1.
Le Bourget
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Le Bourget is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 10.6 km from the center of Paris, the commune features Le Bourget Airport, which in turn hosts the Musée de lAir et de lEspace. A very small part of Le Bourget Airport lies on the territory of the commune of Le Bourget, most of the airport lies on the territory of the communes of Dugny, Bonneuil-en-France, and Gonesse. The Bureau dEnquêtes et dAnalyses pour la Sécurité de lAviation civile is also headquartered on the airport grounds, Le Bourget has been twinned with Amityville, New York since 1979 and Zhukovsky in Russia. Le Bourget is served by Le Bourget station on Paris RER line B, there is also an extensive freight rail yard with international traffic to Belgium, among others. The town is served by two major Highways, A1 autoroute in the north of the town, and A86 autoroute in the south of the city. Those two highways ensure a connection to major Paris Region hubs like La Defense, Bobigny, Roissy Charles de Gaulle Airport. Paris–Le Bourget Airport is the first business flights airport in Europe and it connects with 800 destinations in Europe The world-renowned Gagosian Gallery is located in Le Bourget airport area. Le Bourget houses the Crèche intercommunale Maryse Bastié, an intercommunal daycare, École maternelle Saint-Exupéry is the sole maternelle public nursery school in Le Bourget, while École primaire Louis Blériot is the sole élémentaire- only public school in Le Bourget. Two municipal schools, Groupe scolaire Jean Jaurès and Groupe scolaire Jean Mermoz, collège Didier Daurat is the sole municipal collège. There is one high school, Lycée Germaine Tillion. Institution Privée Sainte-Marie, serving the maternelle, élémentaire and collège levels, is the private school in Le Bourget. The 350-square-metre Le Bourget Public Library has 45,000 books and it is located within the Urban Community of Le Bourget Airport. Communes of the Seine-Saint-Denis department Citations Bibliography INSEE Commune of Le Bourget
2.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
3.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
4.
Kyoto Protocol
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The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 parties to the Protocol, the Protocols first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into force the Amendment with second round targets. Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyotos first-round but have not taken on new targets in the commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada and the United States, as of July 2016,66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states. Of the 37 countries with binding commitments,7 have ratified, negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is an instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol. The view that human activities are responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking. Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be. The IPCCs projections are baseline projections, meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to reduce gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. The likely range is a increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C. The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of greenhouse gas emissions. Different projections contain different assumptions of social and economic development. The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the system to past. 1992 The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro and it results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change among other agreements. 1995 Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin to outline specific targets on emissions,1997 In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets. 2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005,2011 Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol
5.
Paris Agreement
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The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015. It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 at a ceremony in New York, as of March 2017,194 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty,141 of which have ratified it. The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016, the head of the Paris Conference, Frances foreign minister Laurent Fabius, said this ambitious and balanced plan is a historic turning point in the goal of reducing global warming. One year on, the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower, countries furthermore aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible. The agreement has been described as an incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment, the Paris deal is the worlds first comprehensive climate agreement. The contribution that each country should make in order to achieve the worldwide goal are determined by all countries individually. Article 3 requires them to be ambitious, represent a progression over time, the contributions should be reported every five years and are to be registered by the UNFCCC Secretariat. Each further ambition should be more ambitious than the previous one, countries can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions. The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate Change Conference serve—unless provided otherwise—as the initial Nationally determined contribution, the level of NDCs set by each country will set that countrys targets. However the contributions themselves are not binding as a matter of law, as they lack the specificity, normative character. Furthermore, there will be no mechanism to force a country to set a target in their NDC by a specific date and no enforcement if a set target in an NDC is not met. There will be only a name and shame system or as János Pásztor, the U. N. assistant secretary-general on climate change, told CBS News, as the agreement provides no consequences if countries do not meet their commitments, consensus of this kind is fragile. A trickle of nations exiting the agreement may trigger the withdrawal of more governments, the negotiators of the Agreement however stated that the NDCs and the 2 °C reduction target were insufficient, instead, a 1.5 ̊C. The global stocktake will kick off with a dialogue in 2018. The implementation of the agreement by all member countries together will be evaluated every 5 years, the outcome is to be used as input for new nationally determined contributions of member states. The stocktake will not be of contributions/achievements of individual countries but an analysis of what has been achieved. The stocktake works as part of the Paris Agreements effort to create a ratcheting up of ambition in emissions cuts, while ratcheting up the ambition of NDCs is a major aim of the global stocktake, it assesses efforts beyond mitigation. The 5 year reviews will also evaluate adaptation, climate finance provisions, the specific climate goals are thus politically encouraged, rather than legally bound
6.
Climate change
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Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time. Climate change may refer to a change in weather conditions. Climate change is caused by such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics. Certain human activities have also identified as significant causes of recent climate change. Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations, more recent data are provided by the instrumental record. The most general definition of change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long periods of time. Accordingly, fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such as El Niño, the term climate change is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change. Anthropogenic climate change is caused by activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earths natural processes. In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, within scientific journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing greenhouse gas levels affect. A related term is climatic change, in 1966, the World Meteorological Organization proposed the term climatic change to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, regardless of cause. Change was a given and climatic was used as an adjective to describe this kind of change, when it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic change as the dominant term to reflect an anthropogenic cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change, used as a noun, became an issue rather than the technical description of changing weather. On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the Sun and this energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or forcing mechanisms, there are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings. There are also key factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change. Forcing mechanisms can be internal or external. Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the system itself
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Global warming
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Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earths climate system and its related effects. Multiple lines of evidence show that the climate system is warming. The largest human influence has been emission of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane. These findings have been recognized by the science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing. Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe, anticipated effects include warming global temperature, rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion of deserts in the subtropics. Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic, with the retreat of glaciers, permafrost. Effects significant to humans include the threat to security from decreasing crop yields. Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, building systems resilient to its effects, most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change. Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing, a global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54% consider it a very serious problem. There are significant regional differences, with Americans and Chinese among the least concerned, the global average surface temperature shows a warming of 0.85 °C in the period 1880 to 2012, based on multiple independently produced datasets. Earths average surface temperature rose by 0. 74±0.18 °C over the period 1906–2005, the rate of warming almost doubled for the last half of that period. The rest has melted ice and warmed the continents and atmosphere, the average temperature of the lower troposphere has increased between 0.12 and 0.135 °C per decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature measurements. The warming that is evident in the temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations. The probability that these changes could have occurred by chance is virtually zero, temperature changes vary over the globe. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures, ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean loses more heat by evaporation. Since the beginning of industrialisation the temperature difference between the hemispheres has increased due to melting of sea ice and snow in the North. Average arctic temperatures have been increasing at almost twice the rate of the rest of the world in the past 100 years, the thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing. Some of this warming will be driven by past natural forcings which are still seeking equilibrium in the climate system
8.
Celsius
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Celsius, also known as centigrade, is a metric scale and unit of measurement for temperature. As an SI derived unit, it is used by most countries in the world and it is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, who developed a similar temperature scale. The degree Celsius can refer to a temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval. Before being renamed to honour Anders Celsius in 1948, the unit was called centigrade, from the Latin centum, which means 100, and gradus, which means steps. The scale is based on 0° for the point of water. This scale is widely taught in schools today, by international agreement the unit degree Celsius and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures, absolute zero, and the triple point of VSMOW. This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible, is defined as being precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C. The temperature of the point of water is defined as precisely 273.16 K at 611.657 pascals pressure. This definition fixes the magnitude of both the degree Celsius and the kelvin as precisely 1 part in 273.16 of the difference between absolute zero and the point of water. Thus, it sets the magnitude of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin as exactly the same, additionally, it establishes the difference between the two scales null points as being precisely 273.15 degrees. In his paper Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer, he recounted his experiments showing that the point of ice is essentially unaffected by pressure. He also determined with precision how the boiling point of water varied as a function of atmospheric pressure. He proposed that the point of his temperature scale, being the boiling point. This pressure is known as one standard atmosphere, the BIPMs 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures later defined one standard atmosphere to equal precisely 1013250dynes per square centimetre. On 19 May 1743 he published the design of a mercury thermometer, in 1744, coincident with the death of Anders Celsius, the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus reversed Celsiuss scale. In it, Linnaeus recounted the temperatures inside the orangery at the University of Uppsala Botanical Garden, since the 19th century, the scientific and thermometry communities worldwide referred to this scale as the centigrade scale. Temperatures on the scale were often reported simply as degrees or. More properly, what was defined as centigrade then would now be hectograde.2 gradians, for scientific use, Celsius is the term usually used, with centigrade otherwise continuing to be in common but decreasing use, especially in informal contexts in English-speaking countries
9.
