Secretary. Like all officers of state elected by the NPC, the President is elected from a one name ballot, in the event that the office of President falls vacant, the Vice-President succeeds to the office. In the event that both offices fall vacant, the Chairman of the NPC Standing Committee temporarily acts as President until the NPC can elect a new President and Vice-President, in addition, the President names and dismisses ambassadors to foreign countries, signs and annuls treaties with foreign entities. According to the Constitution, all of these require the approval or confirmation of the National Peoples Congress. The President also conducts state visits on behalf of the Peoples Republic, under the constitution the state visit clause is the only presidential power that does not stipulate any form of oversight from the National Peoples Congress. As the vast majority of powers are dependent on the ratification of the NPC, the President is, in essence. It is therefore conceived to function as an symbolic institution of the state rather than an office with true executive powers. Upon the nomination of the Premier, the NPC convenes to confirm the nomination, to date, it has never rejected a personnel nomination
8.
Xi Jinping
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Xi Jinping is the current General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, President of the Peoples Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission. As General Secretary, Xi holds a seat on the Politburo Standing Committee. The son of Communist veteran Xi Zhongxun, Xi Jinping rose through the ranks politically in Chinas coastal provinces, Xi was governor of Fujian from 1999 to 2002, and governor, then party secretary of neighboring Zhejiang province from 2002 to 2007. Following the dismissal of Chen Liangyu, Xi was transferred to Shanghai as party secretary for a period in 2007. Xi joined the Politburo Standing Committee and central secretariat in October 2007, Xi was vice-president from 2008 to 2013 and Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission from 2010 to 2012. Since assuming power, Xi has attempted to legitimize the authority of the Communist Party by introducing far-ranging measures to enforce party discipline and he initiated an unprecedented and far-reaching campaign against corruption, leading to the downfall of prominent incumbent and retired officials. Xi has also imposed further restrictions over civil society and ideological discourse, Xi Jinping was born in Beijing on 15 June 1953. After the founding of the Communist state in 1949, Xis father held a series of posts, including propaganda chief, vice-premier, Xis father is from Fuping County, Shaanxi, and Xi could further trace his patrilineal descent from Xiying in Dengzhou, Henan. He is the son of Xi Zhongxun and his wife Qi Xin. When Xi was age 10, his father was purged from the Party and sent to work in a factory in Luoyang, Henan. In May 1966, Xis secondary education was cut short by the Cultural Revolution, Xi was age 15 when his father was jailed in 1968 during the Cultural Revolution. Without the protection of his father, Xi was sent to work in Yanchuan County, Shaanxi and he later became the Party branch secretary of the production team, leaving that post in 1975. When asked about this experience later by Chinese state television, Xi recalled, and when the ideals of the Cultural Revolution could not be realised, it proved an illusion. From 1979 to 1982, Xi served as secretary for his fathers former subordinate Geng Biao and this gained Xi some military background. In 1985, as part of a Chinese delegation to study American agriculture, he visited the town of Muscatine and this trip, and his stay with an American family, has been considered influential in his views on the United States. Xi joined the Communist Youth League in 1971 and the Communist Party of China in 1974, in 1982, he was sent to Zhengding County in Hebei as deputy Party Secretary of Zhengding County. He was promoted in 1983 to Secretary, becoming the top official of the county, Xi subsequently served in four provinces during his regional political career, Hebei, Fujian, Zhejiang, and Shanghai. Xi held posts in the Fuzhou Municipal Party Committee and became the president of the Party School in Fuzhou in 1990, in 1997, Xi was named an alternate member of the 15th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
9.
President of India
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The President of the Republic of India is the Head of State of India and the Commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The oath of the President is taken in the presence of the Chief Justice of India, the President resides in an estate known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan situated in Raisina Hill in New Delhi. The presidential retreats are The Retreat in Chharabra, Shimla and Rashtrapati Nilayam in Hyderabad, the 13th and current President is Pranab Mukherjee, who was elected on 22 July 2012, and sworn in on 25 July 2012. He is also the first Bengali to be elected as President, India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a Dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor-general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor-general were replaced by the new office of President of India, the constitution of the Republic of India gave the President the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after Presidents assent, the president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution, the primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath. The President is the head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations and supervisory powers over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution, there is no bar on the actions of the President to contest in the court of law. Legislative power is vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is the head. The President of the Republic summons both the Houses of the Parliament and prorogues them and he can dissolve the Lok Sabha. The President inaugurates Parliament by addressing it after the general elections, the Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government. All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the President per Article 111, after a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to Parliament, if it is not a money bill, when, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the President, with or without amendments, the President cannot withhold his assent from it. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the Supreme Court about the validity of any issue. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval, ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Re-promulgation of ordinances after failing to get approval within stipulated time of the houses of parliament is unconstitutional act by the President
10.
Pranab Mukherjee
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Pranab Kumar Mukherjee is the 13th and current President of India, he has been in office since July 2012. In a political career spanning six decades, Mukherjee was a leader of the Indian National Congress. Prior to his election as President, Mukherjee was Union Finance Minister from 2009 to 2012, Mukherjee got his break in politics in 1969 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi helped him get elected to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Parliament, on a Congress ticket. Following a meteoric rise, he one of Indira Gandhis most trusted lieutenants. During the controversial Internal Emergency of 1975–77, he was accused of committing gross excesses, Mukherjees service in a number of ministerial capacities culminated in his first stint as finance minister in 1982–84. Mukherjee was also Leader of the House in the Rajya Sabha from 1980 to 1985, Mukherjee was sidelined from the Congress during the premiership of Rajiv Gandhi, Indiras son. Mukherjee had viewed himself, and not the inexperienced Rajiv, as the successor to Indira following her assassination in 1984. Mukherjee lost out in the power struggle. He formed his own party, the Rashtriya Samajwadi Congress, which merged with the Congress in 1989 after reaching a consensus with Rajiv Gandhi, Mukherjees political career revived when Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao appointed him Planning Commission head in 1991 and foreign minister in 1995. Following this, as elder statesman of the Congress, Mukherjee was the principal, when the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance came into power in 2004, Mukherjee won a Lok Sabha seat for the first time. From then until his resignation in 2012, Mukherjee was practically number-two in Prime Minister Manmohan Singhs government and he held a number of key cabinet portfolios—Defence, External Affairs and Finance —apart from heading several Groups of Ministers and being Leader of the House in the Lok Sabha. He is the wealthiest president of India to date, Pranab was born in a Bengali Brahmin family in Mirati in the Birbhum district of Bengal province. He attended the Suri Vidyasagar College in Suri, then affiliated to University of Calcutta and he subsequently earned an MA degree in Political Science and History and also LL. B. degree both from University of Calcutta. He was an upper-division Clerk in the Office of the Deputy Accountant-General in Calcutta, in 1963, he became Lecturerteaching Political Science at the Vidyanagar College and he also worked as a Journalist with the Desher Dak before entering politics. Mukherjees political career began in 1969, when he managed the successful Midnapore by-election campaign of an independent candidate, then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, recognised Mukherjees talents and recruited him to her party, the Indian National Congress. He became a member of the Rajya Sabha in July 1969, Mukherjee was re-elected to the house in 1975,1981,1993 and 1999. Mukherjee became a Gandhi loyalist, and is described as his man for all seasons. Mukherjees rise was rapid in the phase of his career
11.
President of the State of Palestine
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The President of the State of Palestine is the head of the State of Palestine. He is also the President of the Palestinian National Authority, both functions were held by Yasser Arafat from 1988 and continued by his successor Mahmoud Abbas. In May 2005, the PLO Central Council asked Abbas to carry out the duties of the President of the State of Palestine, in November 2008, the PCC approved the continuation of Abbas function as President of the State of Palestine. On 15 November 1988, the Palestine Liberation Organization proclaimed the State of Palestine, Yasser Arafat, as Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization assumed the title of President of Palestine. The United Nations recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people, the PLO established a parliament and a government in exile, both representing the Palestinian people worldwide. The Oslo Accords established parallel the Palestinian National Authority and a parliament, from 1994, Yasser Arafat assumed the title of President of the Palestinian National Authority, which was consolidated by the 1996 Presidential elections. Since then, both functions were simultaneously executed by a single person, unlike the function of President of the PA, the President of the State of Palestine is not validated by democratic elections, but rather by the PLO. In 1989, the PLO Central Council elected Yasser Arafat the first President, at the time, the organization who elected him was led by Yasser Arafat himself. After Arafats death in November 2004, the function was vacant, in May 2005, the PLO asked Mahmud Abbas to be acting President of State of Palestine. On 23 November 2008, the PLO Central Council formalized the function by electing Abbas President of the State of Palestine, the PLO organs who appointed Mahmud Abbas in 2005 and 2008 were and still are led by Mahmud Abbas himself. On 15 November 1988, Yasser Arafat became the symbolic President of the State of Palestine declared by the Palestine Liberation Organization, in 1994, he also became the President of the Palestinian National Authority upon the PAs formal inauguration on 5 July. He exercised limited self-government over part of the occupied Palestinian territories, following the Oslo I Accord, from 1993, an independent State of Palestine was envisioned on the West Bank, including East Jerusalem and Gaza, but Arafat never saw his dream realized. Arafat remained President until his death on 11 November 2004, in May 2005, the PLO Central Council asked Abbas to carry out the duties of the President of the State of Palestine. In November 2008, the PCC appointed Abbas as President of the State of Palestine
12.
