1.
96th United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from January 3,1979 to January 3,1981, during the last two years of the administration of U. S. President Jimmy Carter. The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the 1970 Census, both chambers had a Democratic majority. Helens erupted 1980 United States heat wave November 4,1980, United States elections, Republicans gain control of the Senate, the first time Republicans gain control of any chamber since 1954. September 9,1979, Panama Canal Act of 1979, Pub. L, 96–70,93 Stat.452 April 10,1979, Taiwan Relations Act, Pub. L. 96–8 October 17,1979, Department of Education Organization Act, 96–88,93 Stat.668 March 17,1980, Refugee Act, Pub. L. 96–212,94 Stat.102 September 19,1980, Regulatory Flexibility Act, 96–354,94 Stat.1164 September 29,1980, Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1980, Pub. L. 96–366,94 Stat.1322 October 14,1980, Staggers Rail Act of 1980, 96–448,94 Stat.1895 October 15,1980, Classified Information Procedures Act, Pub. L. 96–456,94 Stat.2025 December 2,1980, Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, 96–487,94 Stat.2371 December 11,1980, Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, Pub. L. 96–510,94 Stat.2767 December 11,1980, Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980, 96–511,94 Stat.2812 December 12,1980, Defense Officer Personnel Management Act, Pub. L. 96–513 December 12,1980, Bayh–Dole Act, Pub. L, 96–517,94 Stat.3018 December 22,1980, Nuclear Safety, Research, Demonstration, and Development Act of 1980, Pub. L. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and Representatives are listed by district, the names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress, white Attending Physician of the United States Congress, Freeman H. Cary Comptroller General of the United States, Elmer B. Staats Director of the Congressional Budget Office, Alice M. Rivlin Librarian of Congress, Daniel J. Boorstin Public Printer of the United States, John J. Boyle Chaplain, Edward L. R. Ford Clerk, Edmund L. Henshaw, Jr. Doorkeeper, James T. Malloy Parliamentarian, William Holmes Brown Postmaster, Robert V. Rota Sergeant at Arms, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress U. S. House of Representatives, Congressional History U. S. Senate, Statistics and Lists House of Representatives Session Calendar for the 96th Congress. Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 96th Congress, Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 96th Congress. Official Congressional Directory for the 96th Congress, 1st Session
2.
98th United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from January 3,1983 to January 3,1985, during the third and fourth years of Ronald Reagans Presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980, the Republicans controlled the Senate, while the Democrats controlled the House of Representatives. February 24,1983, A special commission of the Congress released a critical of the practice of Japanese internment during World War II. March 23,1983, President Ronald Reagan made his Strategic Defense Initiative proposal, april 18,1983, U. S. Embassy bombed in Beirut, killing 63 people. 98–21 November 2,1983, Martin Luther King, Jr. Day law, 98–399 July 17,1984, Land Remote-Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984, Pub. L. 98–365 July 17,1984, National Minimum Drinking Age Act, 98–363 September 28,1984, Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act, Pub. L. 98–435 October 12,1984, Comprehensive Crime Control Act, Pub. L, 98–473, title II October 19,1984, National Archives and Records Administration Act, Pub. L. 98–497 October 19,1984, Aviation Drug-Trafficking Control Act of 1984, 98–499 October 30,1984, Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984, Pub. L. 98–575 President, George Bush President pro tempore, Strom Thurmond Majority Leader, Howard Baker Majority Whip, Ted Stevens Republican Conference Chairman, Democratic Caucus Chairman, Gillis William Long Caucus Secretary, Geraldine Ferraro Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman, Tony Coelho Minority Leader, Robert H. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and Representatives are listed by district, halverson Historian, Richard A. Baker Parliamentarian, Bob Dove Secretary, W. F. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress U. S. House of Representatives, Congressional History U. S. Senate, Statistics, Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 98th Congress. Official Congressional Directory for the 98th Congress
3.
United States Capitol
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The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
4.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
5.
