1.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
2.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
3.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
4.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
5.
English Army
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This state of things became modified with the progress of time, and with the growth of society. The principle of the division of labour having taken root in the Anglo-Saxon character and it was then that troops more or less regular were formed, the first paid bands had at first only a provisional existence limited by circumstances. Raised in time of war for an object, they were always disbanded as soon as hostilities were over. The system of a permanent army does not date, in England, further back than the Interregnum, however the primitive steps towards standing armed forces began in the Middle Ages. Troops for foreign expeditions were raised on a basis in either country by its King. This was a development of the concept of fief. In practice, noblemen and professional soldiers were commissioned by the monarch to supply troops. The musters were usually chaotic affairs, used mainly by the Lord Lieutenants and other officers to draw their pay and allowances, and by the troops as an excuse for a drink after perfunctory drill. In 1642, at the start of the English Civil War both the Royalists and Parliament raised men when and where they could, and both claimed legal justification, Parliament claimed to be justified by its own recent Militia Ordinance, while the king claimed the old-fashioned Commissions of Array. For example, in Cornwall the Royalist leader Sir Ralph Hopton indicted the enemy before the jury of the county for disturbing the peace. In effect, both sides assembled local forces wherever they could do so by valid written authority, an experienced soldier, Sir Thomas Fairfax, was appointed its Lord General. From its foundation, the New Model Army adopted social and religious policies which were increasingly at odds with those of Parliament, the Armys senior officers formed another faction, opposed both to Parliament and to the more extreme radicals within the lower ranks. In the aftermath of the Second English Civil War, Parliament was made subservient to the wishes of the Army Council whose leading figure was Oliver Cromwell. In an episode known as Prides Purge, troops used force to prevent members of the House of Commons opposed to the Army Council from attending Parliament. The resulting Rump Parliament passed the legislation to have King Charles I tried and executed by beheading. The next two years saw the New Model Army invade first Ireland and then Scotland defeating their armies, two particularly notable events of the interregnum were to have long-lasting effects. It was only after the death of Oliver Cromwell and the loss of his influence that the members of the army could not agree on an alternative to the restoration of Charles II. Even so it was under the guidance and with the agreement of General George Monck of the New Model Army that the restoration of the monarchy took place in 1660
6.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
7.
Regiment
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A regiment is a military unit. Their role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, in Medieval Europe, the term regiment denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted in one geographical area, by a leader who was often also the feudal lord of the soldiers. By the 17th century, a regiment was usually about a thousand personnel. In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task forces, brigades and other, similarly-sized operational units. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, when at full strength, an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each or 8–10 companies. In some armies, an independent regiment with fewer companies was labelled a demi-regiment, a cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity. With the widespread adoption of conscription in European armies during the nineteenth century, the regimental system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, a regiment in the French, German, Russian. As far as possible, the battalions would be garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regiment could be mobilized. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up an entity of up to 1,000 troopers. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both and this is often contrasted to the continental system adopted by many armies. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations, thus, in divisional administration, soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from an age group within a nation. In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army, e. g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment, a key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions of different origins, within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty
8.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
9.
Norton Barracks
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Norton Barracks is a military installation in Norton, Worcestershire. The keep is a Grade II listed building, the barracks were built in the Fortress Gothic Revival Style between 1874 and 1877. Their creation took place as part of the Cardwell Reforms which encouraged the localisation of British military forces, the barracks became the depot for the 29th Regiment of Foot and the 36th Regiment of Foot. Following the Childers Reforms, the 29th and 36th Regiments amalgamated as the Worcestershire Regiment with its depot in the barracks in 1881, many recruits were enlisted at the barracks during the early stages of the First World War. A Regimental Museum was established at the barracks in 1933 and the continued to operate as a training facility during the Second World War. The Worcester Regiment Museum became part of the Worcester City Museum in 1970, at around the same time 14 Signal Regiment moved onto the site and remained there until they were disbanded in 1977. In 1987 the keep was sold to property developers for conversion into apartments, the site remains the home of the Worcester Norton Shooting Club
10.
Worcestershire
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Worcestershire is a county in the West Midlands of England. Between 1974 and 1998, it was merged with the county of Herefordshire as Hereford. The cathedral city of Worcester is the largest settlement and county town, other towns in the county include Redditch, Bromsgrove, Stourport-on-Severn, Droitwich, Evesham, Kidderminster, and Malvern. The north-east of Worcestershire includes part of the industrial West Midlands, the county is divided into six administrive districts, Worcester, Redditch, Wychavon, Malvern Hills, Wyre Forest, and Bromsgrove. The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, to the west, the county is bordered by the Malvern Hills and the spa town of Malvern. The south of the county is bordered by Gloucestershire and the edge of the Cotswolds. Two major rivers flow through the county, the Severn and the Avon, Worcestershire was the heartland of the early English kingdom of the Hwicce. It was absorbed by the Kingdom of Mercia during the 7th century and it was a separate ealdormanship briefly in the 10th century before forming part of the Earldom of Mercia in the 11th century. In the years leading up to the Norman conquest, the Church, supported by the cathedral, Evesham Abbey, Pershore Abbey, Malvern Priory, and other religious houses, increasingly dominated the county. The last known Anglo-Saxon sheriff of the county was Cyneweard of Laughern, on 4 August 1265, Simon de Montfort was killed in the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire. In 1642, the Battle of Powick Bridge was the first major skirmish of the English Civil War, during the Middle Ages, much of the countys economy was based on the wool trade. Many areas of its forests, such as Feckenham Forest, Horewell Forest. Droitwich Spa, situated on large deposits of salt, was a centre of production from Roman times. These old industries have declined, to be replaced by other. The county is home to the worlds oldest continually published newspaper. Malvern was one of the centres of the 19th century rise in English spa towns due to Malvern water being believed to be very pure, containing nothing at all. The 2011 census found the population of Worcestershire to be 566,169, while this change is in line with the nationwide trend of White British peoples share of the population shrinking, Worcestershire is still much more ethnically homogeneous than the national average. In 2011 England as a whole was 79. 8% White British, the most notable were Dudley, Evenlode, and the area around Shipston-on-Stour
11.
War of the Spanish Succession
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The War of the Spanish Succession was a major European conflict of the early 18th century, triggered by the death in 1700 of the last Habsburg King of Spain, the infirm and childless Charles II. Charles II had ruled over a vast global empire, and the question of who would succeed him had long troubled the governments of Europe, the English, the Dutch and the Austrians formally declared war in May 1702. By 1708, the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy had secured victory in the Spanish Netherlands and in Italy, France faced invasion and ruin, but Allied unity broke first. With the Grand Alliance defeated in Spain and with its casualties mounting and aims diverging, French and British ministers prepared the groundwork for a peace conference, and in 1712 Britain ceased combat operations. The Dutch, Austrians, and German states fought on to strengthen their own negotiating position, the Treaty of Utrecht and the Treaty of Rastatt partitioned the Spanish empire between the major and minor powers. The European balance of power was assured, in the late 1690s the declining health of King Charles II of Spain brought to a head the problem of his succession, a problem which had underlain much of European diplomacy for several decades. The empire was in decline, but remained the largest of the European overseas empires, unlike the French crown, the Spanish crowns could all be inherited by, or through, a female in default of a male line. The next in line after Charles II, therefore, were his two sisters, Maria Theresa, the elder, and Margaret Theresa, the younger, Maria Theresa had married Louis XIV in 1660 and by him she had a son, Louis, Dauphin of France. The testament of her father, Philip IV, reiterated this waiver and bequeathed the reversion of the whole of the Spanish dominions to his younger daughter, Margaret Theresa. However the French, using in part the excuse that the dowry promised Maria Theresa was never paid, nor was it clear whether a princess could waive the rights of her unborn children. Leopold I married Margaret Theresa in 1666, at her death in 1673 she left one living heir, Maria Antonia, who in 1685 married Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. Shortly before her death in 1692, she gave birth to a son, if he chose, Louis XIV could attempt to assert his will on Spain by force of arms, but the Nine Years War had been an immense drain on Frances resources. To seek a solution and gain support, Louis XIV turned to his long-standing rival William of Orange. England and the Dutch Republic had their own commercial, strategic and political interests within the Spanish empire, however, the Maritime Powers were in a weakened state and both had reduced their forces at the conclusion of the Nine Years War. Louis XIV and William III, therefore, sought to solve the problem of the Spanish inheritance through negotiation, based on the principle of partition, to take effect after the death of Charles II. However, the bulk of the empire – most of peninsular Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, the Spanish Empire was now divided between the three surviving candidates. By this new treaty Archduke Charles would receive most of Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, and the overseas empire. For Leopold I, however, control of Spain and its empire was less important than Italy
12.
Battle of Ramillies
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The Battle of Ramillies /ˈræmɪliːz/, fought on 23 May 1706, was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. For the Grand Alliance – Austria, England, and the Dutch Republic – the battle had followed a campaign against the Bourbon armies of King Louis XIV of France in 1705. Although the Allies had captured Barcelona that year, they had forced to abandon their campaign on the Moselle, had stalled in the Spanish Netherlands. Yet despite his opponents setbacks Louis XIV was desirous of peace –, for this end and in order to maintain their momentum, the French and their allies took the offensive in 1706. Encouraged by these early gains Louis XIV urged Marshal Villeroi to go over to the offensive in the Spanish Netherlands and, with victory, gain a fair peace. Accordingly, the French Marshal set off from Leuven at the head of 60,000 men and marched towards Tienen, as if to threaten Zoutleeuw. Also determined to fight an engagement, the Duke of Marlborough, commander-in-chief of Anglo-Dutch forces, assembled his army – some 62,000 men – near Maastricht. With both sides seeking battle, they encountered each other on the dry ground between the Mehaigne and Petite Gheete rivers, close to the small village of Ramillies. In less than four hours Marlboroughs Dutch, English, and Danish forces overwhelmed Villerois, the Dukes subtle moves and changes in emphasis during the battle – something his opponents failed to realise until it was too late – caught the French in a tactical vice. With their foe broken and routed, the Allies were able to exploit their victory. Town after town fell, including Brussels, Bruges and Antwerp, with Prince Eugenes subsequent success at the Battle of Turin in northern Italy, the Allies had imposed the greatest loss of territory and resources that Louis XIV would suffer during the war. Thus, the year 1706 proved, for the Allies, to be an annus mirabilis, after their disastrous defeat at Blenheim in 1704, the next year brought the French some respite. Marlborough had to cope with the death of Emperor Leopold I in May and the accession of Joseph I, the resilience of the French King and the efforts of his generals, also added to Marlborough’s problems. Marshal Villeroi, exerting pressure on the Dutch commander, Count Overkirk, along the Meuse. With Marshal Villars sitting strong on the Moselle, the Allied commander – whose supplies had by now very short – was forced to call off his campaign on 16 June. What a disgrace for Marlborough, exulted Villeroi, to have made false movements without any result, with Marlborough’s departure north, the French transferred troops from the Moselle valley to reinforce Villeroi in Flanders, while Villars marched off to the Rhine. On 11 January 1706, Marlborough finally reached London at the end of his diplomatic tour and it seems that the Duke’s favoured scheme was to return to the Moselle valley and once more attempt an advance into the heart of France. But these decisions soon became academic, shortly after Marlborough landed in the Dutch Republic on 14 April, news arrived of big Allied setbacks in the wider war
13.