Greenhouse gas
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A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earths atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earths surface would be about −18 °C, rather than the present average of 15 °C. In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars, human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution have produced a 40% increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, from 280 ppm in 1750 to 400 ppm in 2015. This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a portion of the emissions by various natural sinks involved in the carbon cycle. Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of fuels, principally coal, oil. Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the range emitted by Earth. The proportion of an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a time is the airborne fraction. The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the increase in a given year to that years total emissions. Over the last 50 years the annual airborne fraction for CO2 has been increasing at 0.25 ±0. 21%/year, therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and usually are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases. Some gases have indirect radiative effects and this happens in two main ways. One way is that when they break down in the atmosphere they produce another greenhouse gas, for example, methane and carbon monoxide are oxidized to give carbon dioxide. Oxidation of CO to CO2 directly produces an increase in radiative forcing although the reason is subtle. The peak of the thermal IR emission from Earths surface is close to a strong vibrational absorption band of CO2. On the other hand, the single CO vibrational band only absorbs IR at much higher frequencies, where the ~300 K thermal emission of the surface is at least a factor of ten lower. Oxidation of methane to CO2, which requires reactions with the OH radical, produces a reduction, since CO2 is a weaker greenhouse gas than methane. As described below this is not the story, since the oxidations of CO. In any case, the calculation of the radiative effect needs to include both the direct and indirect forcing
10.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
11.
Bonn
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The Federal City of Bonn is a city on the banks of the Rhine in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, with a population of 311,287. About 24 km south-southeast of Cologne, Bonn is in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ruhr region, Germanys largest metropolitan area, the title of Federal City reflects its particular political status within Germany. Founded in the 1st century BC as a Roman settlement, Bonn is one of Germanys oldest cities, from 1597 to 1794, Bonn was the capital of the Electorate of Cologne, and residence of the Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne. Composer Ludwig van Beethoven was born here in 1770, from 1949 to 1990, Bonn was the capital of West Germany, and it is here where Germanys present constitution, the Grundgesetz, was declared in 1949. From 1990 to 1999, Bonn served as the seat of government, two DAX-listed corporations, Deutsche Post DHL and Deutsche Telekom, have headquarters in Bonn. The city is the location of the University of Bonn, spanning an area of more 141.2 km2 on both sides of the River Rhine, almost three quarters of the city lie on the rivers left bank. To the south and to the west, Bonn is bordering the Eifel region which encompasses the Rhineland Nature Park, to the north, Bonn borders the Cologne Lowland. Natural borders are constituted by the River Sieg to the north-east, the largest extension of the city in north-south dimensions is 15 km and 12.5 km in west-east dimensions. The city borders have a length of 61 km. The geographical centre of Bonn is the Bundeskanzlerplatz in Bonn-Gronau, the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia is divided into five governmental districts, and Bonn is part of the governmental district of Cologne. Within this governmental district, the city of Bonn is an district in its own right. The urban district of Bonn is then divided into four administrative municipal districts. These are Bonn, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Bonn-Beuel and Bonn-Hardtberg, in 1969, the independent towns of Bad Godesberg and Beuel as well as several villages were incorporated into Bonn, resulting in a city more than twice as large as before. In the south of the Cologne lowland in the Rhine valley, the history of the city dates back to Roman times. In about 12 BC, the Roman army appears to have stationed a small unit in what is presently the historical centre of the city, even earlier, the army had resettled members of a Germanic tribal group allied with Rome, the Ubii, in Bonn. The Latin name for that settlement, Bonna, may stem from the population of this and many other settlements in the area. The Eburoni were members of a tribal coalition effectively wiped out during the final phase of Caesars War in Gaul. After several decades, the gave up the small camp linked to the Ubii-settlement
12.
Pope Francis
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Pope Francis is the 266th and current Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, a title he holds ex officio as Bishop of Rome, and sovereign of Vatican City. He chose Francis as his name in honor of Saint Francis of Assisi. Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio worked briefly as a chemical technologist and he was ordained a Catholic priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was Argentinas provincial superior of the Society of Jesus. He became the Archbishop of Buenos Aires in 1998 and was created a cardinal in 2001 by Pope John Paul II and he led the Argentine Church during the December 2001 riots in Argentina, and the administrations of Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner considered him a political rival. Following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, throughout his public life, Pope Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on Gods mercy, concern for the poor, populist causes and commitment to interfaith dialogue. He maintains that the church should be open and welcoming. He does not support unbridled capitalism, Marxism, or Marxist versions of liberation theology, Francis maintains the traditional views of the church regarding abortion, euthanasia, contraception, homosexuality, ordination of women, and priestly celibacy. He opposes consumerism, irresponsible development, and supports taking action on climate change, in international diplomacy, he helped to restore full diplomatic relations between the U. S. and Cuba. Jorge Mario Bergoglio was born on 17 December 1936 in Flores and he was the eldest of five children of Mario José Bergoglio and Regina María Sívori. Mario Bergoglio was an Italian immigrant accountant born in Portacomaro in Italys Piedmont region, Regina Sívori was a housewife born in Buenos Aires to a family of northern Italian origin. Mario Josés family left Italy in 1929, to escape the fascist rule of Benito Mussolini, María Elena Bergoglio, the Popes only living sibling, confirmed that their emigration was not for economic reasons. His other siblings were Alberto Horacio, Oscar Adrián and Marta Regina, two great-nephews, Antonio and Joseph, died in a traffic collision. In the sixth grade, Bergoglio attended Wilfrid Barón de los Santos Ángeles and he attended the technical secondary school Escuela Técnica Industrial N°27 Hipólito Yrigoyen, named after a past President of Argentina, and graduated with a chemical technicians diploma. He worked for a few years in that capacity in the section at Hickethier-Bachmann Laboratory where his boss was Esther Ballestrino. Before joining the Jesuits, Bergoglio worked as a bar bouncer and as a janitor sweeping floors, in the only known health crisis of his youth, at the age of 21 he suffered from life-threatening pneumonia and three cysts. He had part of a lung excised shortly afterwards, Bergoglio has been a lifelong supporter of San Lorenzo de Almagro football club. Bergoglio is also a fan of the films of Tita Merello, neorealism, Bergoglio found his vocation to the priesthood while he was on his way to celebrate the Spring Day. He passed by a church to go to confession, and was inspired by the priest
13.
Laudato si'
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Laudato si is the second encyclical of Pope Francis. The encyclical has the subtitle On Care For Our Common Home, in it, the Pope critiques consumerism and irresponsible development, laments environmental degradation and global warming, and calls all people of the world to take swift and unified global action. The encyclical, dated 24 May 2015, was published at noon on 18 June 2015 accompanied by a news conference. The Vatican released the document in Italian, German, English, Spanish, French, Polish, Portuguese, the encyclical is the second published by Francis, after Lumen fidei which was released in 2013. Since Lumen fidei was largely the work of Franciss predecessor Benedict XVI, the tone of the Popes phrasing has been described as cautious and undogmatic, and he specifically calls for discussion and dialogue. For example, he states in the encyclical, There are certain environmental issues where it is not easy to achieve a broad consensus, here I would state once more that the Church does not presume to settle scientific questions or to replace politics. But I am concerned to encourage an honest and open debate so that particular interests or ideologies will not prejudice the common good, Francis does state that concern for the natural world is no longer optional but is an integral part of the Church teaching on social justice. Francis reportedly has said that the encyclical was not really a document at all. The warming of the planet is a symptom of a greater problem and this has resulted in a throwaway culture in which unwanted items and unwanted people, such as the unborn, the elderly, and the poor, are discarded as waste. This subtext makes the document more profoundly subversive than it appears on the surface, the real problem, according to Francis, lies in the fact that humans no longer see God as the Creator. Thus we see other living beings as mere objects subjected to arbitrary human domination, Francis says that instead of viewing humanity as having dominion over the earth, we must see that everything is interconnected and that all of creation is a kind of universal family. Nature cannot be seen as something apart from humanity, or merely the place where we live and he says that our social and environmental crises are thus one complex crisis that must be solved holistically. Francis pulls no punches when lamenting pollution, climate change, a lack of water, loss of biodiversity, and an overall decline in human life. Never have we so hurt and mistreated our common home as we have in the last two hundred years, he states. He describe a relentless exploitation and destruction of the environment, for which he blamed apathy, the encyclical highlights the role of fossil fuels in causing climate change. Until greater progress is made in developing widely accessible sources of renewable energy, the encyclicals comments on climate change are consistent with the scientific consensus on climate change. The encyclical states that developed nations are morally obligated to assist developing nations in combating the climate-change crisis, poor nations, the pontiff says, are ill-prepared to adapt to the effects of climate change and will bear the brunt of its effects. Linking the issues of poverty, which has been an issue in his papacy
14.