Walter Mondale
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He was the Democratic Partys presidential nominee in the United States presidential election of 1984, but lost to Ronald Reagan in a landslide. Reagan won 49 states while Mondale carried his home state of Minnesota and Washington, D. C. Mondale was born in Ceylon, Minnesota and he then served in the U. S. Army during the Korean War before earning a law degree in 1956. He married Joan Adams in 1955 and he was appointed to the U. S. Senate by Governor Karl Rolvaag upon the resignation of Senator Hubert Humphrey following Humphreys election as vice president under President Lyndon Johnson. Mondale was subsequently elected to a full Senate term in 1966 and again in 1972, while in the Senate, he supported consumer protection, fair housing, tax reform, and the desegregation of schools. Importantly, he served as a member of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, in 1976, Carter, the Democratic presidential nominee, chose Mondale as his vice presidential running mate in the forthcoming election. The Carter/Mondale ticket defeated incumbent president Gerald Ford and his presidential running mate. In 1984, Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination and campaigned for a freeze, the Equal Rights Amendment, an increase in taxes. After his defeat by Reagan, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm of Dorsey & Whitney, President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale United States Ambassador to Japan in 1993, he retired in 1996. However, Mondale narrowly lost that race and he then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a teaching position at the University of Minnesotas Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs. Walter Frederick Mondale was born in Ceylon, Minnesota, the son of Claribel Hope, a music teacher, and Theodore Sigvaard Mondale. Walters half-brother Lester Mondale became a Unitarian minister and his paternal grandparents were Norwegian immigrants, and his mother, the daughter of an immigrant from Ontario, was of Scottish and English descent. The surname Mondale comes from Mundal, a valley and town in the Fjærland region of Norway, Mondale attended public schools and Macalester College in St. Paul before transferring to the University of Minnesota, where he earned a B. A. in political science in 1951. As Mondale did not have money to attend law school, he enlisted in the U. S. Army. He married Joan Adams in 1955, through the support of the G. I. Bill, he graduated from the University of Minnesota Law School in 1956, while at law school, he served on the Minnesota Law Review and as a law clerk in the Minnesota Supreme Court under Justice Thomas F. Gallagher. He then practiced law in Minneapolis, and continued to do so for four years before entering the political arena, Mondale became involved in national politics in the 1940s. At the age of 20, he was visible in Minnesota politics by helping organize Hubert Humphreys successful Senate campaign in 1948, Humphreys campaign assigned Mondale to cover the staunchly Republican 2nd district
6.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
7.
George H. W. Bush
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George Herbert Walker Bush is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Republican Party, he was previously a congressman, ambassador, and he is the oldest living former President and Vice President. Prior to his sons presidency, he was referred to as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed his university studies, enlisted in the U. S. Navy on his 18th birthday and he served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen as a mate by party nominee Ronald Reagan. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation, in 1988, Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President, defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and, after a struggle with Congress and his presidential library was dedicated in 1997, and he has been active—often alongside Bill Clinton—in various humanitarian activities. Besides being the 43rd president, his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas and is one of only two other being John Quincy Adams—to be the son of a former president. His second son, Jeb Bush, served as the 43rd Governor of Florida, George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12,1924, to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Bush. The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich, Connecticut, shortly after his birth, growing up, his nickname was Poppy. Bush began his education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Bush decided to join the US, Navy, so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942, he became a naval aviator at the age of 18. He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron as the officer in September 1943. The following year, his squadron was based on USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, during this time, the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II, the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After Bushs promotion to Lieutenant on August 1,1944, San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands, Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima
8.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
9.
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
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The president pro tempore of the United States Senate, also president pro tem, is the second-highest-ranking official of the United States Senate. Unlike the vice president, the president pro tempore is a member of the Senate. Selected by the Senate at large, the president pro tempore has enjoyed many privileges, during the vice presidents absence, the president pro tempore is empowered to preside over Senate sessions. Since 1890, the most senior senator in the majority party has generally chosen to be president pro tempore. This tradition has been observed without interruption since 1949, the current President pro tempore of the Senate is Utah Republican Orrin Hatch. Elected on January 6,2015, he is the 90th person to serve in this office, although the position is in some ways analogous to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the powers of the president pro tempore are far more limited. The president pro tempore is third in the line of succession, following the vice president. Additional duties include appointment of various officers, certain commissions, advisory boards. The officeholder is an ex member of various boards and commissions. With the secretary and sergeant at arms, the president pro tempore maintains order in Senate portions of the Capitol, the office of president pro tempore was established by the Constitution of the United States in 1789. The first president pro tempore, John Langdon, was elected on April 6 the same year, originally, the president pro tempore was appointed on an intermittent basis when the vice president was not present to preside over the Senate. Until the 1960s, it was practice for the vice president to preside over daily Senate sessions. Until 1891, the president pro tempore only served until the return of the president to the chair or the adjournment of a session of Congress. Between 1792 and 1886, the president pro tempore was second in the line of succession following the vice president. When President Andrew Johnson, who had no president, was impeached and tried in 1868. Wades radicalism is thought by historians to be a major reason why the Senate. The President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House were removed from the line of succession in 1886. Both were restored to it in 1947, though this time with the president pro tempore following the speaker, William P. Frye served as President pro tempore from 1896 to 1911 (54th–62nd Congress, a tenure longer than anyone else
10.