Boston Massacre
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The Boston Massacre, known as the Incident on King Street by the British, was an incident on March 5,1770, in which British Army soldiers shot and killed people while under attack by a mob. The incident was publicized by leading Patriots, such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams. Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and he was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and snowballs. Spontaneously they fired into the crowd, instantly killing three demonstrators, two died later. The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder. Defended by lawyer and future American president John Adams, six of the soldiers were acquitted, Boston, the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town, was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s. In 1768, the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists, by which a variety of items that were manufactured in Britain. Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, the Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the governors in America. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. Bostons chief customs officer, Charles Paxton, wrote to Hillsborough, commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty-gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768. On June 10,1768, customs officials seized Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, Bostonians, already angry because the captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection, given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America, to send such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston. On October 1,1768, the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston, two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained. Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider, a lad about eleven Years of Age, was killed by a customs employee on February 22,1770. Seiders death was glorified in the Boston Gazette, and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston, the killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions, with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation. On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White, a British soldier, stood on duty outside the Custom house on King Street
14.
Peninsular War
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The Peninsular War was a military conflict between Napoleons empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain and Portugal, for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, the Peninsular War overlaps with what the Spanish-speaking world calls the Guerra de la Independencia Española, which began with the Dos de Mayo Uprising on 2 May 1808 and ended on 17 April 1814. The French occupation destroyed the Spanish administration, which fragmented into quarrelling provincial juntas, the British Army, under the then Lt. Gen. Arthur Wellesley, guarded Portugal and campaigned against the French in Spain alongside the reformed Portuguese army. The demoralised Portuguese army was reorganised and refitted under the command of Gen, in the following year Wellington scored a decisive victory over King Josephs army at Vitoria. The years of fighting in Spain were a burden on Frances Grande Armée. The Spanish armies were beaten and driven to the peripheries. This drain on French resources led Napoleon, who had provoked a total war. War and revolution against Napoleons occupation led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812, the burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of Portugal and Spain, and ushered in an era of social turbulence, political instability and economic stagnation. Devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, led by officers trained in the Peninsular War, persisted in Iberia until 1850. The cumulative crises and disruptions of invasion, revolution and restoration led to the independence of most of Spains American colonies, the Treaties of Tilsit, negotiated during a meeting in July 1807 between Emperors Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon, concluded the War of the Fourth Coalition. With Prussia shattered, and Russia allied with France, Napoleon expressed irritation that Portugal was open to trade with the United Kingdom, furthermore, Prince John of Braganza, regent for his insane mother Queen Maria I, had declined to join the emperors Continental System against British trade. After a few days, a large force started concentrating at Bayonne, meanwhile the Portuguese governments resolve was stiffening, and shortly afterward Napoleon was once again told that Portugal would not go beyond its original agreements. After he received the Portuguese answer, he ordered Junots corps to cross the frontier into Spain, while all this was going on, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau had been signed between France and Spain. The document was drawn up by Napoleons marshal of the palace Géraud Duroc and Eugenio Izquierdo, the treaty proposed to carve up Portugal into three entities. Porto and the part was to become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania. The southern portion, as the Principality of the Algarves, would fall to Godoy, the rump of the country, centered on Lisbon, was to be administered by the French. According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junots invasion force was to be supported by 25,500 men in three Spanish columns, Gen. Taranco and 6,500 troops were ordered to march from Vigo to seize Porto in the north. Capt. Gen. Solano would advance from Badajoz with 9,500 soldiers to capture Elvas, Gen. Caraffa and 9,500 men were instructed to assemble at Salamanca and Ciudad Rodrigo, and cooperate with Junots main force
15.
Battle of Albuera
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The Battle of Albuera was a battle during the Peninsular War. Acting on Napoleons orders, in early 1811 Marshal Soult led a French expedition from Andalusia into Extremadura in a bid to draw Allied forces away from the Lines and ease Massénas plight. Napoleons information was outdated and Soults intervention came too late, starving and understrength, however, Soult left Badajoz strongly garrisoned. In April, following news of Massénas complete withdrawal from Portugal, the Allies drove most of the French from the surrounding area and began the Siege of Badajoz. Soult rapidly gathered a new army from the French forces in Andalusia and, joining with the troops retreating before Beresford, with intelligence of another approaching force—a Spanish army under Gen. Joaquín Blake—he planned to turn Beresfords flank and interpose his army between the two. The opposing armies met at the village of Albuera, both sides suffered heavily in the ensuing struggle and the French finally withdrew on 18 May. Beresfords army was too battered and exhausted to pursue, but was able to resume the investment of Badajoz, despite Soults failure to relieve the town, the battle had little strategic effect on the war. Just one month later, in June 1811, the Allies were forced to abandon their siege by the approach of the reconstituted French Armies of Portugal, by 10 October 1810 only the British light division and some cavalry patrols remained outside the Lines. Massénas Army of Portugal concentrated around Sobral, apparently in preparation to attack, however, after a fierce skirmish on 14 October in which the strength of the Lines became apparent, the French dug themselves in rather than launch a costly full-scale assault. They remained entrenched for a month before falling back to a position between Santarém and Rio Maior, the Emperors orders were based on outdated intelligence and called for only a small force, by the time Soult received them the situation had changed considerably. Along with V Corps, this venture also pulled both infantry and cavalry from Marshal Victors I Corps who were besieging Cádiz at the time, following a successful campaign in Extremadura, on 27 January 1811 Soult began his investment of Badajoz. Almost immediately the Spanish Army of Extremadura arrived in the vicinity with some 15,000 troops under the command of Gen. Mendizabal. Soults army, too small to surround Badajoz, was unable to prevent 3,000 of Mendizabals men from reinforcing the fortress and this posed a major threat to the French, so Soult moved at once to engage. In the ensuing Battle of the Gebora the French inflicted 1,000 casualties on the Spanish field army and took 4,000 prisoners, the remnants of Mendizabals defeated army fled towards Badajoz or into Portugal. The garrison of Badajoz, ably commanded by Gen. Rafael Menacho, initially put up strong resistance and by 3 March the French had made little progress against the powerful fortress. On that day, however, Menacho was killed on the ramparts by a shot, command of the garrison fell to Brig. Gen. José Imaz. The walls were breached on 10 March. Concerned that the British would now be free to send a contingent to relieve Badajoz, Imaz duly capitulated and the French took possession of the fortress on 11 March
16.
First Anglo-Sikh War
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The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought between the Sikh Empire and the East India Company between 1845 and 1846. It resulted in partial subjugation of the Sikh kingdom and he hired American and European mercenary soldiers to train his artillery, and also incorporated contingents of Hindus and Muslims into his army. Aided by disunity among the Afghans, the Sikhs conquered the cities and provinces of Peshawar and Multan from them and this move had Sikh support, in return for the formal cessation of Peshawar to the Sikhs by Shuja Shah. The British finally withdrew from Afghanistan, and from Peshawar which they held as an advance base, almost immediately, his kingdom began to fall into disorder. Ranjits unpopular legitimate son, Kharak Singh, was removed from power within a few months and it was widely believed that he was poisoned. There were at the two major factions within the Punjab contending for power and influence, the Sikh Sindhanwalias and the Hindu Dogras. The Dogras succeeded in raising Sher Singh, the eldest illegitimate son of Ranjit Singh, the most prominent Sindhanwalias took refuge on British territory, but had many adherents among the Army of the Punjab. The army was expanding rapidly in the aftermath of Ranjit Singhs death, from 29,000 in 1839 to over 80,000 in 1845 as landlords and it proclaimed itself to be the embodiment of the Sikh nation. Maharajah Sher Singh was unable to meet the pay demands of the army, in September 1843 he was murdered by his cousin, an officer of the army, Ajit Singh Sindhanwalia. The Dogras took their revenge on those responsible, and Jind Kaur, Ranjit Singhs youngest widow, in 1845 he arranged the assassination of Peshaura Singh, who presented a threat to Duleep Singh. For this, he was called to account by the army, despite attempts to bribe the army he was butchered in September 1845 in the presence of Jind Kaur and Duleep Singh. Jind Kaur publicly vowed revenge against her brothers murderers, Lal Singh became vizier, and Tej Singh became commander of the army. Sikh historians have stressed that both men were prominent in the Dogra faction. Originally high caste Hindus from outside the Punjab, both had converted to Sikhism in 1818, in 1843, they conquered and annexed Sindh, to the south of the Punjab, in a move which many British people regarded as cynical and ignoble. This did not gain the British any respect in the Punjab, the actions and attitudes of the British, under Governor General Lord Ellenborough and his successor, Sir Henry Hardinge, are disputed. By most British accounts, their concern was that the Sikh army. The kingdom was also renowned for being the wealthiest, the Koh-i-Noor being, nevertheless, the unconcealed and seemingly aggressive British military build-up at the borders had the effect of increasing tension within the Punjab and the Sikh Army. After mutual demands and accusations between the Sikh Durbar and the East India Company, diplomatic relations were broken, an East India Company army began marching towards Ferozepur, where a division was already stationed
17.