International Trade Union Confederation
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The International Trade Union Confederation is the worlds largest trade union federation. It was formed on 1 November 2006, out of the merger of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the Founding Congress of the ITUC was held in Vienna and was preceded by the dissolution congresses of both the ICFTU and the WCL. The ITUC represents 176 million workers through its 328 affiliated organisations within 162 countries and territories, Sharan Burrow is the current General Secretary. Also in 2014, the ITUC debuted the Global Rights Index, which ranks nations on 97 metrics pertaining to rights, such as freedom from violent conditions. The founding congress of the ITUC was held from 1 to 3 November 2006 in Vienna, the first day of the congress saw the formal creation of the ITUC followed by an address by Juan Somavia, the Director-General of the International Labour Organization. Technical difficulties limited Lamys satellite video link participation, leadership and officers were elected on the final day of the congress. Guy Ryder, the general secretary of the ICFTU, was elected to the same position in the new organisation. A Governing Council was established, with 70 elected members, and 8 additional seats reserved for youth, a Council of Global Unions was also formed on the final day of the congress. It was established jointly with ten global union federations and the Trade Union Advisory Committee to the OECD, the second congress of the ITUC was held from 21 to 25 June 2010 in Vancouver, Canada. On 25 June 2010, at the conclusion of the congress, Sharan Burrow was elected General Secretary, in anticipation of her election, Burrow had resigned from her position as President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions effective 1 July 2010. Speaking to the Congress after her election, Burrow paid tribute to her predecessor, but the investment in and participation of women is not only a moral mandate it is an investment in democracy and a bulwark against fundamentalism and oppression. Organising woman is and must continue to be a priority for the ITUC, the Pan-European Regional Council, a European trade union organisation within the ITUC was formed 19 March 2007. It consists of 87 national trade union centres and a membership of 87 million. It works closely with the European Trade Union Confederation, and Bernadette Ségol is currently the secretary of both organisations. ITUC has been blamed for using doubtful means during their investigations in countries like Qatar, Kuwait, iTUCs relationship with the Gulf appears to have assumed an adversarial one. Global union federation List of federations of trade unions World Federation of Trade Unions General Confederation of Trade Unions Decent work Fabio Bertini, Gilliatt e la piovra
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Sharan Burrow
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Sharan Burrow is the General Secretary of the International Trade Union Confederation and a former President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions. She is the first woman to become General Secretary of the ITUC since its foundation in 2006, Burrow was born in Warren, New South Wales to a family with strong involvement in the labour movement. She graduated in teaching with the University of New South Wales in 1976 and became a teacher in the early 1980s and she later became President of the Bathurst Trades and Labor Council. Before becoming President of the ACTU she was also President of the Australian Education Union in 1992, Burrow was elected President of the ACTU in May 2000. The ACTU President Sharan Burrow is a significant figure at ILO, at the time of her presidency with ACTU, a PPL policy program was successfully passed in Australia, for which she said, this would give dignity and respect to women workers. Burrow continued as President of the ACTU until the end of June 2010 when she demitted office and was elected General Secretary of the International Trade Union Confederation. But the investment in and participation of women is not only a mandate it is an investment in democracy. Organising women is and must continue to be a priority for the ITUC, Burrow is also the current President of the International Centre for Trade Union Rights. Media related to Sharan Burrow at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Angela Merkel
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Angela Dorothea Merkel is a German politician who is currently Chancellor of Germany. She is also the leader of the Christian Democratic Union, Merkel has been described at various times as the de facto leader of the European Union, the most powerful woman in the world, and the worlds second most powerful person. Following German reunification in 1990, Merkel was elected to the Bundestag for the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Merkel was appointed as the Minister for Women and Youth in the federal government under Chancellor Helmut Kohl in 1991, and became the Minister for the Environment in 1994. In the 2009 federal election, the CDU obtained the largest share of the vote, in 2007, Merkel was President of the European Council and chaired the G8, the second woman to do so. Merkel played a role in the negotiation of the Treaty of Lisbon. One of Merkels consistent priorities has been to strengthen economic relations. Merkel played a role in managing the financial crisis at the European and international level. On 26 March 2014, Merkel became the incumbent head of government in the European Union. On 20 November 2016, Merkel announced she would seek re-election to a fourth term and she has two younger siblings, her brother Marcus Kasner, a physicist, and her sister Irene Kasner, an occupational therapist. In her childhood and youth, Merkel was known among her peers by the nickname Kasi, Merkel is of Polish and German descent. Her paternal grandfather Ludwik Kaźmierczak was a German policeman of Polish ethnicity and he married Merkels grandmother Margarethe, a German girl from Berlin, and relocated to her hometown where he worked in the police. In 1930 they Germanized the Polish name Kaźmierczak to Kasner, Merkels maternal grandparents were the Danzig politician Willi Jentzsch and Gertrud Alma née Drange, a daughter of the city clerk of Elbing Emil Drange. Merkel has mentioned her Polish heritage on several occasions, but her Polish roots became better known as a result of a 2013 biography, religion played a key role in the Kasner familys migration from West Germany to East Germany. In 1954, he received a pastorate at the church in Quitzow, the family moved to Templin and Merkel grew up in the countryside 80 km north of East Berlin. Like most young people in the German Democratic Republic, Merkel was a member of the Free German Youth, membership was nominally voluntary, but those who did not join found it difficult to gain admission to higher education. She did not participate in the coming of age ceremony Jugendweihe, however. Later, at the Academy of Sciences, she became a member of the FDJ district board, Merkel claimed that she was secretary for culture. When Merkels one-time FDJ district chairman contradicted her, she insisted that, According to my memory, I believe I wont know anything when Im 80
17.
Michelle Bachelet
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Verónica Michelle Bachelet Jeria is a Chilean politician who has been President of Chile since 11 March 2014. She was previously president from 2006 to 2010, becoming the first woman in her country to do so, in December 2013, Bachelet was re-elected president with over 62% of the vote, bettering the 53. 5% she obtained in 2006. She is the first person since 1932 to win the presidency of Chile twice in competitive elections, Bachelet, a physician with studies in military strategy, was Health Minister and Defense Minister under her predecessor, Ricardo Lagos. She is a mother of three and describes herself as an agnostic. Aside from her native Spanish, she speaks, with varying levels of fluency, English, German, Portuguese. She is a member of the Socialist Party of Chile, Bachelet is the second child of archaeologist Ángela Jeria Gômez and Air Force Brigadier General Alberto Bachelet Martínez. He married Lely Johnson, the daughter of an English physician working in Chile and their son, Máximo Jeria Johnson, married Angela Gómez Zamora. Their union produced five children, the fourth of whom is Bachelet’s mother, Bachelet was born in La Cisterna, a middle class suburb of Santiago. She was named after French actress Michèle Morgan, Bachelet spent many of her childhood years traveling around her native Chile, moving with her family from one military base to another. She lived and attended school in Quintero, Cerro Moreno, Antofagasta. In 1962 she moved with her family to the United States and her family lived for almost two years in Bethesda, Maryland, where she attended Western Junior High School and learned to speak English fluently. Returning to Chile in 1964, she graduated high school in 1969 at Liceo Nº1 Javiera Carrera. In 1970, after obtaining a high score in the university admission test, she entered medical school at the University of Chile. She originally intended to study sociology or economics, but was prevailed upon by her father to study medicine instead and she has said she opted for medicine because it was a concrete way of helping people cope with pain and a way to contribute to improve health in Chile. Facing growing food shortages, the government of Salvador Allende placed Bachelets father in charge of the Food Distribution Office, when General Augusto Pinochet suddenly came to power via the 11 September 1973 coup détat, Bachelets father was detained at the Air War Academy under charges of treason. Following months of torture at Santiagos Public Prison, he suffered a cardiac arrest that resulted in his death on 12 March 1974. In 2013 Bachelet revealed she had been interrogated by DINA chief Manuel Contreras there, some days later, Bachelet was transferred to Cuatro Álamos detention center, where she was held until the end of January. Thanks to the assistance of Roberto Kozak, Bachelet was able to go into exile in Australia, of her torture, Bachelet said in 2004 that it was nothing in comparison to what others suffered
18.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
19.