Mahmoud Abbas
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Mahmoud Abbas, also known by the kunya Abu Mazen, is the President of the State of Palestine and Palestinian National Authority. He has been the Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization since 11 November 2004, Abbas is a member of the Fatah party. As a result, Fatahs main rival, Hamas, announced that it would not recognize the extension or view Abbas as the rightful president. Abbas was chosen as the President of the State of Palestine by the Palestine Liberation Organizations Central Council on 23 November 2008, Abbas served as the first Prime Minister of the Palestinian Authority from March to September 2003. Before being named prime minister, Abbas led the PLO Negotiations Affairs Department, mahmoud Abbas was born on 26 March 1935 in Safed, in the Galilee region of Mandatory Palestine. His family fled to Syria during the 1948 Palestine war, before going to Egypt, Abbas graduated from the University of Damascus where he studied law. Abbas later entered graduate studies at the Patrice Lumumba University in Moscow and his doctoral dissertation was The Other Side, The Secret Relationship Between Nazism and Zionism, a conspiracy theory about the Holocaust. He is married to Amina Abbas and they have had three sons, the eldest, Mazen Abbas, ran a building company in Doha and died in Qatar of a heart attack in 2001 at the age of 42. The kunya of Abu Mazen means father of Mazen and their second son is Yasser Abbas, a Canadian businessman who was named after former PA leader Yasser Arafat. The youngest son is Tareq, a business executive, Abbas has eight grandchildren, six of whom are part of the Seeds of Peace initiative bringing them in touch with young Israelis. While there in 1961, he was recruited to become a member of Fatah, at the time, Arafat was establishing the groundwork of Fatah by enlisting wealthy Palestinians in Qatar, Kuwait, and other Gulf States. According to Abu Daoud, part of the funds raised by Abbas were used, without the latters knowledge and he was among the first members of Fatah to call for talks with moderate Israelis, doing so in 1977. In a 2012 interview, he recalled, because we took up arms, Abbas has performed diplomatic duties, presenting a moderating contrast to the PLOs revolutionarypolicies. In the Oslo I Accord, Abbas was the signatory for the PLO on 13 September 1993 and he published a memoir, Through Secret Channels, The Road to Oslo. In 1995, he and Israeli negotiator Yossi Beilin wrote the Beilin-Abu Mazen agreement, Palestinian officials replied that at the time in question, the PLO collaborated with Moscow, and that Abbas was their liaison man in the Palestinian-Soviet friendship foundation. By early 2003, as Israel and the United States refused to negotiate with Yasser Arafat, Abbass reputation as a pragmatist garnered him favor with the West and some members of the Palestinian legislature. Under international pressure, on 19 March 2003, Arafat appointed Abbas Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority, according to Gilbert Achcar, the United States imposed Abbas on Arafat, the democratically elected leader, though the majority of Palestinians thought of the former as a Quisling. However, a struggle for power between Arafat and Abbas followed, Abbass term as prime minister was characterised by numerous conflicts between him and Arafat over the distribution of power
13.
President of South Africa
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The President of the Republic of South Africa is the head of state and head of government under the Constitution of South Africa. From 1961 to 1994, the head of state was called the State President, the role was founded to be distinct from the now defunct role of prime minister, but the two roles were merged in the 1983 constitution which specified a four-year term of office. The 1993 and later constitutions limits the time in office to two five-year terms. The first President to be elected under the new constitution was Nelson Mandela, under the interim constitution, there was a Government of National Unity, in which a Member of Parliament from the largest opposition party was entitled to a position as Deputy President. But De Klerk later resigned and went into opposition with his party, a voluntary coalition government continues to exist under the new constitution, although there have been no appointments of opposition politicians to the post of Deputy President. The President is required to be a member of the National Assembly at the time of his election, upon his election, he immediately resigns his seat for the duration of his term. The President may be removed either by a motion of no-confidence or an impeachment trial, a number of manifestations of the office have existed. Aspects of these offices exist within the presidency today, alternating sovereignty as a result of wars culminated in the Vereeniging Treaty signed in which concluded the South African War. The Union of South Africa, a British Dominion, was established on 31 May 1910, upon the declaration of South Africa as a republic on 31 May 1961, the office of State President was created. It was originally a ceremonial post, but became an executive post in 1984 when a new constitution abolished the post of Prime Minister, South Africa has an almost unique system for the election of its president. Contrary to presidential systems around the world, the President of South Africa is elected by the Parliament of South Africa rather than by the people directly and he is thus answerable to it in theory and able to influence legislation in practice as head of the majority party. The president is elected at the first sitting of parliament after an election, the president is elected by the National Assembly, the lower house of parliament, from among its members. The chief justice must oversee the election, once elected, a person is no longer a member of the national assembly. They must then be sworn in as president within five days of the election, should a vacancy arise, the date of a new election must be set by the chief justice, but not more than 30 days after the vacancy occurs. The Constitution has thus prescribed a system combining both parliamentary and presidential systems in a unique manner, only Botswana and a few other countries use a similar system. Between 1996 and 2003 Israel combined the two systems in a way, with an elected prime minister. Although the presidency is the key institution, it is hedged about with numerous checks and balances that prevent its total dominance over the government, the presidential term is five years, with a limit of two consecutive terms. Thus the electoral system attempts to prevent the accumulation of power in the president as was during Apartheid or in many other African countries
14.
Jacob Zuma
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Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma, GCB is the President of South Africa, elected by parliament following his partys victory in the 2009 general election. He was re-elected in the 2014 election, Zuma is the President of the African National Congress, the governing political party, and was Deputy President of South Africa from 1999 to 2005. Zuma is also referred to by his initials JZ and his clan name Msholozi, Zuma became the President of the ANC on 18 December 2007 after defeating incumbent Thabo Mbeki at the ANC conference in Polokwane. He was re-elected as ANC leader at the ANC conference in Mangaung on 18 December 2012, Zuma was also a member of the South African Communist Party, briefly serving on the partys Politburo until he left the party in 1990. On 20 September 2008, Thabo Mbeki announced his resignation after being recalled by the African National Congresss National Executive Committee, Zuma has faced significant legal challenges. He was charged with rape in 2005, but was acquitted and he fought a long legal battle over allegations of racketeering and corruption, resulting from his financial advisor Schabir Shaiks conviction for corruption and fraud. Zuma was born in Nkandla, Natal Province and his father was a policeman who died when Zuma was young, and his mother was a domestic worker. As a child, Zuma constantly moved around Natal Province and the suburbs of Durban in the area of Umkhumbane and he has two brothers, Michael and Joseph. Zuma began engaging in politics at an age and joined the African National Congress in 1959. He became a member of Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1962. Zuma joined the South African Communist Party in 1963 and that year, he was arrested with a group of 45 recruits near Zeerust in the western Transvaal, currently part of the North West Province. Whilst imprisoned, Zuma served as a referee for prisoners association football games, organised by the prisoners own governing body, after his release from prison, Zuma was instrumental in the re-establishment of ANC underground structures in the Natal province. During this time Zuma joined the African National Congress Department of Intelligence where he became the departments Head of Intelligence. Zuma first left South Africa in 1975 and met Thabo Mbeki in Swaziland, and proceeded to Mozambique, Zuma became a member of the ANC National Executive Committee in 1977. He also served as Deputy Chief Representative of the ANC in Mozambique, after signing the Accord, he was appointed as Chief Representative of the ANC. He served on the ANCs political and military council when it was formed in the mid-1980s, in December 1986, the South African government requested Mozambican authorities expel six senior members of the ANC including Jacob Zuma. As a result of the pressure applied by the government on Mozambique, in January 1987. He moved to the ANC Head Office in Lusaka, Zambia, following the end of the ban on the ANC in February 1990, Zuma was one of the first ANC leaders to return to South Africa to begin the process of negotiations
15.