Battle of Sobraon
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The Battle of Sobraon was fought on 10 February 1846, between the forces of the East India Company and the Sikh Khalsa Army, the army of the Sikh Empire of the Punjab. The Sikhs were completely defeated, making this the battle of the First Anglo-Sikh War. However, no commander senior enough to supersede Gough could arrive from England for several months, the Sikhs had been temporarily dismayed by their defeat at the Battle of Ferozeshah, and had withdrawn most of their forces across the Sutlej River. The Regent Jind Kaur who was ruling in the name of her son, the Khalsa had been reinforced from districts west of Lahore, and now moved in strength into a bridgehead across the Sutlej at Sobraon, entrenching and fortifying their encampment. Any wavering after their earlier defeats was dispelled by the presence of the veteran leader. Unfortunately for the Khalsa, Tej Singh and Lal Singh retained the direction of the Sikh armies. Also, their position at Sobraon was linked to the west, Punjabi, three days continuous rain before the battle had swollen the river and threatened to carry away this bridge. Gough had intended to attack the Sikh army as soon as Smiths division rejoined from Ludhiana, at last, he moved forward early on 10 February. The start of the battle was delayed by fog, but as it lifted,35 British heavy guns. The bombardment went on for two hours without much effect on the Sikh defences, Gough was told that his heavy guns were running short of ammunition and is alleged to have replied, Thank God. Then Ill be at them with the bayonet, nevertheless, Dicks division was driven back by Sikh counter-attacks after initially gaining footholds within the Sikh lines. As the British fell back, some frenzied Sikh soldiers attacked British wounded left in the ditch in front of the entrenchments, the British, Gurkhas and Bengal regiments renewed their attacks along the entire front of the entrenchment, and broke through at several points. On the vulnerable Sikh right, engineers blew a breach in the fortifications and British cavalry, Tej Singh had left the battlefield early. British accounts claim that the bridge simply broke under the weight of the numbers of soldiers trying to retreat across it, whichever account is correct, the bridge broke, trapping nearly 20,000 of the Sikh Khalsa Army on the east bank. None of the trapped Sikh soldiers attempted to surrender, many detachments, including one led by Sham Singh, fought to the death. Some Sikhs rushed forward to attack the British regiments sword in hand, British horse artillery lined the bank of the river and continued to fire into the crowds in the water. By the time the firing ceased, the Sikhs had lost about 10,000 men, the British had also captured 67 guns. The destruction of the bridge did not delay Gough at all, the first British units began to cross the river on the evening of the day of battle, and on 13 February, Goughs army was only 30 miles from Lahore, the capital
18.
Thomas Gage
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Thomas Gage was a British general best known for his many years of service in North America, including his role as military commander in the early days of the American Revolution. After the fall of Montreal in 1760, he was named its military governor, during this time he did not distinguish himself militarily, but proved himself to be a competent administrator. From 1763 to 1775 he served as commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America, in 1774 he was also appointed the military governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, with instructions to implement the Intolerable Acts, punishing Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. His attempts to seize military stores of Patriot militias in April 1775 sparked the Battles of Lexington and Concord, after the Pyrrhic victory in the June Battle of Bunker Hill he was replaced by General William Howe in October 1775, and returned to Great Britain. Thomas Gage was born on 10 March 1718/19 and christened 31 March 1719 at Westminster St James, Middlesex, England, son of Thomas Gage, 1st Viscount Gage, Firle Place, Firle, Sussex, is where the Gage family had been seated since the 15th century. His father, Thomas Gage, 1st Viscount Gage, was a noted nobleman given titles in Ireland, Thomas Gage had three children, of whom Thomas was the second. The first son, William Hall Gage, 2nd Viscount Gage, was born 6 January 1717/18 and christened 29 January 1717/18, in 1728 Gage began attending the prestigious Westminster School where he met such figures as John Burgoyne, Richard Howe, Francis Bernard, and George Germain. Despite the familys history of Catholicism, Viscount Gage had adopted the Anglican Church in 1715. During his school years Thomas the younger became firmly attached to the latter church, after graduating from Westminster in 1736 there is no record of Gages activities until he joined the British Army, eventually receiving a commission as ensign. His early duties consisted of recruiting in Yorkshire, in January 1741 he purchased a lieutenants commission in the 1st Northampton Regiment, where he stayed until May 1742, when he transferred to Battereaus Regiment with the rank of captain-lieutenant. He saw further service in the Second Jacobite Uprising, which culminated in the 1746 Battle of Culloden, from 1747 to 1748, Gage saw action under Albemarle in the Low Countries. In 1748 he purchased a commission and transferred to the 55th Foot Regiment. The regiment was stationed in Ireland from 1748 to 1755, Gage was promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1751. During his early years, he spent leisure time at Whites Club, where he was a member. He was a figure in the army and at the club. His friendships spanned class and ability, charles Lee once wrote to Gage, I respected your understanding, likd your manners and perfectly adord the qualities of your heart. In 1750, Gage became engaged to a lady of rank and fortune, the engagement was eventually broken, leaving Gage broken-hearted. In 1753, both Gage and his father stood for seats in Parliament, both lost in the April 1754 election, even though his father had been a Member of Parliament for some years prior
19.
Willem Anne van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle
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Lieutenant-General Willem Anne van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle KG KB PC was a British diplomat and courtier. Willem was born on 5 June 1702 at Whitehall Palace, London, augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel Lt. -Gen. From 1722–1751 he was a Lord of the Bedchamber to George I and George II, in 1725 he was made a Knight of the Bath but resigned that honour in 1750 to become a Knight of the Garter. At its creation in 1739, he was a founding Governor of the Foundling Hospital in London and he was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1751. He died on 22 December 1754, aged 52 in Paris, France and was buried on 21 February 1755 in Grosvenor Chapel on South Audley Street, London. Nancy Mitford remarks that given his love of all things French, Albemarle County, Virginia in the United States is named for him
20.
William Tryon
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William Tryon was a British soldier and colonial administrator who served as the eighth Governor of North Carolina and the Governor of New York. Tryon was born 8 June 1729 at the seat at Norbury Park, Surrey, England the son of Charles Tryon. In 1751, he entered the military as a lieutenant in the 1st Regiment of Foot Guards and was promoted to Captain in later that year and he had a daughter by Mary Stanton, whom he never married. In 1757, he married Margaret Wake, a London heiress with a dowry of 30,000 pounds. Her father, William Wake, had been the Honourable East India Companys Governor in Bombay from 1742 to 1750, in 1758, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Margaret was later the namesake of Wake County, North Carolina, during the Seven Years War, he and his regiment were involved in the Cherbourg-St. They landed at Cherbourg and destroyed all war making facilities, in September, they reembarked for St. Malo where the operation went smoothly until the withdrawal when they came under intense fire from the French at the Battle of St Cast. Tryon was wounded in the thigh and in the head, on 26 April 1764, through family connections, he obtained the position of acting lieutenant governor of the Province of North Carolina. He arrived in North Carolina with his family, including a young daughter and he said that he would not be leaving until May. Tryon found himself with no income, in 1765, a house called Russelborough on the Cape Fear River near Brunswick Town was renovated to serve as Tryons residence while he acted as Lieutenant Governor. Tryon assumed his position as acting governor when Dobbs died on 28 March 1765, on 10 July, the King promoted him to governor. After assuming the office of governor, Tryon worked to expand the Church of England in North Carolina, there were only five Anglican clergy members in North Carolina at that time. Tryon pushed for the completion of abandoned construction projects of Anglican churches in Brunswick Town, Wilmington, Edenton, Tryon appointed members of the clergy for these churches and encouraged the construction of new churches, especially in rural areas. There was an opposition in North Carolina to the Stamp Act of 1765. When the Stamp Act Congress was held, the assembly was not in session. Tryon refused to allow meetings of the Assembly from 18 May 1765 to 3 November 1766 to prevent the Assembly from passing a resolution in opposition to the Stamp Act. Tryon said that he was opposed to the Stamp Act. Tryon requested troops to enforce the act, but instead he was informed on 25 June 1766 that the act was repealed, in December 1766, the North Carolina legislature authorized £5,000 for the building of Tryons mansion
21.
Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl of Harrington
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General Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl of Harrington GCH PC PC, styled Viscount Petersham until 1779, was a British soldier. Stanhope was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards in 1769, during the Saratoga campaign of the American Revolutionary War as Viscount Petersham, he commanded the 29th Regiment of Foots Grenadier company and was an aide-de-camp to General John Burgoyne. He was Colonel of the 85th Regiment of Foot, the 65th Regiment of Foot and he was finally Colonel of the 1st Life Guards from 1792 to his death. He was promoted general in 1803 and made GCH in 1821. Viscount Petersham can be seen in the famous painting The Burial of General Fraser at Saratoga standing above Simon Fraser and he was briefly elected to serve as Member of Parliament for Thetford in 1774 and then sat from 1776 to 1779 as one of the members for Westminster. She was a Lady of the Bedchamber to Queen Charlotte, lord and Lady Harrington had eleven children, Charles Stanhope, 4th Earl of Harrington. He was married to Maria Foote, daughter of Samuel Foote, anna Maria Stanhope, Duchess of Bedford. She was married to Francis Russell, 7th Duke of Bedford, leicester FitzGerald Charles Stanhope, 5th Earl of Harrington. He married Elizabeth Green, daughter of William Green and Ann Rose Hall, Hon. William Sefton George Stanhope Rev. Hon. FitzRoy Henry Richard Stanhope. Dean of St Buryan, Cornwall and rector of Catton and of Wressle in Yorkshire and he married Caroline Wyndham, illegitimate daughter of the Hon. Charles Wyndham. They were parents of Charles Wyndham Stanhope, 7th Earl of Harrington, his younger brother Percy Stanhope and he had three children by Hannah Wilson, daughter of James Wilson of Parsonstown Manor, County Meath. Lady Caroline Anne Stanhope, married Edward Ayshford Sanford on 21 June 1841, Lady Charlotte Augusta Stanhope, married Augustus Frederick FitzGerald, 3rd Duke of Leinster on 16 June 1818. They were parents to Charles William FitzGerald, 4th Duke of Leinster and another three children, on 8 May 1813, he married Jane Baldwin in the Parish Church of St John, Hampstead, under the name Edward Stanhope and disguised as a groom or labourer. The marriage was annulled in 1822 by reason of undue publication of banns, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Earl of Harrington Worcestershire Regiment website bio, with picture
22.
William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart
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General William Schaw Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart KT, PC, PC was a Scottish soldier and diplomatist. Cathcart born at Petersham, London, on 17 September 1755, in 1771 he went to St. Petersburg, where his father, Charles Cathcart, 9th Lord Cathcart, a general in the army, was ambassador. He became an excellent horseman in Russia then from 1773 to 1777 he studied law at the University of Glasgow and was called to the Scottish Bar. However, after succeeding to the lordship of parliament in 1776 he obtained a commission in the 7th Dragoons, proceeding to America in 1777, he had before the close of his first campaign twice won promotion on the field of battle. He transferred to the 17th Light Dragoons and he returned home in 1780, and in February 1781 was made captain and lieutenant colonel in the Coldstream Guards. He was elected a representative peer for Scotland in 1788, and he occupied Hanover on 14 December and joined with Werdereffsky’s Russian column of Tolstoi’s corps. After the recall of this expedition Cathcart commanded the forces in Scotland until 1807, when he was placed in charge of the expedition to Copenhagen, which surrendered to him on 6 September. Four weeks later he was created Viscount Cathcart of Cathcart and Baron Greenock of Greenock in the peerage of the United Kingdom, on 1 January 1812 he was promoted to the full rank of general, and a few months later he proceeded to Russia as ambassador and military commissioner. He then went to St. Petersburg, and continued to hold the post of ambassador until 1820 and he died at his estate near Glasgow on 16 June 1843. He is buried in Paisley Abbey with a monument by William Mossman erected in 1848, Cathcart married Elizabeth Elliot, the daughter of the lieutenant-governor of New York Andrew Elliot, on 10 April 1779. The couple had ten children, the first five being born in the 1780s and their first child, Louisa, was born in New York on 25 January 1780, but died soon after her birth. Other children included the army officers Sir George Cathcart and Sir Charles Cathcart, williams first-born son, William Cathcart, entered the Royal Navy but died in command of his ship in 1804. His last son, Adolphus Frederick Cathcart, was born on 28 June 1803, the Military Panorama, Or, Officers Companion. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Earl Cathcart
23.