Strom Thurmond
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James Strom Thurmond was an American politician who served for 48 years as a United States Senator from South Carolina. He ran for president in 1948 as the States Rights Democratic Party candidate, Thurmond represented South Carolina in the United States Senate from 1954 until 2003, at first as a Democrat and, after 1964, as a Republican. He left office as the member of either house of Congress to reach the age of 100 while still in office. Thurmond holds the record as the member of Congress to serve exclusively in the Senate. He is also the longest-serving Republican member of Congress in U. S. history, at 14 years, he was also the longest-serving Dean of the United States Senate in U. S. history. In opposition to the Civil Rights Act of 1957, he conducted the longest filibuster ever by a senator, at 24 hours and 18 minutes in length. In the 1960s, he opposed the civil legislation of 1964 and 1965 to end segregation and enforce the constitutional rights of African-American citizens. He invariably insisted he had never been a racist, but was opposed to federal authority. He attributed the movement to Communist agitators, starting in the 1970s, he moderated his position on race, but continued to defend his early segregationist campaigns on the basis of states rights in the context of Southern society at the time. He never fully renounced his earlier viewpoints, six months after Thurmond died in 2003, his mixed-race, then 78-year-old daughter Essie Mae Washington-Williams revealed he was her father. Her mother Carrie Butler had been 16 years old and working as his familys maid when Thurmond initiated a relationship with her. Although Thurmond never publicly acknowledged Essie Mae Washington, he paid for her education at a black college. She said she kept silent out of respect for her father and his children by his marriage eventually acknowledged her. Her name has since been added as one of his children to his memorial at the state capital, James Strom Thurmond was born on December 5,1902, in Edgefield, South Carolina, the son of Eleanor Gertrude and John William Thurmond, a lawyer. His ancestry included English and German and he attended Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina, where he was a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity. Thurmond graduated in 1923 with a degree in horticulture, Thurmond paid for his daughters college education and provided other support. Essie Mae Washington was raised by her aunt and uncle, and was not told about Thurmond as her father until she was in high school. After college, Thurmond worked as a farmer, teacher and athletic coach until 1929, Thurmond studied law with his father as a legal apprentice and was admitted to the South Carolina bar in 1930
11.
Tip O'Neill
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The only Speaker to serve for five complete consecutive Congresses, he is the third longest-serving Speaker in American history after Sam Rayburn and Henry Clay. ONeill was the third of three born to Thomas Phillip ONeill Sr. and Rose Ann ONeill in the Irish middle-class area of North Cambridge, Massachusetts. His mother died when he was nine months old, and he was raised largely by a French-Canadian housekeeper until his father remarried when he was eight. ONeill Sr. started out as a bricklayer, but later won a seat on the Cambridge City Council and was appointed Superintendent of Sewers, during his childhood, ONeill received the nickname Tip after the Canadian baseball player James Tip ONeill. From there he went to Boston College, from which he graduated in 1936, ONeill first became active in politics at 15, campaigning for Al Smith in his 1928 presidential campaign. Four years later, he helped campaign for Franklin D. Roosevelt, as a senior at Boston College, ONeill ran for a seat on the Cambridge City Council, but lost, his first race and only electoral defeat. The campaign taught him the lesson that became his best-known quote, ONeill was an absolute, unrepentant, unreconstructed New Deal Democrat, Farrell wrote. In 1949, he became the first Democratic Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in its history and he remained in that post until 1952, when he ran for the United States House of Representatives from his home district. ONeill was elected to the seat vacated by Senator-elect John F. Kennedy in 1952. He would be reelected 16 more times, never facing serious opposition and his district, centered around the northern half of Boston, was originally numbered as the 11th District, but became the 8th District in 1963. After wrestling with the surrounding the Vietnam War, in 1967 ONeill broke with President Lyndon B. Johnson. ONeill wrote in his autobiography that he became convinced that the conflict in Vietnam was a civil war. While the decision cost ONeill some support among voters in his home district, he benefited from new support among students. In 1971, ONeill was appointed Majority Whip in the House, two years later, in 1973, he was elected House Majority Leader, following the disappearance of a small plane carrying Majority Leader Hale Boggs and Congressman Nick Begich in Alaska. As Majority Leader, ONeill was the most prominent Democrat in the House to call for the impeachment of President Richard M. Nixon in light of the Watergate scandal. As a result of the Tongsun Park influence-peddling scandal, House Speaker Carl Albert retired from Congress and ONeill was elected Speaker in 1977, the same year Jimmy Carter became President. The Democrats, however, lacked party discipline, and while the Carter administration and ONeill started out strong with the passage of ethics and energy packages in 1977, ONeill was also put off by Carters frugal behavior in cutting executive staff and reducing the scale of White House entertaining. Carter, a Southern Baptist, even ended the practice of serving alcohol at the White House
12.