President of Kazakhstan
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The President of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the head of state, Commander-in-chief and holder of the highest office within the Republic of Kazakhstan. The authorities of this position are described in section of Constitution of Kazakhstan. The position was established on 24 April 1990, a year before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the first, and as of 2017 current and only President of Kazakhstan is Nursultan Nazarbayev. The President of Kazakhstans decorations include a breast mark and Standard of The President of Kazakhstan, according to a post The President of Kazakhstan granted cavalierity of the order of the Gold Eagle. Article 46 says that the Presidents honor and dignity shall be inviolable, item 4 of the article outlines the special status and authority of the first president, and refers to a special constitutional act for definitions. According to this act, the first president possesses total, absolute, and till the death he sustains the government official. There is also pointed medical care, sanatorium, provision of pensions, on April 26,2015 Nursultan Nazarbayev was re-elected for his 5th presidency. The official ceremony of the inauguration took place at the Palace of Independence in Astana on April 29, prior to the 2011 election, President Nazarbayev wrote an op-ed for the Washington Post titled Kazakhstan’s steady progress toward democracy. Kazakhstans 5th presidential election was held on April 26,2015, Nursultan Nazarbayev was re-elected with 97. 7% of the vote. 858 observers from 19 countries were present at the stations during the election. OSCE spokesperson Cornelia Jonker criticised the lack of a choice for voters. The first column consecutively numbers the individuals who have served as president, list of leaders of Kazakhstan Official website of Kazakhstan President Nazarbayev Kazakhstan President Nazarbayev Biography
16.
Nursultan Nazarbayev
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Nursultan Äbishuly Nazarbayev is the President of Kazakhstan. He holds the title Leader of the Nation, in April 2015, Nazarbayev was re-elected with almost 98% of the vote. Nazarbayev has suppressed dissent, been accused of human rights abuses by several human rights organizations, no election held in Kazakhstan since independence has met international standards. In 2010 he announced reforms to encourage a multi-party system, in January 2017, President Nazarbayev proposed constitutional reforms that would delegate powers to the parliament. Nazarbayev was born in Chemolgan, a town near Almaty. His father was a labourer who worked for a wealthy local family until Soviet rule confiscated the familys farmland in the 1930s during Joseph Stalins collectivization policy. Following this, his father took the family to the mountains to live out a nomadic existence and his father avoided compulsory military service due to a withered arm he sustained when putting out a fire. At the end of World War II the family returned to the village of Chemolgan and he performed well at school, and was sent to a boarding school in Kaskelen. After leaving school he took up a one-year, government-funded scholarship at the Karaganda Steel Mill in Temirtau and he also spent time training at a steel plant in Dniprodzerzhynsk, and therefore was away from Temirtau when riots broke out there over working conditions. By 20, he was earning a good wage doing incredibly heavy. He joined the Communist Party in 1962, becoming a prominent member of the Young Communist League, and full-time worker for the party, and attended the Karagandy Polytechnic Institute. He was appointed secretary of the Communist Party Committee of the Karaganda Metallurgical Kombinat in 1972, in his role as a bureaucrat, Nazarbayev dealt with legal papers, logistical problems and industrial disputes, as well as meeting workers to solve individual issues. In 1984, Nazarbayev became the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan, under Dinmukhamed Kunayev, at the 16th session of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan in January 1986, Nazarbayev criticized Askar Kunayev, head of the Academy of Sciences, for not reforming his department. Dinmukhamed Kunayev, Nazarbayevs boss and Askars brother, felt deeply angered and betrayed, Kunayev went to Moscow and demanded Nazarbayevs dismissal while Nazarbayevs supporters campaigned for Kunayevs dismissal and Nazarbayevs promotion. Kunayev was ousted in 1986 and replaced by a Russian, Gennady Kolbin, Nazarbayev was named party leader on 22 June 1989-- only the second Kazakh to hold the post. He was Chairman of the Supreme Soviet from 22 February to 24 April 1990, on 24 April 1990, Nazarbayev was named the first President of Kazakhstan by the Supreme Soviet. He supported Russian President Boris Yeltsin against the coup in August 1991 by Soviet hardliners. Nazarbayev was close enough to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev for Gorbachev to consider him for the post of Vice President of the Soviet Union, however, the Soviet Union disintegrated following the failed coup, though Nazarbayev was highly concerned with maintaining the close economic ties between Kazakhstan and Russia
17.
President of Kyrgyzstan
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The President of Kyrgyzstan is the head of state and the highest official of Kyrgyzstan. The president, according to the constitution, is the symbol of the unity of people and state power, and is the guarantor of the Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic, the president is directly elected for no more than one six-year term by the Kyrgyz electorate. The first popularly elected officeholder was Askar Akayev, who served from October 1990 until March 24,2005, in July 2005, Kurmanbek Bakiyev was elected. He was re-elected in 2009, but large riots in April 2010 forced him to resign, roza Otunbayeva was selected in April 2010 to head the interim government. She was officially inaugurated on July 3,2010, as president for a limited term and her successor, Almazbek Atambayev, was elected in the Kyrgyzstani presidential election,2011 and took over on 1 December 2011. The office of president is open to all citizens of Kyrgyzstan who are no younger than 35 years of age, and no older than 65 years of age. A candidate must have a command of the language, and have resided in the Republic for no less than 15 years before the nomination of his or her candidacy for the position. These elections are held on the basis of universal suffrage, to become a candidate a person must obtain the signatures of fifty thousand registered voters. For an election to be considered valid the turnout must not be lower than fifty percent, similarly, if a candidate wins the backing of fifty percent of the voters who participated they are the winner. Should no candidate win a majority in the first round. The head of state holds significant power as provided for in the constitution, such a decision requires the support of two-thirds of the Jogorku Kenesh who are immediately dismissed should the president be found innocent. If the president becomes unable to carry out their duties for reasons such as death, illness or impeachment and this must take place within three months of the termination of their Presidency. To date, Kyrgyzstan knew no peaceful transition of power from president to president, both Askar Akayev and Kurmanbek Bakiev were forced to leave their chairs by a civil unrest. The first column consecutively numbers the individuals who have served as president, official webpage Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan Leadership of Communist Kyrgyzstan
18.
Almazbek Atambayev
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Almazbek Sharshenovich Atambayev has been the President of Kyrgyzstan since 1 December 2011. He was Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan from 17 December 2010 to 1 December 2011 and he served as Chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan from 30 July 1999 to 23 September 2011. Almazbek Atambaev was born in 1956 in the Northern region of Chui and he received his degree in economics while studying at the Moscow Institute of Management. Atambaev has four children from his marriage to his first wife Buazhar, in 1988 he married his second wife, Raisa. They have two children, a boy Khadyrbek and a girl Aliya, Raisa is an ethnic Tatar, born in the Urals in Russia, who moved to Osh as a child, with her parents. Atambayev was a candidate in the October 2000 presidential election. Atambayev served as the Minister of Industry, Trade and Tourism in the government from 20 December 2005 until he resigned on 21 April 2006, in November 2006 he was one of the leaders of anti-government protests in Bishkek, under the umbrella of the movement For Reform. He was also involved in protests in late April 2006. Otherwise there will be a war in Kyrgyzstan, because even if Parliament adopts the constitution, I will tell you openly. It would be a constitution adopted illegally, following the resignation of Prime Minister Azim Isabekov on 29 March 2007, Atambayev was appointed acting Prime Minister by President Kurmanbek Bakiyev. He was then confirmed in parliament by a vote of 48-3 on 30 March and he is the first prime minister in Central Asia to come from an opposition party. On 11 April, he tried to address a large protest in Bishkek demanding Bakiyevs resignation, Bakiyev announced the resignation of Atambayevs government on 24 October 2007, following a successful referendum. The government was to remain in office until after an election in December. Edil Baisalov of the Social Democratic Party claimed that Atambayev was forced out of office because he was an obstacle to alleged government interference in the parliamentary election, on 20 April 2009, Atambayev was announced as a candidate for the July 2009 presidential elections. But on polling day Atambayev withdrew his candidacy claiming widespread fraud, Due to massive, unprecedented violations, we consider these elections illegitimate and a new election should be held. Following the 2010 parliamentary election, he was chosen to be Prime Minister at the head of a government with his SDPK, Respublika. Atambayev ran in 2011 to succeed Roza Otunbayeva as President of Kyrgyzstan, Atambayev has repeatedly presented himself as a pro-Russian politician. In early 2012 Atambayev travelled to Moscow, where in his meeting with Medvedev he called for the $15 million owed by Russia to Kyrgyzstan for their use of the Kant airbase
19.
President of Tajikistan
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The President of Tajikistan is the Head of State and highest position within the Government of Tajikistan. The position of President was created in November 1990 while Tajikistan was still a Soviet Republic, the president of Tajikistan lives in the capital, Dushanbe. Since 1994, Emomali Rahmonov has held the position of the presidency, the presidential elections were last held in 2013. Presidential elections in Tajikistan have consistently been criticized by observers as unfair. The President of the Republic of Tajikistan is the head of the state, the President of the Republic of Tajikistan is elected by national vote for the seven-year term and could be re-elected only once. The President is also a Commander in Chief of the National Army, the first column consecutively numbers the individuals who have served as president, while the second column consecutively numbers the Presidential terms or administrations. Prime Minister of Tajikistan Official site of President of Tajikistan
20.