John Byng, 1st Earl of Strafford
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Field Marshal John Byng, 1st Earl of Strafford GCB, GCH, PC was a British Army officer and politician. Born was the son of George Byng and Anne Byng, Byng was educated at Westminster School. He was commissioned as an ensign in the 33rd Regiment of Foot on 30 September 1793 and was promoted to lieutenant on 1 December 1793 and he was sent the Netherlands later that year and was wounded during a skirmish at Geldermalsen in January 1795 during the Flanders Campaign. Byng became aide-de-camp to General Richard Vyse in the Southern District of Ireland in 1796 and was wounded during the Irish Rebellion of 1798. He became a major in the 60th Regiment of Foot on 28 December 1799, promoted to colonel on 25 July 1810, Byng went to Spain in September 1811 to become Commander of a brigade serving under General Rowland Hill. Byngs stubborn resistance at Roncesvalles allowed the Marquess of Wellington to consolidate enough troops to defeat the French at the Battle of the Pyrenees over the few days. Byng went on to fight at the Battle of Orthez in February 1814, after the battle he was placed in command of the I Corps, and took part in the advance on Paris. Having captured the Péronne and its fortress, the Corps went on to occupy the heights of Montmartre and he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 2 January 1815 and a Knight of the Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa on 8 October 1815. Byng became General Officer Commanding the Eastern District in England in October 1815 before transferring to be General Officer Commanding the Northern District in England in June 1816. At the Peterloo Massacre of 1819, he was absent because he had two horses running at York that day, and delegated command to his deputy, who failed to control the large crowd. Promoted to lieutenant general on 27 May 1825, he was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1828 and he became Commander-in-Chief, Ireland and was admitted to the Privy Council of Ireland later that year. After leaving Ireland, he was elected as Whig Member of Parliament for Poole in Dorset in October 1831 and was one of the few men who supported the Reform Bill. He was also appointed to the position of Governor of Londonderry. As recognition of Byngs support over the Reform Bill the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, promoted to full general on 23 November 1841, he was raised further in the peerage as Earl of Strafford and Viscount Enfield on 28 August 1847. He also inherited Wrotham Park from his eldest brother in 1847 and he was promoted to field marshal on 2 October 1855 and died at his home in Grosvenor Square in London on 3 June 1860. In 1804 Byng married Mary Mackenzie and they had one son, following the death of his first wife, he married Marianne James, they had a son and three daughters. After his death, Byng was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, George Byng, the British Field Marshals, 1736–1997, A Biographical Dictionary. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Earl of Strafford
24.
36th (Herefordshire) Regiment of Foot
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The 36th Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, raised in 1701. Under the Childers Reforms it amalgamated with the 29th Regiment of Foot to form the Worcestershire Regiment in 1881 and its lineage is continued today by the Mercian Regiment. It was the successor to a regiment raised by Charlemont in 1694 for Irish service. The regiment was selected to form part of an Anglo-Dutch force under the command of the Duke of Ormonde that was to make an assault of the southern coast of Spain. They moved from Ireland to the Isle of Wight in June 1702 and they landed on 15 August, but the force failed to take the City of Cadiz, and the regiment left Spain on 24 September, sailing for the West Indies. They returned to Ireland in 1704, in April 1705 Charlemonts Regiment left Ireland once more, forming part of an expeditionary force led by the Earl of Peterborough. The force landed in Catalonia in August, and the regiment took part in the Siege of Barcelona, in April 1706 the regiment helped relieve Barcelona which was under siege by a Franco-Spanish force. On 10 May 1706 Viscount Charlemont was replaced as colonel by Thomas Allnutt, Allnutts Regiment was engaged in a number of minor engagements in Valencia and Murcia throughout the rest of 1706. In April 1707 they became part of a force of English, Portuguese, Dutch and Spanish troops under the command of the Marquis of Minas and Earl of Galway, the regiment was nearly destroyed, with Colonel Allnutt wounded and taken prisoner. In September 1707 Allnutt was permitted to return to England as part of a prisoner exchange and he was instructed to obtain to travel to Cheshire to enlist new recruits to rebuild his regiment, with Chester and Nantwich chosen as the places of enlistment. This was recognised as an effective re-raising of the regiment, on the death of Thomas Alnutt on 7 May 1708, Archibald Campbell, Earl of Ilay, become colonel on 23 March 1709, with the unit becoming the Earl of Ilays Regiment of Foot. In 1710 Ilay resigned and the unit became Disneys Regiment of Foot when Henry Disney became colonel on 23 October, in 1711 Disneys Regiment was part of a 5,000 strong force dispatched to North America as part of the Quebec Expedition. On 30 July they sailed from Boston for the St Lawrence River, the expedition ended in failure, and Disneys Regiment returned to England, arriving in Portsmouth on 9 October. In 1712 Louis XIV of France signed a treaty with Queen Anne of Great Britain. As part of the provisions, Louis ceded the Port of Dunkirk and they were stationed in Dunkirk when the Treaty of Utrecht ending the war, was signed in the following year. On 11 July 1715 William Egerton was appointed colonel of the regiment, when the Jacobite rising broke out in Scotland in August 1715, Egertons Regiment moved to Stirling under the command of the Duke of Argyll. They fought in the largely inconclusive Battle of Sheriffmuir where they were overrun, the regiment remained in Scotland until 1718, based in Stirling and Dumbarton. In 1718 the regiment returned to Ireland, and in the year moved to England where they became Hothams Regiment of Foot when Sir Charles Hotham
25.
Worcestershire Regiment
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The Worcestershire Regiment was a line infantry regiment in the British Army, formed in 1881 under the Childers Reforms by the amalgamation of the 29th Regiment of Foot and the 36th Regiment of Foot. In September 2007, the regiment amalgamated with the Cheshire Regiment, the regiment was formed in 1881 under the Childers Reforms by the amalgamation of the 29th Regiment of Foot and the 36th Regiment of Foot. The 1st Battalion was initially deployed to India, while the 2nd Battalion was initially deployed to Ireland, the 1st Battalion was based at Ladybrand during the Second Boer War, while the 2nd Battalion saw heavy fighting near the Modder River. As the war dragged on, a number of regiments containing large centres of population formed additional regular battalions, the Worcestershire regiment formed 3rd and 4th regular Battalions in February 1900, when the existing militia battalions were relabeled as the 5th and 6th battalions. Troops from the regiment shot dead two men during the Llanelli railway strike in August 1911, during the First World War, members of the Regiment won nine Victoria Crosses,70 Distinguished Service Orders,288 Military Crosses,227 Distinguished Conduct Medals. The 1st Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 24th Brigade in the 8th Division in November 1914 for service on the Western Front. The 1st Battalion placed an important role at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in March 1915 but lost their commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel E. C. F. Wodehouse, who was killed-in-action. The 2nd Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of the 5th Brigade in the 2nd Division August 1914 also for service on the Western Front. The 3rd Battalion landed at Rouen as part of the 7th Brigade in the 3rd Division in August 1914 also for service on the Western Front, the 3rd Battalion saw action at the Battle of Messines in June 1917. The 4th Battalion then took part in the Battle of Le Transloy in October 1916, the 2/7th and 2/8th Battalions landed in France as part of the 2nd Gloucester & Worcester Brigade in the 2nd South Midland Division in May 1916 for service on the Western Front. The 10th Battalion landed in France as part of the 57th Brigade in the 19th Division in July 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 11th Battalion landed in France as part of the 78th Brigade in the 26th Division in September 1915 for service on the Western Front, in December 1918, the regiment was used to suppress the Taranto Revolt, executing one of the rebels by firing squad. During the Second World War,994 officers and other ranks of the Worcestershire Regiment were killed in action or died of their wounds, however, the regiment was awarded 36 battle honours. The battalion was destined to see service in the Western Desert, in July 1940, the battalion was assigned to the 21st Infantry Brigade, serving alongside the 2nd Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment and the 1st Battalion, Essex Regiment. The brigade was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division and saw service in the East African Campaign. On 22 June 1942, the battalion, still fighting in North Africa, surrendered, along with 30,000 other British Commonwealth troops, of the men of the original battalion, only 68 officers and men remained. The battalion was reformed in England by the redesignation of the 11th Battalion, the 2nd Battalion was also a Regular Army unit. On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, it was stationed in British India, the brigade was part of the 19th Indian Infantry Division, the Dagger Division
26.
Colonel
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Colonel is a senior military officer rank below the general officer ranks. However, in small military forces, such as those of Iceland or the Vatican. It is also used in police forces and paramilitary organizations. Historically, in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of a regiment in an army, the rank of colonel is typically above the rank of lieutenant colonel. The rank above colonel is typically called brigadier, brigade general or brigadier general, equivalent naval ranks may be called captain or ship-of-the-line captain. In the Commonwealth air force rank system, the equivalent rank is group captain, the word colonel derives from the same root as the word column and means of a column, and, by implication, commander of a column. The word colonel is therefore linked to the column in a similar way that brigadier is linked to brigade. By the end of the medieval period, a group of companies was referred to as a column of an army. Since the word is believed to derive from sixteenth-century Italian, it was presumably first used by Italian city states in that century. The first use of colonel as a rank in an army was in the French National Legions created by King Francis I by his decree of 1534. Building on the reforms of Louis XIIs decree of 1509. Each colonel commanded a legion with a strength of six thousand men. With the shift from primarily mercenary to primarily national armies in the course of the seventeenth century, the Spanish equivalent rank of coronel was used by the Spanish tercios in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, nicknamed the Great Captain, divided his armies in coronelías or colonelcies, however, the Spanish word probably derives from a different origin, in that it appears to designate an officer of the crown, rather than an officer of the column. This makes the Spanish word coronel probably cognate with the English word coroner and this regiment, or governance, was to some extent embodied in a contract and set of written rules, also referred to as the colonels regiment or standing regulation. By extension, the group of companies subject to a colonels regiment came to be referred to as his regiment as well, the position, however, was primarily contractual and it became progressively more of a functionless sinecure. By the late 19th century, colonel was a military rank though still held typically by an officer in command of a regiment or equivalent unit. As European military influence expanded throughout the world, the rank of colonel became adopted by every nation
27.