Party leaders of the United States Senate
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The Senate Majority and Minority Leaders are two United States Senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate. They are elected to their positions in the Senate by their party caucuses, the Senate Democratic Caucus. By rule, the Presiding Officer gives the Majority Leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate, the Assistant Majority and Minority Leaders of the United States Senate are the second-ranking members of each partys leadership. The main function of the Majority and Minority Whips is to gather votes on major issues, because they are the second ranking member of the Senate, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader. Before 1969, the titles were Majority Whip and Minority Whip. The Senate is currently composed of 52 Republicans,46 Democrats, the current leaders are Republican Majority Leader Mitch McConnell of Kentucky and Democratic Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York. The current Assistant Majority Leader is Republican John Cornyn of Texas, the current Assistant Minority Leader/Whip is Democrat Dick Durbin of Illinois. The Democrats began the practice of electing floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority, John W. Kern was a Democratic Senator from Indiana. While the title was not official, he is considered to be the first Senate party leader from 1913 through 1917, the Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as President of the United States Senate. The Constitution also calls for a President pro tempore to serve as the leader of the body when the President of the Senate is absent, for these reasons, it is the Majority Leader who, in practice, manages the Senate. This is in contrast to the House of Representatives where the elected Speaker of the House has a deal of discretionary power. The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920, the Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925. gov Republican Majority Democratic Minority
13.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
14.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
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Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
16.
Presidency of Jimmy Carter
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The presidency of Jimmy Carter began on January 20,1977 at noon Eastern Standard Time, when Jimmy Carter was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,1981. A Democrat, he took office after defeating Republican incumbent President Gerald Ford in the 1976 presidential election, at the end of his administration, Carter had seen a substantial decrease in unemployment and a partial reduction of the deficit, but the recession ultimately continued. Carter created the United States Department of Education and United States Department of Energy, established an energy policy and pursued civil service. In foreign affairs, Carter strongly emphasized human rights throughout his career and he initiated the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties and the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Carters reorganization efforts separated the Department of Health, Education and Welfare into the Department of Education and he signed into law a major Civil Service Reform, the first in over 100 years. On January 20,1977, his first day in office, the Head Start program was expanded, with the addition of 43,000 children and families, while the percentage of nondefense dollars spent on education was doubled. The Child Nutrition Amendments Act of 1978 introduced a national standard for program eligibility based on income standards prescribed for reduced-price school lunches. The Act also strengthened the nutrition education component of the WIC program by requiring the provision of education to all program participants. A Fair Debt Collection Practices Act was also passed with the aim of prohibiting abusive, programs from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and womens programs were also strengthened and common sense priorities led to focus on major health problems. The National Consumer Cooperative Bank Act of 1978 sought to put aside for low-interest loans to start cooperatives. Also under Carters watch, the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 was passed and he also enacted deregulation in the trucking, rail, communications, and finance industries. Among Presidents who served at least one term, Carter is the only one who never made an appointment to the Supreme Court. Carter was the first president to address the topic of gay rights and he opposed the Briggs Initiative, a California ballot measure that would have banned gays and supporters of gay rights from being public school teachers. His administration was the first to meet with a group of gay rights activists and he has stated that he opposes all forms of discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and believes there should be equal protection under the law for people who differ in sexual orientation. Despite calling for a reform of the tax system in his presidential campaign, President Carter reduced the top tax rate on capital gains to 28% from as high as 98%. His Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act created 103 million acres of park land in Alaska. Carter successfully campaigned as a Washington outsider, critical of President Gerald Ford, as well as the Democrat-controlled U. S. Congress, as president, Carter continued this theme. It was this refusal to play by the rules of Washington, however, from the start, Hamilton Jordan and Frank Moore feuded with leading Democrats like House Speaker Tip ONeill
17.