Emomali Rahmon
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Emomali Rahmon is a Tajikistani politician who has served as President of Tajikistan since 1992. During the early years of his presidency, Rahmon faced a war in which up to 100,000 people died. In 2013, he was elected to a term in office. Rahmon was born as Emomali Sharipovich Rakhmonov to a peasant family in Danghara, from 1971 to 1974 he served in the Soviet Unions Pacific Fleet. After completing the service, Rahmon returned to his native village where he worked for some time as an electrician. As an apparatchik rising through the nomenklatura, his power base was as chairman of the collective state farm of his native Danghara. According to his biography, Rahmon graduated from the Tajik State National University with a specialists degree in Economics in 1982. After working for years in the trade union of the Lenin Sovkhoz in Danghara. In 1990, Rahmon was elected a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the Tajik SSR. President Rahmon Nabiyev was forced to resign in the first months of the Civil War in Tajikistan in August 1992, akbarsho Iskandarov, Speaker of the Supreme Soviet, became acting president. Iskandarov resigned in November 1992 in an attempt to end the civil unrest and that same month, the Supreme Soviet met in Khujand for its 16th session and declared Tajikistan a parliamentary republic. Rahmon was then elected by the members of the Supreme Soviet as its chairman—a post equivalent to that of president—and the head of government, during the civil war that lasted from 1992–97, Rahmons rule was opposed by the United Tajik Opposition. As many as 100,000 people died during the war and he survived an assassination attempt on 30 April 1997 in Khujand, as well as two attempted coups in August 1997 and in November 1998. In 1994, a new constitution reestablished the presidency, Rahmon was elected to the post on 6 November 1994 and sworn in ten days later. Following constitutional changes, he was re-elected on 6 November 1999 to a seven-year term, on 22 June 2003, he won a referendum that would allow him to run for two more consecutive seven-year terms after his term expired in 2006. The opposition alleges that this amendment was hidden in a way that verged upon electoral fraud, Rahmon was re-elected for a seven-year term in a controversial election on 6 November 2006, with about 79% of the vote, according to the official results. In December 2015, a law passed by Tajikistans parliament gave Emomali Rahmon the title Founder of Peace and National Unity, a shorter version of the title, Leader of the Nation, is used frequently. On 22 May 2016, a referendum approved a number of changes to the countrys constitution
21.
President of Armenia
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The President of the Republic of Armenia is the head of state, supreme commander-in-chief and the guarantor of independence and territorial integrity of Armenia. The president of the republic strives to uphold the constitution, and to ensure the functioning of the deep nuts executive. He is the guarantor of the independence, territorial integrity and security of the republic, the president of the republic is immune, he cannot be prosecuted or held liable for actions arising from his/her status during and after his/her term of office. For the actions not connected with his or her status the president of the Republic may be prosecuted when his/her term of office expires, the post of the President of the Republic of Armenia was founded by the decision of Armenian SSR Supreme Council of May 3,1990. On the basis of RA Supreme Councils decision of June 25,1991, Armenia became an independent state on 21 September 1991 by the nationwide referendum. The first presidential election was held on 17 October 1991, levon Ter-Petrosyan won the majority of the votes and became the first president of independent Armenia. He was reelected in 1996, however, he did not finish his term as president. Robert Kocharyan followed him, resigning until 2008, incumbent President Serzh Sargsyan was elected in February 2008 and reelected in February 2013. The elections of the president are held according to the procedures defined by the Constitution, the President of the Republic is elected by the citizens of the Republic of Armenia for a five-year term of office. The same person cannot be elected for the post of the President of the Republic for more than two consecutive terms. The election of the President of the Republic is held fifty days prior to the expiration of term of office according to the procedure defined by the Constitution. The candidate who has received more than half of the votes is elected President of the Republic, If the election involves more than two candidates and none of them receives the required number of votes, a second round of election is held on the fourteenth day following the voting. The two candidates having received the highest number of votes may participate in the round of election of the President of the Republic. In the second round the candidate who receives the highest number of votes is elected President of the Republic, If only one candidate runs for the election, he/she can be elected if he/she receives more than half of the votes of electors participated in the polls. If the President of the Republic is not elected, a new election is appointed, the President of the Republic takes office on the day when the term of office of the previous President expires. If The President of the Republic is elected by new or extraordinary elections, in case is insuperable obstacle for one of the candidates arise, the elections of the President of the Republic should be held off for two weeks. In case if the obstacles are not removed, new elections should be held upon end of the two week term, on the fortieth day. In case of decease of one of the candidates before the day, new elections are held
22.
Serzh Sargsyan
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Serzh Azati Sargsyan is the third and current President of Armenia. He won the February 2008 presidential election with the backing of the ruling Republican Party of Armenia, a party in which he serves as chairman, on 18 February 2013, he was re-elected as President. Serzh Sargsyan was born on 30 June 1954 in Stepanakert in the Nagorno Karabakh Oblast of the Azerbaijan SSR and he entered Yerevan State University in 1971, served in the Soviet Armed Forces during 1971–72, and graduated from the Philological Department of Yerevan State University in 1979. In 1983, he married his wife, Rita, with whom he has two daughters, Anush and Satenik and they have two granddaughters, Mariam and Rita, and two grandsons, Ara and Serzh. Sargsyan is also the chairman of the Armenian Chess Federation, in addition to his native Armenian, he is fluent in Russian. He is of no relation to the former Prime Minister of Armenia, Sargsyans career began in 1975 at the Electrical Devices Factory in Yerevan. In 1979 when he became head of the Stepanakert City Communist Party Youth Association Committee and he organized several battles in the Nagorno-Karabakh War and is considered to be one of the founders of Armenias armed forces. From 1993 to 1995 he was the Minister of Defense, from 1995 to 1996, he was the Head of the State Security Department and, later, the Minister of National Security. From 1999 to 2000 he served as the Chief of Staff for the President Robert Kocharyan, from 1999 to 2007 he was the Secretary of the National Security Council led by President Kocharyan. From 2000 to 2007 he served as the Defence Minister, on 4 April 2007 Sargsyan was appointed as the Prime Minister, following the sudden death of Andranik Margaryan. Sargsyan, with President Kocharyans backing, was viewed as the strongest contender for the post of the President of Armenia in the February 2008 presidential election. Full provisional results showed him winning about 53% of the vote, the 2008 Presidential election was hailed as largely democratic by OSCE, the European Union and Western monitors. Serzh Sargsyan was sworn in as President at the Yerevan Opera House on 9 April, referring to the painful events that followed the election, he urge everybody to look forward, together, to seek and find the way for reconciliation, development, and future of Armenia. He appointed Tigran Sargsyan, who had been the Chairman of the Central Bank and is not a member of a political party, according to the Freedom House report In 2011, the government took concrete steps to fulfill longstanding and often repeated promises to confront corruption. Owing to a consolidated government effort to eradicate corruption, Armenia’s corruption rating improves from 5.50 to 5.25. During Sargsyans presidency the record of the freedom of speech and the freedom of press in general also improved in Armenia, however, public advocacy still has limited impact on public policy. The start of Sargsyans presidency coincided with the Great Recession, in 2009, Armenias GDP contracted over 14%, which according to the World Bank was the fifth worst in the world that year after the three Baltic states and Ukraine. GDP growth subsequently stabilized at around 3% by 2013, as of 2014, Armenias GDP is below the pre-crisis levels
23.
President of Azerbaijan
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The country of Azerbaijan is a semi-presidential republic, with the President of Azerbaijan as the head of state, and the Prime Minister of Azerbaijan as head of government. The current President of Azerbaijan is Ilham Aliyev, the president rules through his office at Presidential Apparatus, consisting of a group of secretaries and departmental ministers. Additionally, there is a Cabinet of Ministers and a Security Council, among the agencies directly subordinate to the President is the Special State Protection Service. A candidate for office must be a citizen of Azerbaijan at least 35 years old, the election of the President is mainly regulated by the Presidential Election Law and the Basic Guarantees of Electoral Rights. Each faction in the National Assembly has the right to nominate a candidate for the presidential elections, the minimum number of signatures for a presidential candidate fielded by a political party with no parliamentary representation is 40,000, before amendments to the law. After the oath of office has been taken by the elected president and these devices are used to display the rank of his office and are used on special occasions. The standard is a version of the Azerbaijani flag, charged in the center with the Azerbaijani coat of arms. Golden fringe is added to the standard, copies of the standard are used inside his office, other state agencies, and while the president is traveling in a vehicle inside Azerbaijan. A2,3 ratio version of the flag is used when the President is at sea and this is the most used symbol to denote the presence of the Azerbaijan President. The President is invested with extensive rights to implement the states foreign policy, the President determines Azerbaijans position in international affairs and represents the state in international relations, conducts negotiations and signs ratification documents. The primary working Presidents residence is the The Presidential building on Istiglaliyyat Street in Baku, the current home Presidents residence is Zagulba. Also, the President has several vacation residences outside of Baku, Novkhani, Novkhani, Absheron Rayon Khoshbulaq, Daşkəsən, Dashkasan District National transport services for the Azerbaijan President are provided by the Special Purpose Garage. The SPG is a unit within the Special State Protection Service
24.