Christiana Figueres
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Karen Christiana Figueres Olsen is a Costa Rican diplomat with 35 years of experience in high level national and international policy and multilateral negotiations. She was appointed Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change in July 2010, over the years she has worked in the fields of climate change, sustainable development, energy, land use, technical and financial cooperation. She is a frequent public speaker and widely published author and she is the mother of two young women, and speaks Spanish, English, and German. Figueres was born in San José, Costa Rica and her father, José Figueres Ferrer, was President of Costa Rica three times. Figueres’ mother, Karen Olsen Beck, served as Costa Rican Ambassador to Israel in 1982 and was a member of the Legislative Assembly from 1990–1994, Figueres older brother José Figueres Olsen, was also President of Costa Rica. Growing up in La Lucha, Figueres attended the local Cecilia Orlich grammar school and she moved to the German Humboldt Schule in the capital and later graduated from Lincoln High School. She travelled to England for a year of A Level studies before entering Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania, Figueres joined botanist Dr. Russell Seibert to improve nutritional conditions in Western Samoa using highly nutritious plants. She then went to the London School of Economics for a degree in social anthropology. She met there and later married German-born Konrad von Ritter and her husband Konrad von Ritter founded a small company WEnergy Global Pte Ltd in Singapore which is also working in green energy and ecology sector. He wrote several papers about ecology problems for World Bank during 2003-2004 and he has been working as a Sector Manager of Environmentally & Socially Sustainable Development department in World Bank Institute in 2006. The couple have two daughters with Arabic names, Naima and Yihana, at COP17/CMP7 held in Durban in December 2011, governments committed for the first time to collectively developing a new universal climate change agreement by 2015 for the period beyond 2020. COP21/CMP11 held in Paris in December 2015 has been heralded as a historic achievement. As secretariat of the UNFCCC, Ms. Similarly, Ms, in 2013, she addressed the World Coal Association, acknowledging that the coal industry faces risks in adjusting to climate change, but inviting them to be a part of the global solution. Christiana Figueres completes her second term as Executive Secretary of the UNFCCC on 6 July 2016, on 7 July 2016, Christina Figueres became the official Costa Rican candidate for the United Nations Secretary General. The UNs role in the Haiti cholera outbreak has been discussed and criticized. There is evidence that the UN was the cause for bringing cholera to Haiti. Peacekeepers sent to Haiti from Nepal were carrying asymptomatic cholera and they did not treat their waste properly before dumping it into Haitis water stream. During the UNSG debate held by Al Jazeera, Christina Figuerres raised her hand when the candidates were all asked who thought victims of cholera deserved an apology,37 human rights organizations recently signed onto a UN Secretary General accountability pledge
20.
2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference
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The conference took place from Monday 26 November to Saturday 8 December 2012, at the Qatar National Convention Centre in Doha. The conferences seek to address the threat of global warming caused by gas emissions like carbon dioxide. The conferences are attended by dignitaries and sometimes heads of state from most countries, consequently, the conferences are generally well covered by the world media agencies. The conference is called the COP18 /CMP8 conference but these are technically different but closely related. In 2012, the UNFCCC conference serves as an umbrella for seven concurrent, the main conference is also preceded by several topical pre-sessions. Adaptation might encompass, but is not limited to, changes in agriculture, finance – how countries will finance adaptation to and mitigation of climate change, whether from public or private sources. Mitigation – steps and actions that the countries of the world can take to mitigate the effects of climate change, technology – the technologies that are needed to adapt or mitigate climate change and ways in which developed countries can support developing countries in adopting them. Loss and damage – first articulated at the 2012 conference and in part based on the agreement that was signed at the 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Cancun. It introduces the principle that countries vulnerable to the effects of change may be financially compensated in future by countries that fail to curb their carbon emissions. In recent conferences, some activist groups have given daily informal awards to countries that they see as advancing or detracting from their ideological position. The Conference produced a package of documents collectively titled The Doha Climate Gateway over objections from Russia, language on loss and damage, formalized for the first time in the conference documents. The conference made little progress towards the funding of the Green Climate Fund, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine objected at the end of the session, as they have a right to under the sessions rules. In closing the conference, the President said that he would note these objections in his final report. Reaction to the outcomes was characterized as modest, at best by NPR. It implicates virtually every aspect of a states economy, so it makes countries nervous about growth. This is an issue every bit as it is an environmental one. Because the framework system includes over 190 countries and because negotiations are governed by consensus, governments will decide how and timetable to reach an effective universal climate agreement adopted in 2015 and to enter into force from 2020. What we now need is to implement the decisions that have been taken at the inter-governmental level and to further strengthen actions already under way. The New Zealand government said it would not be signing up to a commitment to the Kyoto Protocol
21.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
22.
Laurent Fabius
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Laurent Fabius is a French Socialist politician who served as Prime Minister of France from 17 July 1984 to 20 March 1986. Fabius was 37 years old when he was appointed and is, so far, later, Fabius was President of the National Assembly from 1988 to 1992, and again from 1997 to 2000. Fabius served in the government as Minister of Finance from 2000 to 2002, Fabius was born in the wealthy 16th arrondissement of Paris, the son of Louise and André Fabius. He is the brother of Catherine Leterrier and François Fabius. Fabius parents were from Ashkenazi Jewish families, and converted to Catholicism and he has three sons, David with his partner Ch dIzarny Gargas, Thomas and Victor with his spouse Francoise Castro. Fabiuss secondary education was at the Lycée Janson de Sailly and Lycée Louis-le-Grand, Fabius was a graduate of institutions that are training grounds for academics, and senior civil servants and executives. After his studies, Fabius became an auditor for the Council of State, a member of the Socialist Party since 1974, Fabius was first elected to the National Assembly in 1978 for the fourth constituency of Seine-Maritime. Fabius quickly gained entry to the circle of François Mitterrand, the leader of the party, when Mitterrand was elected as President of France in 1981, Fabius was nominated as Minister of the Budget. Two years later, Fabius became Minister of Industry, and pursued the policy of industrial restructuration, in 1984, a government shake up by Mitterrand led Fabius to be appointed as Prime Minister at the age of 37. Fabius advocated a new kind of French socialism, which accepted the market economy, the allowable income for recipients of the young child allowance was increased for families with three or more children. The Fabius Government also sought to reduce penalties on families with working mothers by substantially increasing the income ceiling for dual-income families receiving the young child allowance. In 1985, as a means of upholding the rights of homosexuals, in November 1984, an allowance was introduced if the parent concerned had been employed for two or more years. Known as the “allocation parentale d’education, ” this allowance provided 1,000 francs per month for parents who decided to take two years of leave after the birth of their first child. Payment was to continue after this period for 8 out of 10 families for a further 32 months on a means-tested basis, in effect, this created a benefit for the first child in lower income families. The government, however, reduced the daily maternity allowance from 90% to 84% of the basic wage, in June 1985, a law was passed allowing first offenders who had committed petty crimes to serve sentences of six months or less in public-service jobs. A July 1985 law tripled the amount of aid for victims of crimes, legislation was introduced later that year to restrict the use of preventive detention, and ensure that the rights of suspects were better protected. A special 1985 holiday programme was introduced, directed particularly at young people outside the traditional circuits of organised leisure activities, the right to maternity leave was also extended to the father, in the event of the death of the mother in child-birth. The father was entitled to leave and could claim an allowance under the maternity insurance scheme
23.
CBS News
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CBS News is the news division of American television and radio service CBS. The president of CBS News is David Rhodes, CBS News broadcasts include the CBS Evening News, CBS This Morning, news magazine programs CBS Sunday Morning,60 Minutes and 48 Hours, and Sunday morning political affairs program Face the Nation. CBS operates a 24-hour news network called CBSN, the first live anchored 24-hour streaming news network that is exclusively online, in December 1930 CBS chief William S. Paley hired journalist Paul W. White away from United Press as CBSs news editor. Paley put the networks news operation at the same level as entertainment. Along with other networks, CBS chafed at the breaking news embargo imposed upon radio by the wire services, CBS disregarded an embargo when it broke the story of the Lindbergh kidnapping in 1932, using live on-the-air reporting. Radio networks scooped print outlets with news of the 1932 presidential election, in March 1933 White was named vice president and general manager in charge of news at CBS. As the first head of CBS News, he began to build an organization that established a legendary reputation. In 1935 White hired Edward R. Murrow, and sent him to London in 1937 to run CBS Radios European operation, White led a staff that would come to include Charles Collingwood, William L. Shirer, Eric Sevareid, John Charles Daly, Joseph C. Harsch Cecil Brown, Elmer Davis, Quincy Howe, H. V. Kaltenborn, CBS was getting its ducks in a row for the biggest news story in history, World War II, wrote radio historian John Dunning. Upon becoming commercial station WCBW in 1941, the pioneer CBS television station in New York City broadcast two daily news programs, at 2,30 and 7,30 p. m. weekdays, anchored by Richard Hubbell. Most of the newscasts featured Hubbell reading a script with only occasional cutaways to a map or still photograph, when Pearl Harbor was bombed on December 7,1941, WCBW, took to the air at 8,45 p. m. with an extensive special report. The national emergency even broke down the wall between CBS radio and television. The WCBW special report that night lasted less than 90 minutes, but that special broadcast pushed the limits of live television in 1941 and opened up new possibilities for future broadcasts. Additional newscasts were scheduled in the days of the war. In May 1944, as the war began to turn in favor of the Allies, WCBW reopened the studios and the newscasts returned, briefly anchored by Ned Calmer, and then by Everett Holles. After the war, expanded news programs appeared on the WCBW schedule – whose call letters were changed to WCBS-TV in 1946 – first anchored by Milo Boulton, and later by Douglas Edwards. On May 3,1948, Edwards began anchoring CBS Television News and it aired every weeknight at 7,30 p. m. and was the first regularly scheduled, network television news program featuring an anchor. NBCs offering at the time, NBC Television Newsreel, was simply film footage with voice narration, the broadcast was renamed the CBS Evening News when Walter Cronkite replaced Edwards in 1962
24.