Treaty of Ryswick
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The Treaty of Ryswick, or Ryswyck, was signed on 20 September 1697 and named after Ryswick in the Dutch Republic. The treaty settled the War of the League of Augsburg, which pitted France against the Grand Alliance of England, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the United Provinces. Under the terms of the treaty, France renounced some recent territorial gains, the French representatives had their headquarters at The Hague, and the allies were based in Delft, the conference taking place in between the two towns in the Huis ter Nieuwburg, Ryswick. Soon, Spain gave way, and on 20 September a treaty of peace was signed between France and the three powers, England, Spain and the United Provinces. William then persuaded Leopold to make peace, and a treaty between France and the Holy Roman Empire was signed on the following 30 October, the basis of the peace was that all towns and districts seized since the Treaty of Nijmegen should be restored. France surrendered Freiburg, Breisach, and Philippsburg to the Holy Roman Empire, on the other hand, France regained Pondichéry, as well as Acadia, and Spain recovered Catalonia and the barrier fortresses of Mons, Luxembourg, and Kortrijk. The War of the Grand Alliance also played out in North America, the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, along with their Native allies, fought the northern English colonies and their Native allies. Still, the Treaty of Ryswick returned the territorial borders to where they had been before the war, the Iroquois nation, deserted by the English allies, continued to make war on the French colonies until the Great Peace of Montreal of 1701. Needle of Rijswijk Peace of Basel 1795 — Hispaniola Barrier Treaty Treaty of Utrecht Treaty of Ryswick and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Treaty Of Ryswick. History of European Diplomacy, 1451–1789324 pages online pp 141-54, eccles, W. J. Canada Under Louis XIV
28.
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough
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General John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, Prince of Mindelheim, KG, PC, was an English soldier and statesman whose career spanned the reigns of five monarchs. It was not until the accession of Queen Anne in 1702 that Marlborough reached the zenith of his powers and secured his fame and fortune. His marriage to the hot-tempered Sarah Jennings – Annes intimate friend – ensured Marlboroughs rise, first to the Captain-Generalcy of British forces, but his wifes stormy relationship with the Queen, and her subsequent dismissal from court, was central to his own fall. Incurring Annes disfavour, and caught between Tory and Whig factions, Marlborough, who had brought glory and success to Annes reign, was forced from office and went into self-imposed exile. He returned to England and to influence under the House of Hanover with the accession of George I to the British throne in 1714, Marlboroughs insatiable ambition made him the richest of all Annes subjects. His family connections wove him into the fabric of European politics and his leadership of the allied armies consolidated Britains emergence as a front-rank power. He successfully maintained unity among the allies, thereby demonstrating his diplomatic skills, Churchill was the son of Sir Winston Churchill of Glanvilles Wootton in Dorset, by his wife Elizabeth Drake, fourth daughter of Sir John Drake of Ash in the parish of Musbury in Devon. The Churchill family are stated by the Devon historian William George Hoskins to have originated at the estate of Churchill, in the parish of Broadclyst in Devon, although Winston had paid off the fine by 1651, it had impoverished him. From this episode may derive the Churchill family motto, Fiel Pero Desdichado, Winston Churchill and his wife Elizabeth Drake had at least nine children, only five of whom survived infancy. The eldest daughter, Arabella Churchill, was born on 28 February 1649, John Churchill, the two younger sons were George Churchill, an admiral in the Royal Navy, and Charles Churchill, a general who served on campaign in Europe with his eldest brother John. His descendant and biographer the Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, asserted that the conditions at Ashe might well have aroused in his mind two prevailing impressions, first a hatred of poverty. And secondly the need of hiding thoughts and feelings from those to whom their expression would be repugnant, after the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 his fathers fortunes took a turn for the better, although he remained far from prosperous. The Kings own penury meant the old Cavaliers received scant financial reward, thus in 1665, Johns sister Arabella became Maid of Honour to Anne Hyde, the Duchess of York. Some months later John,15, joined her at court serving as page to Annes husband, James, Duke of York, the Duke of Yorks passion for all things naval and military rubbed off on young Churchill. Often accompanying the Duke inspecting the troops in the royal parks, on 14 September 1667, he obtained a commission as Ensign in the Kings Own Company in the 1st Guards, later to become the Grenadier Guards. That is unlikely, and even Sir Winston S. Churchill says There is, indeed, the known facts are that he was commissioned Ensign in September 1667, as above. By February 1671, John Churchill was back in London and duelling with Sir John Fenwick, but his liaisons with the insatiable temptress were indeed dangerous. You are a rascal, said Charles, but I forgive you because you do it to get your bread
29.
Ostend
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Ostend is a Belgian coastal city and municipality, located in the province of West Flanders. It comprises the boroughs of Mariakerke, Raversijde, Stene and Zandvoorde, in earlier times, Ostend was a small village built on the east-end of an island between the North Sea and a beach lake. Although small, the rose to the status of town around 1265 when the inhabitants were allowed to hold a market. The major source of income for the inhabitants was fishing, the North Sea coastline has always been rather unstable and in 1395 the inhabitants decided to build a new Ostend behind large dikes and further away from the always-threatening sea. The strategic position on the North Sea coast had major advantages for Ostend as a harbour, the town was frequently taken, ravaged, ransacked and destroyed by conquering armies. The Dutch rebels, the Gueuzen, took control of the town and this shocking event set in motion negotiations that led to a truce several years later. When the truce broke down, it became a Dunkirker base, after this era, Ostend was turned into a harbour of some importance. In 1722, the Dutch again closed off the entrance to the worlds biggest harbour of Antwerp, therefore, Ostend rose in importance because the town provided an alternative exit to the sea. The Belgium Austriacum had become part of the Austrian Empire, the Austrian Emperor Charles VI granted the town the trade monopoly with Africa and the Far-East. The Oostendse Compagnie was allowed to found colonies overseas, however, in 1727 the Oostendse Compagnie was forced to stop its activities because of Dutch and British pressure. The Netherlands and Britain would not allow competitors on the trade level. Both nations regarded international trade as their privilege, on 19 September 1826 the local artillery magazine exploded. At least 20 people were killed and a further 200 injured, the affluent quarter of dHargras was levelled and scarcely a building in the city escaped damage. Disease followed the leading to further deaths. The harbour of Ostend continued to expand because the harbour dock, in 1838, a railway connection with Brussels was constructed. Ostend became a harbour to England in 1846 when the first ferry sailed to Dover. Very important for the image of the town was the attention it started to receive from the Belgian kings Leopold I, both liked to spend their holidays in Ostend. Important monuments and villas were built to please the Royal Family, including the Hippodrome Wellington horse racing track, the rest of aristocratic Belgium followed and soon Ostend became known as The Queen of the Belgian sea-side resorts
30.
Gibraltar
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Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. It has an area of 6.7 km2 and shares its border with Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the landmark of the region. At its foot is a populated city area, home to over 30,000 Gibraltarians. An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of the Habsburg claim to the Spanish throne, the territory was subsequently ceded to Great Britain in perpetuity under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Today Gibraltars economy is based largely on tourism, online gambling, financial services, the sovereignty of Gibraltar is a major point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory. Gibraltarians overwhelmingly rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum, under the Gibraltar constitution of 2006, Gibraltar governs its own affairs, though some powers, such as defence and foreign relations, remain the responsibility of the British government. The name Gibraltar is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Ṭāriq, earlier, it was known as Mons Calpe, a name of Phoenician origin and one of the Pillars of Hercules. The pronunciation of the name in modern Spanish is, evidence of Neanderthal habitation in Gibraltar between 28,000 and 24,000 BP has been discovered at Gorhams Cave, making Gibraltar possibly the last known holdout of the Neanderthals. Within recorded history, the first inhabitants were the Phoenicians, around 950 BC, subsequently, Gibraltar became known as one of the Pillars of Hercules, after the Greek legend of the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar by Heracles. The Carthaginians and Romans also established semi-permanent settlements, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, Gibraltar came briefly under the control of the Vandals. The area later formed part of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania from 414 AD until the Islamic conquest of Iberia in 711 AD, in 1160, the Almohad Sultan Abd al-Mumin ordered that a permanent settlement, including a castle, be built. It received the name of Medinat al-Fath, on completion of the works in the town, the Sultan crossed the Strait to look at the works and stayed in Gibraltar for two months. The Tower of Homage of the Moorish Castle remains standing today, from 1274 onwards, the town was fought over and captured by the Nasrids of Granada, the Marinids of Morocco and the kings of Castile. In 1462, Gibraltar was finally captured by Juan Alonso de Guzmán, after the conquest, King Henry IV of Castile assumed the additional title of King of Gibraltar, establishing it as part of the comarca of the Campo Llano de Gibraltar. In 1501, Gibraltar passed back to the Spanish Crown, the occupation of the town by Alliance forces caused the exodus of the population to the surrounding area of the Campo de Gibraltar. As the Alliances campaign faltered, the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht was negotiated and ceded control of Gibraltar to Britain to secure Britains withdrawal from the war. Unsuccessful attempts by Spanish monarchs to regain Gibraltar were made with the siege of 1727 and again with the Great Siege of Gibraltar, during the American War of Independence
31.
29th (Worcestershire) Regiment of Foot
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The 29th Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, raised in 1694. Under the Childers Reforms it amalgamated with the 36th Regiment of Foot to become the 1st Battalion, the regiment was first raised by Colonel Thomas Farrington as Thomas Farringtons Regiment of Foot on 16 February 1694. It was disbanded after the Treaty of Ryswick in December 1698, the regiment served under John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough at the victory at the Battle of Ramillies in May 1706 against the French and in the siege of Ostend in June 1706. In June 1727 the regiment saw action defending Gibraltar from a Spanish attack, in October 1745, the Regiment was sent to Fortress Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. The following year, the regiment was in the Port-la-Joye Massacre during King Georges War, the Canadiens and Mikmaq warriors massacred a significant portion of the regiment, in part, because they were unarmed. In 1749, the regiment was at the site of Halifax, Nova Scotia, until the middle of the eighteenth century British Army regiments were known by their colonels name. This led to frequent changes of title, in 1747 regiments were required to establish their precedence, with each unit taking a numerical rank. The process was completed in 1751 when a royal warrant formally substituted numbers for the names of colonels, accordingly, Colonel Peregrine Hopsons Regiment became the 29th Regiment of Foot. In 1759 Admiral Edward Boscawen gave to his brother Colonel George Boscawen 10 black youths he acquired in the capture of Guadeloupe from the French in the same year and these young men were released from slavery and joined the regiment as drummers, a tradition the regiment continued until 1843. Due to the incident, the regiment earned the nickname the Vein Openers for drawing first blood in the American Revolution, the soldiers involved were tried for murder and were defended by John Adams. Two men of the regiment, Hugh Montgomery and Matthew Kilroy, were guilty of manslaughter. Captain Thomas Preston and the men involved were found not guilty. The regiment left Boston in 1771 for British controlled Florida before returning to England in 1773, in 1777, the Light Infantry Company and the Grenadier Company were with Lieutenant General John Burgoyne as he headed down from Montreal to Saratoga. Both the Light Infantry Company and Grenadier Company saw action at the Battle of Hubbardton under the command of Brigadier Simon Fraser, both companies surrendered with the rest of Burgoynes Army after the defeats at Battle of Freemans Farm and Battle of Bemis Heights in September and October 1777. On 31 August 1782 a royal warrant was issued conferring county titles on all regiments of foot that did not already have a special title, the regiment was retitled as the 29th Regiment of Foot. The change was an attempt to improve recruitment, but no depot was established in the county, the regiment returned to England in 1787. During the winter of 1791 Princess Augusta presented the regiment with the music of a march of her own composing, which received the name of The Royal Windsor. The march, with its impressive drum cadence recalling later American marches and it appears that the Princess used material of Russian origin
32.