Ilham Aliyev
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Ilham Aliyev is the fourth and current President of Azerbaijan, in office since 2003. He also functions as the Chairman of the New Azerbaijan Party, Aliyev was born was born in December 24,1961, in Baku. In 1977, Aliyev entered the Moscow State Institute of International Relations, in 1985 he received a PhD degree in history. From 1985 to 1990 Aliyev lectured at MSUIR, from 1991 to 1994, he led a group of private industrial-commercial enterprises. In 1994-2003, he was the vice-president, and later the first vice-president of the State Oil Company of the Republic of Azerbaijan and he had been actively involved in the implementation of Heydar Aliyev’s oil strategy. He is an author of research works on geopolitical aspects of oil strategy of sovereign Azerbaijan. He holds a degree of doctor of political sciences, since 1997, Mr. Ilham Aliyev is the President of the National Olympic Committee of Azerbaijan. Ilham Aliyev married Mehriban Pashayeva in Baku on 22 December 1983 and they have three children, Leyla, Arzu and Heydar. Apart from his native Azerbaijani, he is fluent in English, French, Russian, Ilham Aliyev is the son of Heydar Aliyev, who was President of Azerbaijan from 1993 to 2003. In May or June 1994, Ilham Aliyev was appointed as vice-president of the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan, in 1995, Aliyev was elected to the Parliament of Republic of Azerbaijan, later he became president of the National Olympic Committee. From 2001 to 2003, Aliyev was the elected as the head of Azerbaijani delegation to Parliamentary Assembly of Council of Europe, following that, in January 2003, he was elected as Deputy-Chairman and bureau member of PACE. In April of 2004, Mr. Aliyev was awarded a medal and diploma of honorable member of PACE for his participation in PACE events. In August 2003, two prior to the presidential elections, he was appointed as Prime Minister. The official results of the October 15,2003, elections gave victory to Ilham Aliyev, Ilham Aliyev was re-elected in 2008 with 87% of the polls, while opposition parties boycotted the elections. In a constitutional referendum in 2009, term limits for the presidency were abolished, the opposition claimed this to be a violation of the Azerbaijani constitution and the European Convention on Human Rights. The 2010 parliamentary elections produced a Parliament completely loyal to Aliyev, the Economist subsequently scored Azerbaijan at 140th place in its 2011 Democracy Index. Repeated protests were staged against Aliyevs rule in 2011, calling for more democracy, well over 400 violent protestors were arrested after protests began in March 2011. Opposition leaders, including Musavats Isa Gambar, vowed to continue demonstrating, Amnesty International in its Media Briefing of 2012 reported that the crackdown on the free speech has intensified in recent years
25.
President of Serbia
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The President of Serbia, officially styled as the President of the Republic, is the head of state of Serbia. The current office holder is Tomislav Nikolić who was elected on 20 May 2012, the term of office of the President of the Republic shall last five years and begin from the day of taking of the oath before the National Assembly. No one shall be elected to a position of the President of the Republic more than twice. The term of office of the President of the Republic shall end with expiry of the period of time for which he or she has been elected, the President of the Republic shall tender his/her resignation to the Chairman of the National Assembly. Politics of Serbia Prime Minister of Serbia Official website of the President of Serbia People´s Office of the President
26.
President of Mongolia
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The President of Mongolia is the executive head of state of Mongolia. The President is elected by the citizens of Mongolia, political parties with representation in the State Great Khural nominate candidates. The President can be re-elected only one time, the President can be removed from office if two-thirds of the Khural find him guilty of abusing his powers or violating his oath. Before inauguration, however, the President-elect has to renounce the membership of any political party, nominating a candidate for the office of Prime Minister, who is then approved or rejected by the State Great Khural. This is largely a ceremonial responsibility, as the Khural will most likely reject any nominee who is not its own choice – in effect, nominates the Prosecutor General, the official in charge of implementing the laws, who is then approved or rejected by the Khural. There is debate about who should be considered the first President of Mongolia, the title does not actually date back to before Mongolias democratisation, but the office itself is seen as extending through Mongolias period of communist rule. Sometimes, the Bogd Khan are seen as Mongolias first presidents, but more commonly, only a day later, the leadership role was reorganized as the Chairman of the Presidium of the State Little Khural. Later, the Little Khural was abolished, and its powers were returned to the Great Khural – as such and this was shortly afterwards changed to Chairman of the Presidium of the Peoples Great Khural, following a change in nomenclature. Finally, in 1990, the title President of Mongolia was adopted, Peoples Revolutionary Party Social Democratic Party Democratic Party List of heads of state of Mongolia Prime Minister of Mongolia Official website
27.
Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj
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Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj is a Mongolian politician who has been President of Mongolia since 2009. He previously served as Prime Minister in 1998 and again from 2004 to 2006, Elbegdorj is considered one of the principal champions in emerging markets and was one of the architects of democracy in Mongolia. Elbegdorj has been labeled by his supporters as a freedom fighter, Elbegdorj is the founder of the Ardchilal newspaper – the countrys first independent newspaper – and helped to establish the first independent television station in Mongolia. Elbegdorj was born into a herding family in Zereg sum, Khovd province. He was the youngest of eight sons, Elbegdorj spent most of his early childhood herding livestock through the high mountains of Zereg sum. His father, Mongolyn Tsakhia, was a veteran of Mongolias border conflict with the Empire of Japan that resulted in the 1939 Battle of Khalkhyn Gol, Elbegdorj finished the sums eight-year school in 1979. Afterwards, his family moved to Erdenet City, and he finished Erdenets No.1 ten-year school in 1981, in 1981–82, Elbegdorj worked in copper ore mining and processing plant Erdenet Concern as a machinist. In 1982 he was drafted into military service and he graduated from the academy in 1988 with a bachelors degree in journalism and then began working for the newspaper Ulaan Od. After his first term as minister, he spent a year at the University of Colorado Boulders Economic Institute. Then Elbegdorj studied with a scholarship at Harvard University and graduated from Harvards John F. Kennedy School of Government with a Master of Public Administration in 2002. During his studies in the USSR, Elbegdorj learned about Glasnost and he told the audience We consider that Perestroika is a timely and brave step. Youths contribution to this matter is not by supportive talks. Our contribution is our objectives to be fulfilled, following democracy and transparency and contributing to glasnost. These are the objectives of an initiatives group-an organization that shall work, after the congress I hope we will gather and discuss with you about it in this. The organization shall be based on public, voluntary and democratic principles, the chairman of the congress stopped Elbegdorjs speech and warned him not to say such things. It was 1989 and Mongolia had been a communist country for 68 years, at that time, it was alleged that every other person was an unofficial communist party spy who would report people who expressed opinions other than socialism and communism. During the break of the congress, two young individuals met Elbegdorj and the three agreed to found a movement and to secretly spread the news to other young people. Later the three met and united with ten other individuals and they are known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolias Democratic Revolution and they met many times and brought new friends and new supporters to join them secretly
28.
President of Vietnam
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The President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is, according to the constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, the head of state of Vietnam. In addition, the president appoints the head of government, the Prime Minister, the President appoints the Vice President, Prime Minister, Ministers and other officials with the consent of the National Assembly. The President is furthermore the commander-in-chief of the Vietnam Peoples Armed Forces, Chairman of the Council for Defense, moreover, Standing Member of the Central Military Commission and the Central Police Party Committee. Since September 2011, the President is also the Head of the Central Steering Committee for Judicial Reform, the tenure of the President is five years, and a president can only serve three terms. The powers and prestige of the office of President have varied over the years, the current president is Trần Đại Quang, since 2 April 2016. He is ranked second in the Politburo hierarchy, after General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng, Hồ Chí Minh was appointed Vietnams first president in 1946 by the National Assembly. Both the 1946 and 1959 Constitutions stated that the National Assembly had the power to appoint, the President represented Vietnam both internally and externally. The powers and responsibilities of the President remained unchanged in the 1959 constitution, the 1980 constitution transformed the office of head of state dramatically. The office of President was abolished and replaced with the office of Chairman of the Council of State, the CC chairmanship was modelled after the Soviet office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. The Council of State, as with the Council of Ministers, was a collective decision-making body, both the Council of State and the Council of Ministers were part of the executive branch, the strengthening of these institutions weakened the role of the legislative branch. The duties, powers and responsibilities of the Council of State were taken from the Standing Committee of the National Assembly, the members of the Council of State were elected by the National Assembly and consisted of a chairman, deputy chairmen, a General Secretary and other members. Council of State members could not concurrently be members of the Council of Ministers, the Chairman of the Council of State was concurrently Chairman of the National Defense Council and commander-in-chief of the Vietnam Peoples Armed Forces. The Council of State supervised the works of other institutions, most notably the Council of Ministers, the Supreme Peoples Organ for Control and it also presided over the elections of the National Assembly. The office of Chairman of the Council of State, the head of state, was abolished in the 1992 Constitution, the importance of the President has not remained constant throughout Vietnamese history. For instance, while Hồ Chí Minh was ranked as first member of the Politburo, the office of President retained the second highest rank in the Politburo order of precedence until Nguyễn Minh Triết was appointed in 2006, he ranked fourth in the Politburo hierarchy. The Politburo elected in the aftermath of the 11th National Party Congress by the Central Committee elected Trương Tấn Sang, the current President, the first-ranking member of the Politburo. This was the first time in Vietnamese history where the member of the Politburo does not hold post of either General Secretary or Chairman of the party. Since Trương Tấn Sang is first-ranked member of the Politburo, he is the unofficial head
29.