Member states of the United Nations
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The United Nations member states are the 193 sovereign states that are members of the United Nations and have equal representation in the UN General Assembly. The UN is the worlds largest intergovernmental organization, ahead of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. A recommendation for admission from the Security Council requires affirmative votes from at least nine of the fifteen members. The Security Councils recommendation must then be approved in the General Assembly by a majority vote. In principle, only states can become UN members. Although five members were not sovereign when they joined the UN and this is because the UN does not consider them to possess sovereignty, mainly due to the lack of international recognition or due to opposition from one of the permanent members. Observers are generally intergovernmental organizations and international organizations and entities whose statehood or sovereignty is not precisely defined, the other two original members, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, had been dissolved and their memberships in the UN not continued from 1992 by any one successor state. India was under British colonial rule, until gaining independence in 1947. The Philippines was a commonwealth with the United States, until gaining independence in 1946. New Zealand, while de facto sovereign at that time, only gained full capacity to enter into relations with states in 1947 when it passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act. This occurred 16 years after the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster Act in 1931 that recognised New Zealands autonomy, if judged by the Montevideo Convention criteria, New Zealand did not achieve full de jure statehood until 1947. The current members and their dates of admission are listed below with their official designations used by the United Nations, the member states can be sorted by their official designations and dates of admission by clicking on the buttons in the header of the columns. See related sections on former members by clicking on the links in the column See also, original members are listed with blue background. Both sides rejected compromise proposals to both states to participate in the UN, based on the One-China policy. By the 1970s, a shift had occurred in diplomatic circles. This effectively transferred the seat of China in the UN, including its permanent seat on the Security Council, from the ROC to the PRC, from the United Nations perspective the Republic of China is not a former member. No UN member was expelled in 1971, rather, the credentials of one Chinese delegation were rejected and the credentials of another Chinese delegation were accepted. In addition to losing its seat in the UN, the UN Secretary-General concluded from the resolution that the General Assembly considered Taiwan to be a province of China
25.
Carbon tax
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A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels. It is a form of carbon pricing, Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted. In contrast, non-combustion energy sources—wind, sunlight, geothermal, hydropower, CO2 is a heat-trapping greenhouse gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system. Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits and it is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy. Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, from an economic perspective, carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax. They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions, Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax, in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately. The regressive impact of taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups. A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content, most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles, rather than on CO2 emissions directly. Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs and it has been argued, however, that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment. Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation, such as the United States, Russia, Carbon dioxide is one of several heat-trapping greenhouse gases emitted by humans. The scientific consensus is that human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are the cause of global warming. Worldwide,27 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide are produced by human activity annually, the physical effect of CO2 in the atmosphere can be measured as a change in the Earth-atmosphere systems energy balance – the radiative forcing of CO2. Carbon taxes are one of the policies available to governments to reduce GHG emissions, in the Kyoto Protocol, CO2 emissions are regulated along with other GHGs. A carbon tax is a form of pollution tax, pollution taxes are often grouped with two other economic policy instruments, tradable pollution permits/credits and subsidies. These three environmental economic policy instruments are built upon a foundation of a command and control regulation, the difference is that classic command-penalty regulations stipulate, through performance or prescriptive standards, what each polluter is required to do to be in compliance with the law. A carbon tax is called an instrument, since it sets a price for carbon dioxide emissions. In economic theory, pollution is considered a negative externality, an effect on a party not directly involved in a transaction. A tax on a negative externality is called a Pigovian tax, within Pigous framework, the changes involved are marginal, and the size of the externality is assumed to be small enough not to distort the rest of the economy
26.
Earth Institute
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The Earth Institute was established at Columbia University in 1995. The research institutes stated mission is to address issues facing the planet and its inhabitants, with particular focus on sustainable development. Sachs also serves as Special Advisor to United Nations Secretary-General on the Millennium Development Goals, Earth Institute faculty lead several MDG task forces and are using MDG goals to shape their own research agendas. Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory was established in 1949 and is a research institution specializing in the Earth sciences. The current director of Lamont is Sean Solomon, the Columbia Water Center was founded in 2008 and is looking into the assessment, understanding and resolution of the global crisis of water scarcity. The Center aims to design reliable, sustainable models of management and development that can be implemented on local, regional and global levels. The Columbia Water Center conducts projects both domestically and internationally, with projects underway in India, Mali, Brazil. The current director of CWC is Upmanu Lall, the Center for River and Estuaries is focused on the better understanding of rivers and estuaries worldwide. This includes the distribution, transport, and flux of contaminants, sediments, nutrients, organic material, carbon, the center also studies the evolution and linkage of marshes and wetlands. The Center for Climate Systems Research was established in 1994 to promote research in Earth. Its current director is Leonard Druyan, the Earth Institute Center for Environmental Sustainability is dedicated to the development of a rich, robust and vibrant world within which we can secure a sustainable future. The Earth Engineering Center was established in 1996 and serves as the engineering unit of the Earth Institute. The EEC aims to find solutions to achieve sustainable development of Earths resources including water, energy, minerals, materials, and it includes over 20 members of the Engineering School faculty at Columbia and specialists from other Columbia schools as well as environmental organizations and other universities. The EEC is a part of the Henry Krumb School of Mines and linked to the earth and its current director is Professor Nickolas Themelis. Lenfest research areas include advanced fuel concepts, carbon sequestration, the current director is Ah-Hyung Park. The Center for Global Health and Economic Development is a joint effort between the Mailman School of Public Health and the Earth Institute that seeks to address issues of global health. CGHED partners with the United Nations, the World Health Organization, the center focuses on many issues including AIDS, tuberculosis, gender equity, maternal mortality, reproductive health, environmental contamination such as arsenic, forced migration and human rights. Projects include the Access Project and the Millennium Villages Project, CGHED aims to develop the best health systems for the poor while promoting sustainable economic development to reach the Millennium Development Goals
27.
Jeffrey Sachs
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He is known as one of the worlds leading experts on economic development and the fight against poverty. He is special adviser to the former United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon on the Millennium Development Goals and he is co-founder and chief strategist of Millennium Promise Alliance, a nonprofit organization dedicated to ending extreme poverty and hunger. He is director of the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network, since 2010 he also served as a commissioner for the Broadband Commission for Digital Development, which leverages broadband technologies as a key enabler for social and economic development. Since 1995, he is also a member of the International Advisory Council of the Center for Social, Sachs has authored three New York Times bestsellers, The End of Poverty, Common Wealth, and The Price of Civilization. His most recent book is Building the New American Economy, Sachs was raised in Oak Park, a suburb of Detroit, Michigan, the son of Joan and Theodore Sachs, a labor lawyer. He graduated from Oak Park High School and attended Harvard College and he went on to receive his MA and Ph. D. In 1980 he joined the Harvard faculty as an assistant professor and was promoted to professor in 1982. A year later, at the age of 28, Sachs became a professor of economics with tenure at Harvard. In 2002 Sachs became director of the Earth Institute of Columbia University and he championed the new Masters of Development Practice, which has led to a consortium of major universities around the world offering the new degree. The Earth Institute has also guided the adoption of sustainable development as a new major at Columbia College, the Earth Institute is home to cutting-edge research on all aspects of earth systems and sustainable development. He has authored or co-authored hundreds of articles and several books. In 2011 Sachs called for the creation of a third U. S. political party, Sachs is known for his work as an economic adviser to governments in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union. A trained macroeconomist, he advised a number of governments in the transition from communism or developmentalism to market economies. This stabilization plan centered around price deregulation, particularly for oil, Sachs stated that his plan could end Bolivian hyperinflation, which had reached up to 14, 000%, in a single day. Inflation did quickly stabilize in Bolivia, in 1989 Sachs advised Polands anticommunist Solidarity movement and the government of Prime Minister Tadeusz Mazowiecki. He wrote a plan for the transition from central planning to a market economy. Sachs was the architect of Polands successful debt reduction operation. Sachs and IMF economist David Lipton advised the rapid conversion of all property, closure of many uncompetitive factories ensued
28.