Halifax, Nova Scotia
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Halifax, legally known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, is the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. The municipality had a population of 403,131 in 2016, the regional municipality consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996, Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and the Municipality of Halifax County. Halifax is an economic centre in Atlantic Canada with a large concentration of government services. Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry and natural gas extraction are major resource found in the rural areas of the municipality. Additionally, Halifax has consistently placed in the top 10 for business friendliness of North and South American cities, the first permanent European settlement in the region was on the Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the 2nd Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War. Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families, St. Margarets Bay was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia during the American Revolution. The resulting explosion, the Halifax Explosion, devastated the Richmond District of Halifax, killing approximately 2,000 people, the blast was the largest artificial explosion before the development of nuclear weapons. Significant aid came from Boston, strengthening the bond between the two coastal cities, the municipal boundary thus now includes all of Halifax County except for several First Nation reserves. Since amalgamation, the region has officially been known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, on April 15,2014, the regional council approved the implementation of a new branding campaign for the region developed by the local firm Revolve Marketing. The campaign would see the region referred to in promotional materials simply as Halifax, mayor Mike Savage defended the decision, stating, Im a Westphal guy, Im a Dartmouth man, but Halifax is my city, we’re all part of Halifax. Because when I go and travel on behalf of this municipality, metropolitan Halifax is a term used to describe the urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour, including the Halifax Peninsula, the core of Dartmouth, and the Bedford-Sackville areas. It is the Statistics Canada population centre of Halifax, the dense urban core is centred on the Halifax Peninsula and the area of Dartmouth inside of the Circumferential Highway. The suburban area stretches into areas known as Mainland Halifax to the west, Cole Harbour to the east and this urban area is the most populous on Canadas Atlantic coast, and the second largest coastal population centre in the country after Vancouver, British Columbia. Halifax currently accounts for 40% of Nova Scotias population, and 15% of that of Atlantic Canada, Halifaxs urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. The downtowns office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock, Dalhousie Universitys campus is often featured in films and documentaries. Dartmouth also has its share of historic neighbourhoods and this has resulted in some modern high rises being built at unusual angles or locations
33.
Father Le Loutre's War
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Father Le Loutres War, also known as the Indian War, the Micmac War and the Anglo-Micmac War, took place between King Georges War and the French and Indian War in Acadia and Nova Scotia. On one side of the conflict, the British and New England colonists were led by British Officer Charles Lawrence, on the other side, Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre led the Mikmaq and the Acadia militia in guerrilla warfare against settlers and British forces. While the British captured Port Royal in 1710, the Mikmaq and Acadians continued to contain the British to settlements at Port Royal, the rest of the colony was in the control of the Catholic Mikmaq and Acadians. The British settled 3,229 people in Halifax during the first years and this exceeded the number of Mikmaq in the entire region and was seen as a threat to the traditional occupiers of the land. The Mikmaq and some Acadians resisted the arrival of these Protestant settlers, the war caused unprecedented upheaval in the area. Atlantic Canada witnessed more population movements, more construction. Twenty-four conflicts were recorded during the war,13 of which were Mikmaq, as typical of frontier warfare, many additional conflicts were unrecorded. The British also wanted to establish Protestant communities in Nova Scotia, during the war, the Acadians and Mikmaq left Nova Scotia for the French colonies of Ile St. Jean and Ile Royale. The French also tried to control of the disputed territory of present-day New Brunswick. Throughout the war, the Mi’kmaq and Acadians attacked the British forts in Nova Scotia and they wanted to retard British settlement and buy time for France to implement its Acadian resettlement scheme. The war began with the British unilaterally establishing Halifax, which was a violation of a treaty with the Mikmaq. In response, the Acadians and Mikmaq orchestrated attacks at Chignecto, Grand Pré, Dartmouth, Canso, Halifax, the French erected forts at present-day Saint John, Chignecto and Port Elgin, New Brunswick. The British responded by attacking the Mikmaq and Acadians at Mirligueche, Chignecto, the British unilaterally established communities in Lunenburg and Lawrencetown. Finally, the British erected forts in Acadian communities located at Windsor, Grand Pre, the war ended after six years with the defeat of the Mikmaq, Acadians and French in the Battle of Fort Beausejour. The Mikmaq and Acadians were united in their commitment to Catholicism, intermarriage, despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, the dominant population in Acadia remained Catholic Acadians, who would not sign an unconditional oath to become British subjects. As a result, Acadians and Mi’kmaq resisted the British occupation of Acadia, by the time Cornwallis had arrived in Halifax, there was a long history of the Wabanaki Confederacy protecting their land by killing British civilians along the New England/ Acadia border in Maine. Before the founding of Halifax, there was also a history of Acadian resistance to the British through three French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rales War. Acadians joined French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste as crew members in his victories over many British vessels during King Williams War, after the Siege of Pemaquid, dIberville led a force of 124 Canadians, Acadians, Mikmaq and Abanaki in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign
34.
Charles William Jefferys
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Charles William Jefferys was a Canadian painter, illustrator, author, and teacher best known as a historical illustrator. Born in Rochester, England, Jefferys arrived in Toronto, Ontario with his family around 1880, after attending school, he apprenticed with the york, Lithography Company from 1885 to 1890. From 1889 to 1892 he worked for the Toronto Globe as an illustrator, from 1893 to 1901, he worked for the New York Herald. Returning to Toronto, he became a magazine and book illustrator, along with Ivor Lewis and other artists, Jefferys co-founded the Graphic Arts Club, which by the 1940s became the primary artists group in Canada. As well, from 1912 to 1939 he taught painting and drawing in the Department of Architecture at the University of Toronto, during World War I he was commissioned by the Canadian War Records department to paint soldiers training at Camp Petawawa and Niagara. Jefferys had an intense interest in history and his reputation rests principally on his accurate, the best known collection of his historical sketches is The Picture Gallery of Canadian History. He was made a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts, a plaque in his honour quotes him, If my work has stirred any interest in our country and its past, I am more than paid. C. W. Jefferys Collegiate Institute, a high school in Toronto, is named in his honour. There are works in the art collection of the Royal Military College of Canada by Charles William Jefferys, Canadian official war artists War artist War art Artists Organizations, The Canadian Encyclopedia. Kingston, Ontario, Hanson & Edgar,1976
35.
Fortress of Louisbourg
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Its two sieges, especially that of 1758, were turning points in the Anglo-French struggle for what today is Canada. The original settlement was made in 1713, and initially called Havre à lAnglois, subsequently, the fishing port grew to become a major commercial port and a strongly defended fortress. The fortifications eventually surrounded the town, the walls were constructed mainly between 1720 and 1740. By the mid-1740s Louisbourg was one of the most extensive European fortifications constructed in North America and it was supported by two smaller garrisons on Île Royale located at present-day St. Peters and Englishtown. A third weakness was that it was a way from France or Quebec. It was captured by British colonists in 1745, and was a bargaining chip in the negotiations leading to the 1748 treaty ending the War of the Austrian Succession. It was returned to the French in exchange for border towns in what is today Belgium and it was captured again in 1758 by British forces in the Seven Years War, after which its fortifications were systematically destroyed by British engineers. The British continued to have a garrison at Louisbourg until 1768, the fortress and town were partially reconstructed in the 1960s and 1970s, using some of the original stonework, which provided jobs for unemployed coal miners. The head stonemason for this project was Ron Bovaird, the site is operated by Parks Canada as a living history museum. The site stands as the largest reconstruction project in North America, a French settlement at St-Anne on the central east coast of Île Royale was established in 1629 and named Fort St-Anne, lasting until 1641. The harbour, being ice-free and well protected, soon became a port for French naval forces on the Atlantic seaboard. The Fortress of Louisbourg was the capital for the colony of Île-Royale, south of the fort, a reef provided a natural barrier, while a large island provided a good location for a battery. These defences forced British ships to enter the harbour via a 500-foot channel, the fort was built to protect and provide a base for Frances lucrative North American fishery and to protect Quebec City from British invasions. One hundred and sixteen men, ten women, and twenty-three children originally settled in Louisbourg, for the French, it was the second most important stronghold and commercial city in New France. Only Quebec was more important to France, the Louisbourg hospital was the finest hospital in North America and the second largest building in the fort town. The hospital had a spire that would rival that of the Kings bastion and was run by the Brothers of Saint-Jean-de-Dieu. The population of Louisbourg quickly grew, in 1719,823 people called this maritime city their home. Seven years later, in 1726, the population was 1,296, in 1734 it was 1,616, and by 1752, of course, population growth did not come without consequences
36.