President of Cuba
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The President of Cuba, officially called from 1976 President of the Council of State, is the head of the Council of State of Cuba. The current office is established under the Constitution of 1976, the President of the Council of State is, at the same time, the President of the Council of Ministers of Cuba, the head of government. In cases of the absence, illness or death of the President of the Council of State, list of Presidents of Cuba Presidency of Fidel Castro 2006–08 Cuban transfer of presidential duties
30.
President of Egypt
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The President of the Arab Republic of Egypt is the head of state of Egypt. Under the various iterations of the Constitution of Egypt, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, the first president of Egypt was Muhammad Naguib, one of the leaders of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. He took office on 18 June 1953, the day on which the monarchy of Egypt was overthrown. Following the 2011 Egyptian revolution, Hosni Mubarak, who held office from 14 October 1981 until 11 February 2011, was forced to resign following calls for his removal from office. On 10 February 2011 Mubarak transferred presidential powers to then-Vice President Omar Suleiman, on 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as President of Egypt, having won the 2012 Egyptian presidential election on 24 June. The Egyptian Constitution has had various forms since its 1953 change to become a republic, under the 1980 amendments of the 1971 Egyptian Constitution, the president of the republic was elected indirectly in a two-stage system unique to Egypt. The People’s Assembly, the house of Parliament, nominated one of a number of candidates for presidency. In 2005 and 2007, constitutional amendments were made, principles in the amended constitution include, The election of the president of the republic by direct secret ballot from among all citizens who have the right to vote. Ensuring that multiple candidates be put forward for the people to choose from, ensuring the credibility of the nomination process. Providing the opportunity for political parties to put one of their leaders to contest the first presidential elections to be held in light of the amendment. The establishment of an election commission that would enjoy complete independence to supervise the election process. Carrying out the election in a single day, ensuring judicial supervision over the voting process. The following provisions regarding the process are stipulated in Article 76 as amended. If no candidate attains such a majority, elections will be repeated after at least seven days between the two candidates having the highest votes. In case of a tie between the candidate who attained the second highest votes and a candidate, the third candidate shall participate in the second round. The candidate who receives the highest votes in the second round shall be declared president, the amendment also provides that a law will be passed to regulate the relevant election procedures. This law is expected to regulate the various aspects of the process itself, including campaign funding, equal access to the media. As required by the amendment, the law will be submitted to the Supreme Constitutional Court to opine on its constitutionality
31.
Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
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Abdel Fattah Saeed Hussein Khalil el-Sisi, is the sixth and incumbent President of Egypt, in office since 2014. Sisi was born in Cairo and after joining the military, held a post in Saudi Arabia before enrolling in the Egyptian Armys Command and Staff College. In 1992 Sisi trained at the Joint Services Command and Staff College in the United Kingdom, Sisi served as a mechanized infantry commander and then as directory of military intelligence. After the Egyptian revolution of 2011 and election of Mohamed Morsi to the Egyptian presidency, as chief-of-staff of the Egyptian Armed Forces, Sisi launched the 2013 Egyptian coup détat that deposed President Morsi on July 3,2013, in response to earlier mass protests on June 30. Morsi was replaced by a president, Adly Mansour, who appointed a new cabinet. The government cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its Islamist supporters in the months that followed, on 14 August 2013, the Sisi-backed government carried out the August 2013 Rabaa massacre, which led to international criticism. On 26 March 2014, in response to calls from anti Muslim Brotherhood protesters, Sisi resigned from his military career, Sisi was sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8 June 2014. El-Sisi was born in Zagazig in Old Cairo on 19 November 1954, to parents Said Hussein Khalili al-Sisi, Sisi would later enroll in the Egyptian Military Academy, and upon graduating he held various command positions in the Egyptian Armed Forces and served as Egypts military attaché in Riyadh. In 1987 he attended the Egyptian Command and Staff College, in 1992 he continued his military career by enrolling in the British Command and Staff College, and in 2006 enrolled in the United States Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Sisi was the youngest member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 and he was later chosen to replace Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and serve as the commander-in-chief and Minister of Defence and Military Production on 12 August 2012. Sisis family originated from Monufia Governorate and he is the second of eight siblings. His father, a conservative but not radical Muslim, had an antiques shop for tourists in the historic bazaar of Khan el-Khalili. He and his siblings studied at the library at al-Azhar University. They were married upon el-Sisis graduation from the Egyptian Military Academy in 1977 and he became Commander of the Northern Military Region-Alexandria in 2008 and then Director of Military Intelligence and Reconnaissance. El-Sisi was the youngest member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces of Egypt, while a member of the Supreme Council, he made controversial statements regarding allegations that Egyptian soldiers had subjected detained female demonstrators to forced virginity tests. He was the first member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces to admit that the tests had been carried out. On 12 August 2012, Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi made a decision to replace Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and he also promoted him to the rank of colonel general. Sisi was then described by the website of FJP as a Defense minister with revolutionary taste
32.
Secretary-General of the United Nations
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The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary-General serves as the administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary-General in particular, is out by Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter. As of 2017, the Secretary-General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016, according to the UN website, their roles are further defined as diplomat and advocate, civil servant, and CEO. Nevertheless, this more abstract description has not prevented the office holders from speaking out, responsibilities of the Secretary-General are further outlined in Articles 98 through 100. They are also responsible for making a report to the General Assembly. According to Article 99, they may notify the Security Council on matters which in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace, other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries-General, with some being more active than others. The Secretary-General is highly dependent upon the support of the states of the UN. The personal skills of the Secretary-General and their staff are crucial to their function, the central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary-General has the right to place any dispute on the agenda of the Security Council. However, they work mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of their time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN and their function may be replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peacekeeping missions are often linked to mediation. The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council has strengthened the role of the Secretary-General as the worlds most reputable intermediary, in the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary-General position. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary-General with a three-person leading council, one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc and this idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal. Article 97 of the United Nations Charter determines that the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council, as the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries-General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame, unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections
33.
Ban Ki-moon
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Ban Ki-moon is a South Korean diplomat who was the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 2007 to December 2016. Before becoming Secretary-General, Ban was a diplomat in South Koreas Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He entered diplomatic service the year he graduated university, accepting his first post in New Delhi. Ban was the minister of South Korea from January 2004 to November 2006. In February 2006 he began to campaign for the office of Secretary-General, Ban was initially considered to be a long shot for the office. As foreign minister of South Korea, however, he was able to travel to all the countries on the United Nations Security Council, on 13 October 2006, he was elected to be the eighth Secretary-General by the United Nations General Assembly. On 1 January 2007, he succeeded Kofi Annan, as Secretary-General, he was responsible for several major reforms on peacekeeping and UN employment practices. Ban was named the worlds 32nd most powerful person by the Forbes list of The Worlds Most Powerful People in 2013, in 2014, he was named the third most powerful South Korean after Lee Kun-hee and Lee Jae-yong. In 2016, Foreign Policy named Ban one of the Top 100 Global Thinkers for his achievement of making the Paris Agreement a legally binding treaty less than a year after it was adopted. António Guterres was appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016 to be the successor of Ban Ki-moon as he stepped down on 31 December 2016. He was widely considered to be a candidate for the 2017 South Korean presidential election, before announcing, on February 1. Ban was born on 13 June 1944 in the farming village of Haengchi, Wonnam Township, in Eumseong County. His family then moved to the town of Chungju, where he grew up. During Bans childhood, his father had a business, but the warehouse went bankrupt. When Ban was six, his family fled to a mountainside for much of the Korean War. After the war ended, his family returned to Chungju, Ban has said that, during this time, he met American soldiers. In secondary school, Ban became a student, particularly in his studies of the English language. In 1962, Ban won an essay contest sponsored by the Red Cross, as part of the trip, Ban met U. S. President John F. Kennedy
34.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
35.