Institutional investor
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Institutional investor is a term for entities which pool money to purchase securities, real property, and other investment assets or originate loans. Institutional investors include banks, insurance companies, pensions, hedge funds, REITs, investment advisors, endowments, operating companies which invest excess capital in these types of assets may also be included in the term. Activist institutional investors may also influence corporate governance by exercising voting rights in their investments, in some African colonies in particular, part of the citys entertainment was financed by the revenue generated by shops and baking-ovens originally offered by a wealthy benefactor. In the South of Gaul, aqueducts were sometimes financed in a similar fashion, the legal principle of juristic person might have appeared with the rise of monasteries in the early centuries of Christianity. The concept then might have been adopted by the emerging Islamic law, the waqf became a cornerstone of the financing of education, waterworks, welfare and even the construction of monuments. Alongside some Christian monasteries the waqfs created in the 10th century AD are amongst the longest standing charities in the world, following the spread of monasteries, almhouses and other hospitals, donating sometimes large sums of money to institutions became a common practice in medieval Western Europe. In the process, over the centuries those institutions acquired sizable estates, following the collapse of the agrarian revenues, many of these institution moved away from rural real estate to concentrate on bonds emitted by the local sovereign. The importance of lay and religious institutional ownership in the pre-industrial European economy cannot be overstated, following several waves of dissolution the weight of the traditional charities in the economy collapsed, by 1800, institutions solely owned 2% of the arable land in England and Wales. Because of their sophistication, institutional investors may be exempt from certain securities laws, for example, in the United States, institutional investors are generally eligible to purchase private placements under Rule 506 of Regulation D as accredited investors. Further, large US institutional investors may qualify to purchase certain securities generally restricted from retail investment under Rule 144A, as intermediaries between individual investors and companies, institutional investors are important sources of capital in financial markets. By pooling constituents investments, institutional investors arguably reduce the cost of capital for entrepreneurs while diversifying constituents portfolios and their greater ability to influence corporate behaviour as well to select investors profiles may help diminish agency costs. Institutional investors investment horizons differ, but do not share the life cycle as human beings. Unlike individuals, they do not have a phase of accumulation followed by one of consumption, others like pension funds can predict long ahead when they will have to repay their investors allowing them to invest in less liquid assets such as private equities, hedge funds or commodities. Finally, other institutions have an extended investment horizon, allowing them to invest in assets as they are unlikely to be forced to sell them before term. And schools When considered from a strictly local standpoint, institutional investors are sometimes called foreign institutional investors and this expression is mostly used in emerging markets such as China, Malaysia and India. In various countries different types of institutional investors may be more important, in oil-exporting countries sovereign wealth funds are very important, while in developed countries, pension funds may be more important. Japan is home to the worlds largest pension fund and is home to 63 of the top 300 pension funds worldwide and their wealth accounts for around two thirds of the equity in public listed companies. For any given company, the largest 25 investors would have to be able to muster over half of the votes.3 December 2008 BS Black and JC Coffee, PL Davies, Institutional investors in the United Kingdom in T Baums et al
29.
Pension fund
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A pension fund, also known as a superannuation fund in some countries, is any plan, fund, or scheme which provides retirement income. Pension funds typically have large amounts of money to invest and are the investors in listed. They are especially important to the market where large institutional investors dominate. The largest 300 pension funds collectively hold about $6 trillion in assets, the Federal Old-age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund is the worlds largest public pension fund which oversees $2.645 trillion USD in assets. Open pension funds support at least one pension plan with no restriction on membership while closed pension funds support only pension plans that are limited to certain employees, in certain countries the distinction between public or government pension funds and private pension funds may be difficult to assess. In others, the distinction is made sharply in law, with specific requirements for administration. Provident Fund is applicable across for employees across establishments, EPF is the Largest Social Security Organisations in India with Assets well over ₹5 Lakh Crore as of 2014. Indian citizens between the age of 18-55 are eligible to join, the Financial Supervisory Authority - Private Pension is responsible for the supervision and regulation of the private pension system.06. Armed Forces Pension Fund OYAK provides its members with supplementary retirement benefits apart from the retirement fund, T. C. Emekli Sandığı/SSK. OYAK is incorporated as an entity under its own law subject to Turkish civic. OYAK while fulfilling its duties, as set in the Law, also provides its members with social services such as loans, home loans. The initial source of OYAKs funds is a compulsory 10 percent levy on the salary of Turkeys 200,000 serving officers who, together with 25,000 current pensioners. Some other Turkish private pension funds, YAPI ve KREDİ BANKASI A. Ş, mensupları Yardım ve Emekli Sandığı Vakfı AKBANK T. A. Ş. Mensupları Tekaüt Sandığı Vakfı TÜRKİYE GARANTİ BANKASI A. Ş, memur ve Müstahdemleri Emekli ve Yardım Sandığı Vakfı TÜRKİYE ODALAR BORSALAR VE BİRLİK PERSONELİ SİGORTA VE EMEKLİ SANDIĞI VAKFI TÜRKİYE İŞ BANKASI A. Ş. Mensupları Emekli Sandığı Vakfı In the United States pension funds include schemes which result in a deferral of income by employees, the United States has $24.5 trillion in retirement and pension assets as of June 30,2014. The largest 200 pension funds accounted for $4.540 trillion as of September 30,2009
30.
Fiduciary
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A fiduciary is a person who holds a legal or ethical relationship of trust with one or more other parties. Typically, a fiduciary prudently takes care of money or other asset for another person, likewise, asset managers—including managers of pension plans, endowments and other tax-exempt assets—are considered fiduciaries under applicable statutes and laws. In such a good conscience requires the fiduciary to act at all times for the sole benefit. A fiduciary is someone who has undertaken to act for and on behalf of another in a matter in circumstances which give rise to a relationship of trust. A fiduciary duty is the highest standard of care at either equity or law, the nature of fiduciary obligations differ among jurisdictions. In Australia, only proscriptive or negative fiduciary obligations are recognised, in English common law, the fiduciary relation is an important concept within a part of the legal system known as equity. In the United Kingdom, the Judicature Acts merged the courts of equity with the courts of common law, when a fiduciary duty is imposed, equity requires a different, stricter, standard of behavior than the comparable tortious duty of care at common law. A fiduciary ideally would not have a conflict of interest, different jurisdictions regard fiduciary duties in different lights. In Australia, it has found that there is no comprehensive list of criteria by which to establish a fiduciary relationship. Courts have so far refused to define the concept of a fiduciary, instead preferring to develop the law on a case-by-case basis and they commented that the term fiduciary is used in many different ways. Fiduciary duties cannot be understood in isolation, instead they are better viewed as ‘legal polyfilla’, molding themselves flexibly around other legal structures, and sometimes filling the gaps. The question of who is a fiduciary is a notoriously intractable question and this is especially true in the area of Labor and Employment law. In Canada a fiduciary has obligations to the employer even after the employment relationship is terminated, whereas in the United States the employment, the duty of care requires control persons to act on an informed basis after due consideration of all information. The duty includes a requirement that such persons reasonably inform themselves of alternatives, in doing so, they may rely on employees and other advisers so long as they do so with a critical eye and do not unquestionably accept the information and conclusions provided to them. The duty of loyalty requires control persons to look to the interests of the company and its other owners, the duty to act in good faith may be measured by an individuals particular knowledge and expertise. The higher the level of expertise, the more accountable that person will be, at one time, courts seemed to view the duty of good faith as an independent obligation. However, more recently, courts have treated the duty of good faith as a component of the duty of loyalty, in Canada, directors of corporations owe a fiduciary duty. A debate exists as to the nature and extent of this duty following a landmark judgment from the Supreme Court of Canada in BCE Inc. v.1976 Debentureholders
31.
Al Gore
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Albert Arnold Al Gore Jr. is an American politician and environmentalist who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. He was Clintons running mate in their campaign in 1992. At the end of Clintons second term, Gore was picked as the Democratic nominee for the 2000 presidential election, after leaving office, Gore remained prominent as an author and environmental activist, whose work in climate change activism earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007. Gore was an official for 24 years. He was a Congressman from Tennessee and from 1985 to 1993 served as one of the states Senators and he served as Vice President during the Clinton administration from 1993 to 2001. In the 2000 presidential election, in what was one of the closest presidential races in history, Gore won the popular vote but lost in the Electoral College to Republican George W. Bush. A controversial election dispute over a vote recount in Florida was settled by the U. S. Supreme Court, and a senior adviser to Google. Gore is also a partner in the capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers. He has served as a professor at Middle Tennessee State University, Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, Fisk University. He served on the Board of Directors of World Resources Institute, Gore was also the subject of the Academy Award-winning documentary An Inconvenient Truth in 2006. In 2007, he was named a runner-up for Times 2007 Person of the Year, Gore was born in Washington, D. C. the second of two children of Albert Gore Sr. a U. S. Representative who later served for 18 years as U. S, Senator from Tennessee, and Pauline Gore, one of the first women to graduate from Vanderbilt University Law School. Gore is partly descended from Scots-Irish immigrants who first settled in Virginia in the mid-17th-century and his older sister Nancy LaFon Gore, who was born in 1938, died of lung cancer in 1984. During the school year he lived with his family in The Fairfax Hotel in the Embassy Row section in Washington D. C, during the summer months, he worked on the family farm in Carthage, Tennessee, where the Gores grew tobacco and hay and raised cattle. Gore attended St. Albans School, an independent college preparatory day and boarding school for boys in Washington, D. C. from 1956 to 1965, a prestigious feeder school for the Ivy League. He was the captain of the team, threw discus for the track and field team, and participated in basketball, art. He graduated 25th in his class of 51, applied to one college, Harvard. Gore met Mary Elizabeth Tipper Aitcheson from the nearby St. Agnes School at his St. Albans senior prom in 1965
32.