Cape Breton Island
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Cape Breton Island is an island on the Atlantic coast of North America and part of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. Its name may derive from Capbreton near Bayonne, or more probably from the word Breton, the French adjective form of the proper noun Bretagne, the 10,311 km2 island accounts for 18. 7% of the Nova Scotias total area. Although physically separated from the Nova Scotia peninsula by the Strait of Canso, the island is east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western coasts fronting on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, its western coast also forms the eastern limits of the Northumberland Strait. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean, its eastern coast also forms the limits of the Cabot Strait. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the highlands of its northern cape, one of the worlds larger salt water lakes, Bras dOr, dominates the islands centre. The island is divided into four of Nova Scotias eighteen counties, Cape Breton, Inverness, Richmond and their total population at the 2016 census numbered 132,010 Cape Bretoners, this is approximately 15% of the provincial population. Cape Breton Island has experienced a decline in population of approximately 2.9 since the 2011 census, the island has five reserves of the Mikmaq Nation, Eskasoni, Membertou, Wagmatcook, Waycobah, and Potlotek/Chapel Island. Eskasoni is the largest in population and land area. Cape Breton Islands first residents were likely Archaic maritime natives, ancestors of the Mikmaq, John Cabot reportedly visited the island in 1497. However, historians are unclear as to whether Cabot first visited Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island and this discovery is commemorated by Cape Bretons Cabot Trail, and by the Cabots Landing Historic Site & Provincial Park, near the village of Dingwall. In about 1521–22, the Portuguese under João Álvares Fagundes established a colony on the island. As many as two hundred settlers lived in a village, the name of which is not known, located according to historians at what is now present day Ingonish on the islands northeastern peninsula. This Portuguese colonys fate is unknown, but it is mentioned as late as 1570 and these Scottish triumphs, which left Cape Sable as the only major French holding in North America, did not last. Charles I’s haste to make peace with France on the terms most beneficial to him meant the new North American gains would be bargained away in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The French quickly defeated the Scots at Baleine, and established the first permanent settlements on Île Royale, present day Englishtown and these settlements lasted almost continuously until Nicolas Denys left in 1659. Île Royale was vacant for more than fifty years until the communities along with Louisbourg were established in 1713, known as Île Royale to the French, the island also saw active settlement by France. The French also built the Louisbourg Lighthouse in 1734, the first lighthouse in Canada, in addition to Cape Breton Island, the French colony of Île Royale also included Île Saint-Jean, today called Prince Edward Island. Louisbourg itself was one of the most important commercial and military centres in New France, Louisbourg was captured by New Englanders with British naval assistance in 1745 and by British forces in 1758
37.
Battle at Port-la-Joye
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After the first fall of Louisbourg, British commander William Pepperrell sent an expedition against Ile Saint Jean in July 1745. This force divided, one going to Three Rivers, the other to Port-La-Joye. At Three Rivers, Acadian Jean Pierre Roma and others did not give any resistance because they only had one six pound cannon to mount a defence, Roma, along with his son and daughter escaped into the woods where they witnessed the New Englanders burn the village. The family then escaped to Saint Peters and then went on to Quebec, at the same time, in July 1745, the other English detachment landed at Port-la-Joye. Under the command of Joseph de Pont Duvivier, the French had a garrison of 20 French troops at Port-la-Joye, the troops fled and New Englanders burned the capital to the ground. Duvivier and the twenty men retreated up the Northeast River, pursued by the New Englanders until the French troops received reinforcements from the Acadian militia and the Mikmaq. The French troops and their allies were able to drive the New Englanders to their boats, the New Englanders took six Acadian hostages, who would be executed if the Acadians or Mikmaq rebelled against New England control. The New England troops left for Louisbourg, Duvivier and his 20 troops left for Quebec. After the fall of Louisbourg, the resident French population of Ile Royal were deported to France, the Acadians of Ile Saint-Jean lived under the threat of deportation for the remainder of the war. The following year, in an effort to recapture Acadia, an expedition under the command of Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay was sent from Quebec to work with the Duc dAnville Expedition, de Ramezays force arrived in Nova Scotia in July 1746. He had 700 soldiers and 21 officers and he made camp at Chignecto, where he was met by 300 Abenaki from St. John River and about 300 Mikmaq from Nova Scotia. The total French-Indian force numbered close to 1,300 men, de Ramezays soldiers spent the summer and the fall waiting for the arrival of the long overdue DAnville expedition. During this time period, Ramzay sent troops to British-occupied Port-La-Joye on present-day Prince Edward Island, Captain John Rous commanded the snow Shirley Galley and a schooner on a tender. On board the vessel was 40 soldiers of F. B, fuller’s 29th Regiment of Foot, including Captain Hugh Scott. The newly appointed British governor of the Isle Royal, Commodore Sir Charles Knowles, Ramezay initially sent French officer Boishébert to Ile Saint-Jean on a reconnaissance to assess the size of the New England force. Boishébert learned there were two English naval vessels and 200 troops - the galley HMS Shirley and HMS Ruby - at Port-la-Joye boarding supplies for Louisburg, on board the vessels were at least two of the Acadian hostages taken by New Englanders the year before. After Boishébert returned, Ramezay sent Joseph-Michel Legardeur de Croisille et de Montesson along with over 500 men,200 of whom were Mikmaq and their arms remained in a tent. On July 11, de Montesson caught the New England troops by surprise, the Canadian and Mikmaq force massacred 34 of the British troops
38.
King George's War
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King Georges War is the name given to the military operations in North America that formed part of the War of the Austrian Succession. It was the third of the four French and Indian Wars and it took place primarily in the British provinces of New York, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, and Nova Scotia. In French, it is known as the Third Intercolonial War, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war in 1748 and restored Louisbourg to France, but failed to resolve any outstanding territorial issues. The War of Jenkins Ear broke out in 1739 between Spain and Great Britain, but was confined to the Caribbean Sea and conflict between Spanish Florida and the neighboring British Province of Georgia, Massachusetts did not declare war until June 2. News of war reached the French fortress at Louisbourg first, on May 3,1744. Concerned about their overland supply lines to Quebec, they first raided the British fishing port of Canso on May 23, and then organized an attack on Annapolis Royal, then the capital of Nova Scotia. However, French forces were delayed in departing Louisbourg, and their Mikmaq and Maliseet allies in conjunction with Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre, Annapolis had received news of the war declaration, and was somewhat prepared when the Indians began besieging Fort Anne. Lacking heavy weapons, the Indians withdrew after a few days, in 1745, British colonial forces captured Fortress Louisbourg after a siege of six weeks. In retaliation, the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia launched the Northeast Coast Campaign against the British settlements on the border of Acadia in Maine, France launched a major expedition to recover Louisbourg in 1746. Beset by storms, disease, and finally the death of its commander, the war was also fought on the frontiers between the northern British colonies and New France. On November 28,1745, the French with their Indian allies raided and destroyed the village of Saratoga, New York, all of the British settlements north of Albany were accordingly abandoned. In July 1746 an Iroquois and intercolonial force assembled in northern New York for an attack against Canada. British regulars expected to participate never arrived, and the attack was called off, in 1748, Indian allies of the French attacked Schenectady, New York. The war took a toll, especially in the northern British colonies. The losses of Massachusetts men alone in 1745–46 have been estimated as 8% of that colonys adult male population. According to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louisbourg was returned to France three years later, in exchange for the city of Madras in India, captured by the French from the British and this decision outraged New Englanders, particularly Massachusetts colonists who had contributed the most to the expedition. The British government eventually acknowledged their effort with a payment of £180,000 after the war, in Acadia and Nova Scotia, the fighting continued in Father Le Loutres War. The Enduring Vision, A History of the American People Drake, a Particular History of the Five Years French and Indian War in New England Kingsford, William
39.
Sword
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A sword is a long bladed weapon intended for slashing or thrusting. The precise definition of the term varies with the epoch or the geographical region under consideration. A sword consists of a blade attached to a hilt. The blade can be straight or curved, thrusting swords have a pointed tip on the blade, and tend to be straighter, slashing swords have sharpened cutting edge on one or both sides of the blade, and are more likely to be curved. Many swords are designed for thrusting and slashing. Historically, the sword developed in the Bronze Age, evolving from the dagger, the later Iron Age sword remained fairly short and without a crossguard. The word sword continues the Old English, sweord, the use of a sword is known as swordsmanship or as fencing. In the Early Modern period, western sword design diverged into two forms, the thrusting swords and the sabers. The thrusting swords such as the rapier and eventually the smallsword were designed to impale their targets quickly and their long and straight yet light and well balanced design made them highly maneuverable and deadly in a duel but fairly ineffective when used in a slashing or chopping motion. A well aimed lunge and thrust could end a fight in seconds with just the swords point, the saber and similar blades such as the cutlass were built more heavily and were more typically used in warfare. Built for slashing and chopping at multiple enemies, often from horseback, most sabers also had sharp points and double edged blades, making them capable of piercing soldier after soldier in a cavalry charge. Sabers continued to see use until the early 20th century. The US Navy kept tens of thousands of sturdy cutlasses in their armory well into World War II, non-European weapons called sword include single-edged weapons such as the Middle Eastern scimitar, the Chinese dao and the related Japanese katana. The Chinese jian is an example of a non-European double-edged sword, the first weapons that can be described as swords date to around 3300 BC. They have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, are made from arsenical bronze, some of them are inlaid with silver. The sword developed from the dagger when the construction of longer blades became possible, from the late 3rd millennium BC in the Middle East, first in arsenic copper, then in tin-bronze. Blades longer than 60 cm were rare and not practical until the late Bronze Age because the strength of bronze is relatively low. These are the type A swords of the Aegean Bronze Age, one of the most important, and longest-lasting, types swords of the European Bronze Age was the Naue II type, also known as Griffzungenschwert
40.
Peregrine Hopson
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Peregrine Thomas Hopson was a British army officer who commanded the 40th Regiment of Foot and saw extensive service during the Eighteenth Century and rose to the rank of Major General. Hopson is perhaps best known for signing the Peace Treaty of 1752 with Mikmaq chief Jean-Baptiste Cope which is celebrated every year by Nova Scotians on Treaty Day, Hopson was born on 5 June 1696, the second son of vice admiral Sir Thomas Hopsonn and Elizabeth Timbrell. He initially joined the Royal Marines in 1703, but later transferred to join the British Army and he rose his way up to Lieutenant Colonel by 1743, serving mainly in Gibraltar. In April 1746 Hopson arrived in Louisbourg, Nova Scotia with a number of reinforcements intending to relieve the existing British garrison, the settlement had only been captured from the French a few months before. From 1747 until 1749 he served as commander of the town, on 12 July 1749 he formally handed over the town to the returning French troops. During Father Le Loutres War, Hopson served as Governor of Nova Scotia from the British capital of Halifax, while combating the Mikmaq and Acadian raids, he maintained relatively good relations with the French at Louisbourg and Quebec. He created a treaty with Jean-Baptiste Cope and sent the delegation that ended in the Attack at Isle Madame. Once a fresh war broke out with France in 1756, Hopson returned to Halifax and he also played a role in the Great Upheaval of French-speaking inhabitants of Nova Scotia before returning home to Britain. He was passed over for a role in the large British attempt to capture Louisbourg in 1758, instead he was appointed to command a major expedition to the West Indies. The campaign was a part of William Pitts strategy to win the war. Hopsons choice was particularly favoured by George II, while opposed by Pitt who insisted on appointing one of his own protégés John Barrington as second-in-command, Hopson sailed from Portsmouth in 1758 with 9,000 troops. Once in the West Indies the British set up Barbados as a base to strike out against the two main French targets Martinique and Guadeloupe. However the British attempt to capture Martinique ended in failure, with casualties and growing rates of disease. As they attempted to capture the island, the British were hit by a wave of diseases, Hopson also contracted a tropical disease and died in February 1759. His force fell under the command of Barrington, who completed the capture of Guadeloupe two months later. Crucible of War, Faber and Faber,2000 McLynn, Frank,1759, The Year Britain Became Master of the World
41.