Council of Europe
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The Council of Europe is an international organisation focused on protecting human rights, democracy, rule of law in Europe and promoting European culture. Founded in 1949, it has 47 member states, covers approximately 820 million people, No country has ever joined the EU without first belonging to the Council of Europe. Unlike the EU, the Council of Europe cannot make binding laws, the best known body of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights, which enforces the European Convention on Human Rights. The Commissioner for Human Rights is an independent institution within the Council of Europe, mandated to promote awareness of, the Secretary General heads the secretariat of the organisation. Other major CoE bodies include the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines, the headquarters of the Council of Europe are in Strasbourg, France. English and French are its two official languages, the Committee of Ministers, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Congress also use German, Italian, Russian, and Turkish for some of their work. In a speech at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946, Sir Winston Churchill called for a kind of United States of Europe and he had spoken of a Council of Europe as early as 1943 in a radio broadcast. There were two schools of thought competing, some favoured a classical international organisation with representatives of governments, both approaches were finally combined through the creation of the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly under the Statute of the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London and those conventions and decisions are developed by the member states working together at the Council of Europe. Both organizations function as concentric circles around the foundations for European co-operation and harmony. The European Union could be seen as the circle with a much higher level of integration through the transfer of powers from the national to the EU level. The Council of Europe and the European Union, different roles, Council of Europe conventions/treaties are also open for signature to non-member states, thus facilitating equal co-operation with countries outside Europe. The Convention created the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, the Court supervises compliance with the European Convention on Human Rights and thus functions as the highest European court. It is to court that Europeans can bring cases if they believe that a member country has violated their fundamental rights. The various activities and achievements of the Council of Europe can be found in detail on its official website, Promotion of the right to education under Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights and several conventions on the recognition of university studies and diplomas. Promotion of fair sport through the Anti-Doping Convention Promotion of European youth exchanges and co-operation through European Youth Centres in Strasbourg and Budapest, Promotion of the quality of medicines throughout Europe by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Pharmacopoeia. The institutions of the Council of Europe are, The Secretary General, mr Thorbjørn Jagland, the former Prime Minister of Norway was elected Secretary General of the Council of Europe in September 2009. In June 2014, he was re-elected, and his term in office commenced on 1 October 2014
36.
Nicholas Soames
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Sir Arthur Nicholas Winston Soames, PC, sometimes known as Nick Soames, is a British Conservative Party politician and member of parliament for the constituency of Mid Sussex. He is a grandson of Sir Winston Churchill, Soames was first elected to Parliament in 1983. He was Minister of State for the Armed Forces from 1994 to 1997 in the government of John Major and his main political interests are defence, international relations, rural affairs and industry. He is also chairman of the security contractor Aegis Defence Services. His brother is the industrialist Rupert Soames, simon Hoggart, writing in The Guardian, relates an anecdote of Soames childhood, He gave me the true version of what I had always suspected was an apocryphal story. In or around 1953, when Soames was five, he didnt know how important his grandfather was until someone told him, so he walked up to the old mans bedroom, managed to get past the valets and the secretaries, and found him sitting up in bed. Is it true, grandpapa, that you are the greatest man in the world, after attending St. Aubyns Preparatory School in Sussex, Soames received his secondary education at Eton College. Soames was transferred to Regular Army Reserve of Officers on 9 March 1970 before resigning his commission on 5 August 1975. In 1970 he was appointed Equerry to HRH The Prince of Wales, he has remained a friend of the Prince ever since and publicly criticised Diana, Princess of Wales. Charles later admitted his adultery and Soames apologised, when questioned by the inquest into the death of Diana, Soames said that he saw his job as to speak up for the Prince of Wales. He denied threatening Diana, and warning her, accidents happen in the months before she died, in 1972 he left Kensington Palace and the army to work as a stockbroker. Between 1979–81, he was an assistant director of the Sedgwick Group, Soames fought Central Dunbartonshire in Scotland in 1979, where Labours Hugh McCartney defeated him by 12,003 votes. He was elected MP at the 1983 general election, winning Crawley and he sat for Crawley until the 1997 general election. In the 1997 election he won the constituency of Mid Sussex and has remained its MP since and he is also the chairman of Framlington Second Dual Trust plc and chairman of Aegis Defence Services. During the rebellion by eurosceptic Conservative MPs against the Maastricht Treaty, Soames, Minister for Food at the time, reportedly told Gill I will close every abattoir you own. On 9 May 2005, shortly after Michael Howard announced his intention to resign as leader of the Conservative Party, Soames resigned from the shadow cabinet. He immediately ended speculation that he intended to stand for the post of leader, saying that he wanted to be free to think about. He added that he was interested in joining the executive of the 1922 Committee and he later announced his support for David Cameron
37.
Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation
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The Ukrainian territory of Crimea was annexed by the Russian Federation on 18 March 2014. On 23 February 2014, pro-Russian demonstrations were held in the Crimean city of Sevastopol and it led to the other members of the then G8 suspending Russia from the group, then introducing the first round of sanctions against the country. The resolution calls upon all States and international organizations not to recognize or to imply the recognition of Russias annexation, the Russian Federation opposes the annexation label, with Putin defending the referendum as complying with the principle of self-determination of peoples. In July 2015, Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev said that Crimea had been integrated into Russia. Crimea became part of the Russian Empire in 1783, when the Crimean Khanate was annexed, initially it was incorporated into the Empire as Taurida Oblast but in 1795 it was merged into Novorossiysk Governorate and then, in 1802, transferred to the Taurida Governorate. A series of short-lived governments were established during first stages of the Russian Civil War, in October 1921, the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the Russian SFSR was instituted. In 1954, the Crimean Oblast was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR by decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. In 1989, under perestroika, the Supreme Soviet declared that the deportation of the Crimean Tatars under Stalin had been illegal, in 1990, the Soviet of the Crimean Oblast proposed the restoration of the Crimean ASSR. The oblast conducted a referendum in 1991, which asked whether Crimea should be elevated into a signatory of the New Union Treaty, by that time, though, the dissolution of the Soviet Union was well underway. The Crimean ASSR was restored for less than a year as part of Soviet Ukraine before Ukrainian independence, newly independent Ukraine maintained Crimeas autonomous status, while the Supreme Council of Crimea affirmed the peninsulas sovereignty as a part of Ukraine. The autonomous status of Crimea was limited by Ukrainian authorities in 1995, on 24 August 2009, anti-Ukrainian demonstrations were held in Crimea by ethnic Russian residents. Sergei Tsekov said then that he hoped that Russia would treat Crimea the same way as it had treated South Ossetia and Abkhazia, Yanukovych won the 2010 presidential election with strong support from voters in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and southern and eastern Ukraine. The Crimean autonomous government strongly supported Yanukovych and condemned the protests, on 4 February 2014, the Presidium of the Supreme Council considered holding a referendum on the peninsulas status, and asked the Russian government to guarantee the vote. The Security Service of Ukraine responded by opening a case to investigate the possible subversion of Ukraines territorial integrity. The Euromaidan protests came to a head in late February 2014, arseniy Yatsenyuk was appointed by the Rada to serve as the head of a caretaker government until new presidential and parliament elections could be held. This new government was recognised internationally, though the Russian government said that these events had been a coup détat, in January 2014 the Sevastopol city council had already called for formation of peoples militia units to ensure firm defence of the city from extremism. Crimean parliament members called for a meeting on 21 February. Crimean Tatar Mejlis chairman Mustafa Dzhemilev said that he suspected that the meeting was arranged to call for Russian military intervention in Crimea
38.
War in Donbass
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The War in Donbass is an armed conflict in the Donbass region of Ukraine. Prior to a change of the top leadership in August 2014, during the middle of 2014, Russian paramilitaries were reported to make up between 15% and 80% of the combatants. Crossings occurred both in areas under the control of forces and areas that were not under their control, such as the south-eastern part of Donetsk Oblast. These events followed the reported shelling of Ukrainian positions from the Russian side of the border over the course of the preceding month, head of the Security Service of Ukraine, Valentyn Nalyvaichenko said that the events of 22 August were a direct invasion by Russia of Ukraine. Western and Ukrainian officials described these events as an invasion of Ukraine by Russia. Russian President Vladimir Putin justified the incursion as defending the Russian-speaking population in the Donbass, as a result of this, DPR and LPR insurgents regained much of the territory they had lost during the preceding government military offensive. A deal to establish a ceasefire, called the Minsk Protocol, was signed on 5 September 2014, violations of the ceasefire on both sides were common. The ceasefire completely collapsed in January 2015, with renewed heavy fighting across the zone, including at Donetsk International Airport. A new ceasefire, called Minsk II, was agreed to on 12 February 2015, immediately following the signing of the agreement, separatist forces launched an offensive on Debaltseve and forced Ukrainian forces to withdraw from it. In the months after the fall of Debaltseve, minor skirmishes continued along the line of contact, but no territorial changes occurred. This state of stalemate led the war to be labelled by some a frozen conflict, despite this, the area stayed a war zone, with dozens of soldiers and civilians killed each month. Since the start of the conflict there have been eleven ceasefires, each intended to be indefinite, with the latest having started on 20 February 2017, pro-Russian protesters occupied the Donetsk RSA from 1–6 March, before being removed by the Security Service of Ukraine. On 6 April,1, 000–2,000 people gathered at a rally in Donetsk to demand a status similar to the one held in Crimea in March. The demonstrators stormed the RSA building, and took control of its first two floors, as these demands were not met, the activists held a meeting in the RSA building, and voted in favour of independence from Ukraine. They proclaimed the Donetsk Peoples Republic, concurrent to the events in Donetsk, armed forces led by Russian operative Igor Girkin stormed and occupied government buildings in other regional centers beginning on 12 April. Protesters barricaded the building, and demanded that all arrested separatist leaders be released, at this assembly, they elected Valery Bolotov to the position of Peoples Governor. The Luhansk Peoples Republic was declared on 27 April, representatives of the Republic demanded that Ukrainian government provide amnesty for all protesters, enshrine Russian as an official language, and hold a referendum on the status of the region. They issued an ultimatum that stated that if Kiev did not meet their demands by 14,00 on 29 April, in response to the widening unrest, the acting Ukrainian President, Oleksandr Turchynov, vowed to launch a major anti-terror operation against separatist movements in Donetsk Oblast
39.