ICLEI
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Today, more than 1200 cities, towns, counties, and their associations in 84 countries comprise ICLEIs growing membership. ICLEI works with these and hundreds of local governments through international performance-based, results-oriented campaigns. ICLEIs basic premise is that locally designed initiatives can provide an effective and cost-efficient way to local, national. ICLEI includes 1,227 local government members worldwide in 70 countries, ICLEI USA membership grew by 58% in 2008 and by 25% in 2009. U. S. local government members include cities, towns, the only requirements for ICLEI membership are a self-defined commitment to climate protection and the payment of annual membership dues based on population size. ICLEI was founded in 1990, with its World Secretariat headquartered in Toronto, the U. S. office opened formally in 1995. ICLEI USA’s Executive Office is based in Washington, D. C. ICLEI was founded in 1990 as the “International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives. The “International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives” became “ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability, the organization is now officially called ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability. In 2003, ICLEIs Members voted to revise the organizations mission, charter, the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives became ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability with a broader mandate to address sustainability issues, not only environmental issues. The organization promotes the programs for local-level adoption and implementation as described on their website. ICLEI is a organization with each local government Member holding a position on the Council. The Council convenes every three years at an ICLEI World Congress and establishes ICLEIs priorities and direction through the adoption of a six-year Strategic Plan, the most recent ICLEI World Congress was held in Seoul from 8 to 12 April 2015. Members elect 21 representatives to serve on the Executive Committee, which oversees the implementation of the Strategic Plan, Bonn is also home to ICLEI World Secretariat, Capacity Center and Climate Center, and the host of Resilient Cities 2011 and 2012. It is neither a new kind of transportation nor is it a collective word to indicate heterogeneous transport, Ecomobility indicates a new approach to mobility that highlights the importance of public and non-motorized transport and promotes an integrated use of all modes in a city. Environmentally sustainable and socially inclusive, ecological mobile transport choices have low to no emission compared to the personal automobiles powered by fossil fuels and it supports the use of light electric vehicles, provided that the source of the electricity is from renewable energy sources. Incorporating Ecomobility into the development of systems and policies will benefit local governments in attaining international recognition for the city. ICLEI has an agenda to promote ecomobility in cities titled the EcoMobile City Agenda. ICLEI legally represents and hosts the Secretariat of the EcoMobility Alliance, the Secretariat office is located in Bonn, Germany
33.
Triple bottom line
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Triple bottom line is an accounting framework with three parts, social, environmental and financial. Many organizations have adopted the TBL framework to evaluate their performance in a perspective to create greater business value. The term was coined by John Elkington in 1994, in traditional business accounting and common usage, the bottom line refers to either the profit or loss, which is usually recorded at the very bottom line on a statement of revenue and expenses. Over the last 50 years, environmentalists and social justice advocates have struggled to bring a broader definition of line into public consciousness by introducing full cost accounting. The triple bottom line adds two more bottom lines”, social and environmental concerns, with the ratification of the United Nations and ICLEI TBL standard for urban and community accounting in early 2007, this became the dominant approach to public sector full cost accounting. Similar UN standards apply to capital and human capital measurement to assist in measurements required by TBL. The TBL seems to be widespread in South African media. The organization earns a profit, which is controlled by a volunteer Board, the social benefit is the meaningful employment of disadvantaged citizens, and the reduction in the societys welfare or disability costs. The environmental benefit comes from the recycling accomplished, in the private sector, a commitment to Corporate social responsibility implies a commitment to transparent reporting about the business material impact for good on the environment and people. Triple bottom line is one framework for reporting this material impact and this is distinct from the more limited changes required to deal only with ecological issues. The triple bottom line has also extended to encompass four pillars. The fourth pillar denotes a future-oriented approach and it is a long-term outlook that sets sustainable development and sustainability concerns apart from previous social, environmental, and economic considerations. The challenges of putting the TBL into practice relate to the measurement of social and ecological categories, despite this, the TBL framework enables organizations to take a longer-term perspective and thus evaluate the future consequences of decisions. Sustainable development was defined by the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations in 1987, Triple bottom line accounting expands the traditional reporting framework to take into account social and environmental performance in addition to financial performance. In 1981, Freer Spreckley first articulated the triple bottom line in a publication called Social Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working, in this work, he argued that enterprises should measure and report on financial performance, social wealth creation, and environmental responsibility. The phrase triple bottom line was articulated more fully by John Elkington in his 1997 book Cannibals with Forks, a Triple Bottom Line Investing group advocating and publicizing these principles was founded in 1998 by Robert J. Rubinstein. In this case, stakeholders refers to anyone who is influenced, either directly or indirectly, According to the stakeholder theory, the business entity should be used as a vehicle for coordinating stakeholder interests, instead of maximizing shareholder profit. A growing number of financial institutions incorporate a triple bottom line approach in their work and it is at the core of the business of banks in the Global Alliance for Banking on Values, for example
34.
Anne Hidalgo
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Anne Hidalgo is a French politician who is the current Mayor of Paris. She is the first woman to hold the office and she has been a member of the Socialist Party since 1994, previously serving as former National Secretary for Culture and Media. She was the First Deputy Mayor of Paris, under Bertrand Delanoë and she was elected as a Councillor in 2001 for the 15th arrondissement and ran again in the French municipal elections,2008. She was elected mayor at the March 2014 municipal election, Hidalgo was born in San Fernando, near Cádiz, in Andalusia, Spain. Her paternal grandfather was a Spanish Socialist who became a refugee in France after the end of the Spanish Civil War along with his wife, however, her grandparents returned to Spain some time later. Her grandmother died on the return trip whilst her grandfather was sentenced to death, Hidalgos father was raised by his maternal grandparents. In the late 1950s, he married a seamstress, they had two daughters, Ana and María, however, due to the difficult economic climate in Spain during this period, Hidalgos parents migrated, this time as economic immigrants, to France. They settled in Lyon in 1961, with their two daughters and she grew up in Vaise, the ninth district of Lyon, speaking Spanish with her parents and French with her sister. Her parents are now back in Spain while her sister, Marie, manages a company in Los Angeles. Hidalgo became a French citizen at the age of fourteen, she is also a Spanish citizen, Hidalgo graduated with a degree in social work before completing a Master of Advanced Studies in social and trade unionism at Paris West University Nanterre La Défense. The mother of three children, she is divorced and has remarried, in 1982, she entered the national contest for the Labour Inspectorate, ranking 5th. In 1984, she won her first post in the Inspection du travail representing the 15th arrondissement of Paris and she retired from the civil service in July 2011, aged 52. She joined the Conseil de Paris and was appointed First Deputy Mayor of Paris. In June 2002, she was a candidate in the elections for the 12th arrondissement of Paris, winning 29. 6% of votes in the first round. In March 2004, she was elected to the Conseil régional dÎle-de-France on the list of Jean-Paul Huchon, as part of the internal campaign for the nomination of the Socialist candidate in 2006, she publicly supported Dominique Strauss-Kahn, while remaining close to Lionel Jospin and Bertrand Delanoë. On 21 December 2005, in the debates on DADVSI, she took a stand against the amendments of the Socialist Group introducing the global licence to download online material. Some people contend that she was in defending the interests of Vivendi Universal. On 3 January 2006, she presented with François Adibi and the Socialist Partys Culture Section a report and new recommendations for a fair solution, rejecting both the DRM and the global licence
35.