Edward Boscawen
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Admiral Edward Boscawen, PC was an Admiral in the Royal Navy and Member of Parliament for the borough of Truro, Cornwall. He is known principally for his various naval commands during the 18th century and he is also remembered as the officer who signed the warrant authorising the execution of Admiral John Byng in 1757, for failing to engage the enemy at the Battle of Minorca. In his political role, he served as a Member of Parliament for Truro from 1742 until his death due to almost constant naval employment he seems not to have been particularly active. He also served as one of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on the Board of Admiralty from 1751, the young Edward joined the navy at the age of 12 aboard the HMS Superb of 60-guns. The Superb was sent to the West Indies with Admiral Francis Hosier.181 Boscawen stayed with Superb for three years during the Anglo-Spanish War. On 25 May 1732 Boscawen was promoted lieutenant and in the August of the same year rejoined his old ship the 44-gun fourth rate Hector in the Mediterranean and he remained with her until 16 October 1735 when he was promoted to the 70-gun HMS Grafton. On 12 March 1736 Boscawen was promoted by Admiral Sir John Norris to the command of the 50-gun HMS Leopard. His promotion was confirmed by the Board of Admiralty, vernon’s achievement was hailed in Britain as an outstanding feat of arms and in the furore that surrounded the announcement the patriotic song Rule, Britannia was played for the first time. Streets were named after Porto Bello throughout Britain and its colonies, when the fleet returned to Port Royal, Jamaica the Shoreham had been refitted and Boscawen resumed command of her. The Spanish had roughly 6,000 troops made up of soldiers, sailors. The siege lasted for two months during which period the British troops suffered over 18,000 casualties, the vast majority from disease. Vernon’s fleet suffered from dysentery, scurvy, yellow fever and other illnesses that were widespread throughout the Caribbean during the period. As a result of the battle Prime Minister Robert Walpole’s government collapsed, the defeat of Vernon was a contributing factor to the increased hostilities of the War of Austrian Succession. Boscawen had however distinguished himself once more, the land forces that he commanded had been instrumental in capturing Fort San Luis and Boca Chica Castle, and together with Knowles he destroyed the captured forts when the siege was abandoned. In the same year he was returned as a Member of Parliament for Truro, at the 1747 general election he was also returned for Saltash, but chose to continue to sit for Truro. In 1744 the French attempted an invasion of England and Boscawen was with the fleet under Admiral Norris when the French fleet were sighted, the French under Admiral Rocquefeuil retreated and the British attempts to engage were confounded by a violent storm that swept the English Channel. The Médée was sold and became a privateer under her new name Boscawen commanded by George Walker. At the end of 1744 Boscawen was give command of the HMS Royal Sovereign, in 1747 Boscawen was ordered to join Admiral Anson and took an active part in the first Battle of Cape Finisterre.186 The British fleet sighted the French fleet on 3 May
42.
Invasion of Guadeloupe (1759)
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The British expedition against Guadeloupe was a military action from January to May 1759, as part of the Seven Years War. A large British force had arrived in the West Indies, intending to seize French possessions, after a six-month-long battle to capture Guadeloupe they finally received the formal surrender of the island, just days before a large French relief force arrived under Admiral Maximin de Bompart. Though the island was ceded back to the French, the capture of the island contributed to the Annus Mirabilis of 1759. To divert French troops from Germany, William Pitt decided the British should attack France wherever they could, British troops were sent on diversionary attacks on the French coast, at St. Malo and Cherbourg. An expedition to western Africa captured the French slaving station at Senegal, in North America, a force was dispatched to take Louisbourg and Quebec. In India Robert Clive won the Battle of Plassey, for 1759, Pitt directed attention to the West Indies, specifically Martinique and Guadeloupe. On 12 November 1758, the transports, escorted by 8 ships of the line under Commodore Hughes, got under way and sailed with a fair wind to the west. On 3 January 1759, the British expedition reached Barbados where Commodore John Moore was waiting with two ships of the line to join it and to take command of the fleet. The total expeditionary force numbered some 6,800 men, the primary target of the attack was Martinique. Hopson landed his troops near Fort Royal and fought a battle against the French, the terrain ahead was judged so difficult, that it was decided to re-embark the troops immediately. A second landing was considered at Saint-Pierre but the defenses were so formidable that Hopson decided to abandon the attack on Martinique, the fleet sailed to Basse-Terre and on 22 January opened fire on the town, reducing it to a heap of blackened ruins. At dawn on 24 January, the British troops were landed, by that time the men on the sick list numbered 1,500, or fully a quarter of the force. Hopsons health was failing too and he remained inactive. Even the representations of Barrington could not stimulate him to further action, on 27 February, Hopson died, leaving the command to devolve to Barrington. The British expeditionary force was by now on the brink of destruction, more than 600 invalids had been sent to Antigua, and another 1,600 men were on the sick list. The remainder were succumbing so fast that sufficient men could hardly be found to do the daily duty, meanwhile, John Moore, being fortunately independent of Hopson in respect of naval operations, had sent ships round to Fort Louis. They speedily battered the fort into surrender and installed a garrison of 300 Highlanders, Barrington quickly put an end to the fatal period of inaction. He attacked from 3 sides and forced the French governor Nadau du Treil to capitulate on 1 May 1759, the island had been conquered, but the climate had not and it took its revenge
43.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
44.
Paul Revere
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Paul Revere was an American silversmith, engraver, early industrialist, and a Patriot in the American Revolution. He is best known for alerting the colonial militia to the approach of British forces before the battles of Lexington and Concord, as dramatized in Henry Wadsworth Longfellows poem, Paul Reveres Ride. Revere was a prosperous and prominent Boston silversmith, who helped organize an intelligence, finally in 1800 he became the first American to successfully roll copper into sheets for use as sheathing on naval vessels. Revere was born in the North End of Boston on December 21,1734, according to the Old Style calendar then in use, or January 1,1735, in the modern calendar. His father, a French Huguenot born Apollos Rivoire, came to Boston at the age of 13 and was apprenticed to the silversmith John Coney. By the time he married Deborah Hitchborn, a member of a long-standing Boston family that owned a shipping wharf, in 1729. Their son, Paul Revere, was the third of 12 children, Revere grew up in the environment of the extended Hitchborn family, and never learned his fathers native language. At 13 he left school and became an apprentice to his father, the silversmith trade afforded him connections with a cross-section of Boston society, which would serve him well when he became active in the American Revolution. As for religion, although his father attended Puritan services, Revere was drawn to the Church of England, Revere eventually began attending the services of the political and provocative Jonathan Mayhew at the West Church. His father did not approve, and as a result father, Revere relented and returned to his fathers church, although he did become friends with Mayhew, and returned to the West Church in the late 1760s. Reveres father died in 1754, when Paul was legally too young to officially be the master of the silver shop. In February 1756, during the French and Indian War, he enlisted in the provincial army, possibly he made this decision because of the weak economy, since army service promised consistent pay. He did not stay long in the army, but returned to Boston, on August 4,1757, he married Sarah Orne, their first child was born eight months later. He and Sarah had eight children, but two died young, and only one, Mary, survived her father, business was so poor that an attempt was made to attach his property in late 1765. To help make ends meet he took up dentistry, a skill set he was taught by a practicing surgeon who lodged at a friends house. One client was Doctor Joseph Warren, a physician and political opposition leader with whom Revere formed a close friendship. Revere and Warren, in addition to having common political views, were both active in the same local Masonic lodges. Although Revere was not one of the Loyal Nine—organizers of the earliest protests against the Stamp Act—he was well connected with its members, Revere did not participate in some of the more raucous protests, such as the attack on the home of Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson
45.
West Yorkshire Regiment
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The West Yorkshire Regiment was an infantry regiment of the British Army. The regiment was raised by Sir Edward Hales in 1685, by order of King James II, one of the nine new regiments of foot, raised to meet the Monmouth Rebellion it was termed Haless Regiment. The regiment served in Flanders between 1693 and 1696 and gained its first battle honour at Namur in 1695,1715 saw the regiment moved to Scotland to fight the Jacobite risings. In 1727 the regiment played a part in defending Gibraltar against the Spanish. 1745 saw the regiment in Flanders fighting at Fontenoy before being recalled to Scotland by Cumberland to fight the 45 Rebellion, fighting at Falkirk and Culloden, it became the 14th of Foot in 1751. The regiment returned to Gibraltar in 1751 for another 8-year stay, in 1765, when stationed at Windsor, it was granted royal permission for the grenadiers to wear bearskin caps with the White Horse of Hanover signifying the favour of the King. In 1766, the regiment left Portsmouth for North America and was stationed in Nova Scotia, the 14th although at the ready in their barracks did not play a part in the Boston Massacre. Captain Thomas was the officer of the day in charge of the duty detail that faced the crowds outside of the Customs House. The crowd that gathered began taunting the detail until a shot, then volley was fired into the crowd, captain Preston and the detail went to trial and were successfully defended by Lawyer John Adams thus ending tensions between the crown and the citizens of Boston for the time being. The 14th would remain part of the Boston Garrison until 1772, in 1772, the 14th arrived in St Vincent as part of the force to subjugate the maroons. Due to bush fighting and disease the regiment was depleted in numbers, at dawn on 1 January 1776, the fleet opened fire on Norfolk. Between the firing of the buildings and the firing on the town. After the fleet left, the rebels reoccupied what remained of the town, after all was said and done,1,298 buildings were destroyed and the 5th largest city in colonial America ceased to exist. After Norfolk, the left for Turkey Point near Portsmouth where it would base operations. While at Turkey Point there were a series of small raids, the fleet would stay at Turkey point only until late May when it would leave for Gwynns Island. In August, the fleet withdrew from the Chesapeake and headed to New York, the 14th was withdrawn from service, it being severely under strength from disease and battle in both the Caribbean and Virginia. In New York the remaining men of the regiment were used to supplement other regiments in the area, the officers were sent back to Britain to recruit a new regiment. The rifle companies fought well at the battle of Brandywine in Pennsylvania on 11 September, after the experimental rifle companies returned to England they were made the light companies of their respective regiments, thus ended the 14th Regiments participation in the American Revolution
46.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
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Kingdom of England
Kingdom of Great Britain
United Kingdom
British Army