Chancellor of Germany
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The Chancellor of Germany is the head of government of Germany. The official title in German is Bundeskanzler, sometimes shortened to Kanzler, the term, dating from the early Middle Ages, is derived from the Latin term cancellarius. In German politics, the Chancellor is equivalent to that of a minister in many other countries. German has two equivalent translations of prime minister, Premierminister and Ministerpräsident, while Premierminister usually refers to heads of governments of foreign countries, Ministerpräsident may also refer to the heads of government of most German states. The current Chancellor is Angela Merkel, who is serving her term in office. She is the first female chancellor, thus being known in German as Bundeskanzlerin, the role of the Chancellor has varied greatly throughout Germanys modern history. Today, the Chancellor is the effective leader. The office of Chancellor has a history, stemming back to the Holy Roman Empire. The title was, at times, used in several states of German-speaking Europe, the modern office of Chancellor was established with the North German Confederation, of which Otto von Bismarck became Chancellor in 1867. After the Unification of Germany in 1871, the became known in German as Reichskanzler. With Germanys constitution of 1949, the title Bundeskanzler was revived in German, during the various eras, the role of the Chancellor has varied. From 1871 to 1918, the Chancellor was only responsible to the Emperor, with the founding of the republic and the constitutional reform in 1918, the Parliament was granted the right to dismiss the Reichskanzler. According to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, the Chancellor was appointed by the President and responsible to Parliament, when the Nazis came to power on 30 January 1933, the Weimar Constitution was de facto set aside. After the death of President Hindenburg in 1934, Adolf Hitler, the 1949 constitution gave the Chancellor much greater powers than during the Weimar Republic, while strongly diminishing the role of the President. Since 1867,33 individuals have served as heads of government of Germany or its predecessor, due to his administrative tasks, the head of the clerics at the chapel of an Imperial palace during the Carolingian Empire was called Chancellor. The chapels college acted as the Emperors chancery issuing deeds and capitularies and these three Prince-Archbishops were also Prince-electors of the Empire electing the King of the Romans. Already in medieval times, the German Chancellor had political power like Archbishop Willigis or Rainald von Dassel under Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. In 1559, Emperor Ferdinand I established the agency of an Imperial chancellery at the Vienna Hofburg Palace, upon the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, Emperor Ferdinand II created the office of an Austrian Court Chancellor in charge of the internal and foreign affairs of the Habsburg Monarchy
40.
Angela Merkel
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Angela Dorothea Merkel is a German politician who is currently Chancellor of Germany. She is also the leader of the Christian Democratic Union, Merkel has been described at various times as the de facto leader of the European Union, the most powerful woman in the world, and the worlds second most powerful person. Following German reunification in 1990, Merkel was elected to the Bundestag for the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Merkel was appointed as the Minister for Women and Youth in the federal government under Chancellor Helmut Kohl in 1991, and became the Minister for the Environment in 1994. In the 2009 federal election, the CDU obtained the largest share of the vote, in 2007, Merkel was President of the European Council and chaired the G8, the second woman to do so. Merkel played a role in the negotiation of the Treaty of Lisbon. One of Merkels consistent priorities has been to strengthen economic relations. Merkel played a role in managing the financial crisis at the European and international level. On 26 March 2014, Merkel became the incumbent head of government in the European Union. On 20 November 2016, Merkel announced she would seek re-election to a fourth term and she has two younger siblings, her brother Marcus Kasner, a physicist, and her sister Irene Kasner, an occupational therapist. In her childhood and youth, Merkel was known among her peers by the nickname Kasi, Merkel is of Polish and German descent. Her paternal grandfather Ludwik Kaźmierczak was a German policeman of Polish ethnicity and he married Merkels grandmother Margarethe, a German girl from Berlin, and relocated to her hometown where he worked in the police. In 1930 they Germanized the Polish name Kaźmierczak to Kasner, Merkels maternal grandparents were the Danzig politician Willi Jentzsch and Gertrud Alma née Drange, a daughter of the city clerk of Elbing Emil Drange. Merkel has mentioned her Polish heritage on several occasions, but her Polish roots became better known as a result of a 2013 biography, religion played a key role in the Kasner familys migration from West Germany to East Germany. In 1954, he received a pastorate at the church in Quitzow, the family moved to Templin and Merkel grew up in the countryside 80 km north of East Berlin. Like most young people in the German Democratic Republic, Merkel was a member of the Free German Youth, membership was nominally voluntary, but those who did not join found it difficult to gain admission to higher education. She did not participate in the coming of age ceremony Jugendweihe, however. Later, at the Academy of Sciences, she became a member of the FDJ district board, Merkel claimed that she was secretary for culture. When Merkels one-time FDJ district chairman contradicted her, she insisted that, According to my memory, I believe I wont know anything when Im 80
41.
John Kerry
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John Forbes Kerry is an American politician who served as the 68th United States Secretary of State from 2013 to 2017. A Democrat, he previously served Massachusetts in the United States Senate from 1985 to 2013 and he was the Democratic nominee in the 2004 presidential election, losing narrowly to Republican incumbent George W. Bush. Kerry was born in Aurora, Colorado and attended boarding school in Massachusetts and he graduated from Yale University in 1966 with a major in political science. Kerry enlisted in the Naval Reserve in 1966, and between 1968 and 1969, he served an abbreviated four-month tour of duty in South Vietnam as officer-in-charge of a Swift Boat. For that service, he was awarded combat medals that include the Silver Star Medal, Bronze Star Medal and he appeared in the Fulbright Hearings before the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs where he deemed United States war policy in Vietnam to be the cause of war crimes. After receiving a J. D. from Boston College Law School and he served as Lieutenant Governor under Michael Dukakis from 1983 to 1985 and was elected to the U. S. Senate in 1984 and was sworn in the following January. On the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he led a series of hearings from 1987 to 1989 which were a precursor to the Iran–Contra affair, Kerry was re-elected to additional terms in 1990,1996,2002, and 2008. In his 2004 presidential campaign, Kerry criticized George W. Bush for the Iraq War and he and his running mate, North Carolina Senator John Edwards, lost the election, finishing 35 electoral votes behind Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney. Kerry returned to the Senate, becoming Chairman of the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship in 2007 and then of the Foreign Relations Committee in 2009. In January 2013, Kerry was nominated by President Barack Obama to succeed outgoing Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and then confirmed by the U. S. Senate, John Forbes Kerry was born on December 11,1943, in Aurora, Colorado, at Fitzsimons Army Hospital. He is the second of four born to Richard John Kerry, a Foreign Service officer and lawyer, and Rosemary Isabel Forbes. His father was raised Catholic and his mother was Episcopalian and he was raised with an elder sister named Margaret, a younger sister named Diana and a younger brother named Cameron. The children were raised in their fathers faith, John Kerry served as an altar boy, Kerry grew up a military brat until his father was discharged from the Army Air Corps, causing the family to settle in Washington, D. C. in 1949. While in Washington, Richard took a spot in the Department of the Navys Office of General Counsel and his extended maternal family enjoyed great wealth as members of the Forbes and Dudley–Winthrop families. Kerrys parents themselves were upper-middle class, and a great aunt paid for him to attend elite boarding schools. In 1957, his father was stationed at the U. S. Embassy in Oslo, Norway, and Kerry was sent back to the United States to attend boarding school. He first attended the Fessenden School in Newton, Massachusetts, and later St. Pauls, Concord, New Hampshire, Kerry founded the John Winant Society at St. Pauls to debate the issues of the day, the Society still exists there. In 1962, Kerry entered Yale University, majoring in political science and he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1966
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