Ignazio Marino
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Ignazio Roberto Maria Marino is an Italian transplant surgeon and politician who was Mayor of Rome from 2013 to 2015. He was a member of the centre-left Democratic Party and held a seat in the Italian Senate from 2006 until his election as mayor of Rome and he was elected Mayor of Rome in June 2013. Shortly after his victory in the elections he was approached by an organised crime network which rigged public contracts, Marino took the case to prosecutors, starting the 2014 Rome corruption scandal. Nevertheless, on 30 October he was ousted from his position after 26 of the 48 members of the City Council resigned. The court decided for an acquittal and ruled that Marinos actions did not constitute a crime. As a surgeon, he trained with Thomas Starzl, who had pioneered liver transplantion in humans, in 1992–1993, as a member of Starzls team at the University of Pittsburgh in the United States, he helped conduct two baboon-to-human liver transplants. He was instrumental in setting up the ISMETT liver transplant centre in Palermo, Sicily, in 2001 he performed the first organ transplant in Italy for a person with HIV. In the United States he has held chairs as Professor of Surgery at the University of Pittsburgh, Marino was born in Genoa to a Sicilian father and is the oldest of three children. He graduated in Medicine and Surgery from the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Rome and he was a member of the surgical team which in June 1992 and January 1993 performed two baboon-to-human liver xenotransplants in a clinical trial coordinated by Starzl. He has been a Director and CEO of the institute, a clinical success, the operation sparked an institutional dispute in Italy at the time. In 2002 he left his position as Professor of Surgery at the University of Pittsburgh, to this end, he resigned from the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, although polemics were raised over the circumstances of Dr. Marinos departure. Statements included in the articles were declared by the Court “not true”, for having published a piece of news that was “false and injurious to Dr. Marino has personally performed over 650 transplants. He is an author of over 170 peer-review articles and has authored three scientific books. In 2005 he founded Imagine ONLUS, an international non-profit organisation engaged in international solidarity activities with special regard to health issues and he is also a member of the Editorial Board of Transplantation, Liver Transplantation, Clinical Transplantation and 9 other international scientific journals. In June 2009 he publicly announced his intention to run as a candidate for the Democratic Party leadership election in October and his leadership election platform was mostly focused on social rights, public health and environmentalism. He came third in the election, winning 12. 5% of the votes, Marino ran the 2013 election for Mayor of Rome with the support of a centre-left alliance. After leading in the first round he was elected Mayor of Rome at the ballot, winning 63. 9% of the votes in a run-off against the centre-right candidate. Among Marinos projects has been the opening of the Via dei Fori Imperiali to pedestrian
36.
Arnold Schwarzenegger
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Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger is an Austrian-American actor, producer, businessman, investor, author, philanthropist, activist, politician and former professional bodybuilder. He served two terms as the 38th Governor of California from 2003 until 2011, Schwarzenegger began weight training at the age of 15. He won the Mr. Universe title at age 20 and went on to win the Mr. Olympia contest seven times, Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent presence in bodybuilding and has written many books and articles on the sport. He is widely considered to be among the greatest bodybuilders of all time as well as bodybuildings biggest icon, Schwarzenegger gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood action film icon. His breakthrough film was the sword-and-sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, in 1984, Schwarzenegger appeared in James Camerons science-fiction thriller film The Terminator, which was a massive critical and box-office success. Schwarzenegger subsequently reprised the Terminator character in the later installments in 1991,2003. He appeared in a number of films, such as Commando, The Running Man, Predator, Twins, Total Recall, Kindergarten Cop. In 2015, it was announced Schwarzenegger would replace Donald Trump as the host of The Celebrity Apprentice and he was nicknamed the Austrian Oak in his bodybuilding days, Arnie during his acting career, and The Governator during his political career. As a Republican, he was first elected on October 7,2003, Schwarzenegger was sworn in on November 17, to serve the remainder of Daviss term. Schwarzenegger was sworn in for his term on January 5,2007. In 2011, Schwarzenegger completed his term as governor. Schwarzenegger was born in Thal, Styria, and christened Arnold Alois and his parents were Gustav Schwarzenegger and Aurelia Schwarzenegger. He married Aurelia on October 20,1945, he was 38, according to Schwarzenegger, both of his parents were very strict, Back then in Austria it was a very different world. If we did something bad or we disobeyed our parents, the rod was not spared, Schwarzenegger grew up in a Roman Catholic family who attended Mass every Sunday. Gustav had a preference for his son, Meinhard, over Arnold. His favoritism was strong and blatant, which stemmed from unfounded suspicion that Arnold was not his biological child, Schwarzenegger has said his father had no patience for listening or understanding your problems. He had a relationship with his mother and kept in touch with her until her death. Gustavs background received wide press attention during the 2003 California recall campaign, at school, Schwarzenegger was reportedly academically average, but stood out for his cheerful, good-humored, and exuberant character
37.
R20 Regions of Climate Action
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R20 is a coalition of sub-national governments, private companies, international organizations, NGOs, and academic & financial institutions. This NGO operates at the level as R20 believes sub-national governments constitute a powerful force for change and are best positioned to take action & implement green projects. Through this bottom-up approach, successful projects will be scaled-up to national and international levels to achieve a broader. According to its Charter, the mission of R20 is to prevent a 2°C increase in temperatures by 2020 by reducing global greenhouse gas emissions by 75%. The R20 works - upon demand from the regions - as a “matchmaker” for three actors, sub-national governments, technology developers and investors, the current President is Michèle Sabban - Vice President of Region Ile-de-France and former President of the AER. The R20 Executive Director is Dr. Christophe Nuttall, former Director of the Hub for Innovative Partnerships at the United Nations Development Programme. The Strategic Advisor to the Founding Chair is Terry Tamminen, the CEO of the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation, R20 is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The organization also has offices in the USA, Algeria, Brazil. As of November 2016, R20 has 49 direct members and 134 businesses and project facilitators, R20 is implementing a technical and financial ecosystem able to cover the whole value chain of project development, financing and implementation. Sub-national authorities around the world can benefit of this one stop shop to improve the sustainability of their region. Projects Identification, R20 is liaising with sub-national governments to identify potential projects, training and Capacity Building, R20 has developed a Master program and conducts workshops and other events to facilitate project development. Feasibility Studies, In order to conduct feasibility studies, R20 is developing an online helpdesk, financing, R20 is working on two investment funds in Private Equity, one philanthropic and one for profit. Implementation, R20 steps back and project initiators, local authorities, MRV, Strong Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification standard are being used by R20 to monitor its projects impact. Climate change Sustainable development Paris Agreement Kahn, Debra and Climatewire, can Regions Rather than Nations Lead on Climate Change. Schwarzenegger in Geneva to discuss climate, schwarzenegger Forges Global Climate Action Coalition With Regional Leaders
38.
Indigenous peoples
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Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region. Not all indigenous peoples share such characteristics, Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world. Estimates put the population of indigenous peoples from 220 million to 350 million. The adjective indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- to be born with a form of the prefix in in. Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their tribal land claim. Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, james Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire, throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Their ability to influence and participate in the policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the society is regulated largely by its own tradition. They may be imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have an effect, even where countered by other external influences. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, the primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the existence of indigenous people. These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors, the disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures, greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had an impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians, the United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide
39.
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
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In May 2016 Canada officially removed its objector status to UNDRIP, almost a decade after it was adopted by the General Assembly. By now also the other 3 objectors have, to various degrees, the Declaration sets out the individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples, as well as their rights to culture, identity, language, employment, health, education and other issues. The goal of the Declaration is to encourage countries to work alongside indigenous peoples to solve issues, like development, multicultural democracy. Articles 1–40 concern particular individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples, Article 46 discusses the Declarations consistency with other internationally agreed goals, and the framework for interpreting the rights declared within it. The Declaration was over 25 years in the making, tasked with developing human rights standards that would protect indigenous peoples, in 1985 the Working Group began working on drafting the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The draft was finished in 1993 and was submitted to the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, during this the International Labour Organisation adopted the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention,1989. The Draft Declaration was then referred to the Commission on Human Rights, over the following years this Working Group met on 11 occasions to examine and fine-tune the Draft Declaration and its provisions. The final version of the Declaration was adopted on 29 June 2006 by the 47-member Human Rights Council, with 30 member states in favour,2 against,12 abstentions, and 3 absentees. The Declaration was then referred to the General Assembly, which voted on the adoption of the proposal on 13 September 2007 during its 61st regular session, against, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United States. All four member states voted against have their origins as colonies of the United Kingdom. Since then, all four countries have moved to endorse the declaration in some way in which it would not actually become binding law pleadable in court. Australian government interventions have been challenged under its terms without success, abstaining,11 countries, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Colombia, Georgia, Kenya, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Samoa and Ukraine. Colombia and Samoa have since endorsed the document, Bolivia has become the first country to approve the U. N. declaration of indigenous rights. Evo Morales, President of Bolivia, stated, We are the first country to turn this declaration into a law and we recognize and salute the work of our representatives. But if we were to remember the fight clearly, many of us who are sensitive would end up crying in remembering the discrimination. Stephen Corry, Director of the indigenous rights organization Survival International, said. Years which have seen many tribal peoples, such as the Akuntsu and Kanoê in Brazil, decimated and others, such as the Innu in Canada, governments that oppose it are shamefully fighting against the human rights of their most vulnerable peoples. Claims they make to support human rights in other areas will be seen as hypocritical, ultimately, after agreeing on some adjustments to the Draft Declaration, a vast majority of states recognized that these issues could be addressed by each country at the national level
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