Presidency of Ronald Reagan
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The presidency of Ronald Reagan began on January 20,1981, at noon Eastern Standard Time, when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,1989. Reagan, a Republican, took office as the 40th United States president following a win over Democratic incumbent President Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election. The election was an election, the Reagan Revolution, that changed the trajectory of the nation. Reagan was succeeded by his president, George H. W. Bush. Domestically, the claimed to support reducing government programs. The economic policies enacted in 1981, known as Reaganomics, were an example of supply-side economics, economic growth was strong for most of the 1980s, however, there was a recession in the beginning of his term and the national debt increased significantly. S. Troops since the end of the Vietnam War and it also controversially granted aid to paramilitary forces seeking to overthrow leftist governments, particularly in war-torn Central America and Afghanistan. In diplomacy, he forged an alliance and friendship with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher of Great Britain. Reagan also held multiple meetings with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. In June 1987, when visiting West Berlin and standing at the Berlin Wall, Reagan demanded, Mr. Gorbachev tear down this wall. This dramatic moment helped Reagan claim that his approach beat Communism as the Berlin Wall fell, Soviet domination of Eastern Europe came to an end, and, by 1991, the damaging Iran–Contra affair engulfed several Reagan aides during his second term. His administration was criticized for lending support to right-wing military movements that committed human rights violations, Reagan was the first president since Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve two full terms. Reagan was an advocate of free markets and laissez-faire economics and believed that the U. S. economy was hampered by excessive regulations and social programs. His first act as president was to issue an order ending price controls on domestic oil, which had contributed to the 1973 oil crisis. Reagan focused his first months in office on two goals, tax reforms and increased military spending, during Reagans first term, the nation fell into a recession that lasted from 1981 to 1982, with unemployment remaining high, as much as 10%, during 1982 and 1983. Income inequality in the U. S. also rose substantially during Reagans presidency, despite this, the economy made a strong recovery and experienced one of the longest periods of peacetime growth in its history.7 percent. Despite Reagans stated desire to cut spending, federal spending grew during his administration, one of Reagans most controversial early moves was to fire most of the countrys air traffic controllers after they took part in a strike action. Reagan also reduced Social Security by cutting disability and survivor benefits and he also took tougher positions against some crime, and declared a renewed War on Drugs
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1970 United States Census
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Microdata from the 1970 census are freely available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files and these data were originally created and disseminated by DUALabs. Personally identifiable information will be available in 2042, california took over as the most populous state, New York had previously been ranked number one. While the entire country increased to more than 204 million persons, four states lost population with West Virginia leading the list, down 8, historic US Census data 1971 U. S Census Report, with estimated 1970 Census results 1970 Census of Population
19.
1981 in the United States
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Events from the year 1981 in the United States. President, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan Vice President, Walter Mondale, George H. W. Bush Chief Justice, january 20 – Ronald Reagan succeeds Jimmy Carter, as the 40th President of the United States. Minutes later, Iran releases the 52 Americans held for 444 days, january 25 – Super Bowl XV, The Oakland Raiders defeat the Philadelphia Eagles 27–10 at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. February 10 – A fire at the Las Vegas Hilton hotel-casino kills 8, march 6 – After 19 years hosting the CBS Evening News, Walter Cronkite signs off for the last time. March 19 – Three workers are killed and 5 injured during a test of the Space Shuttle Columbia, march 21 – Michael Donald lynched. March 30 – U. S. President Ronald Reagan is shot in the chest outside a Washington, D. C. hotel by John Hinckley, Two police officers and Press Secretary James Brady are also wounded. March 31 – The 53rd Academy Awards, hosted by Johnny Carson, are held at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles, Robert Redfords directorial debut in Ordinary People wins Best Picture and Best Director. April 12 – The Space Shuttle program, Space Shuttle Columbia launches on the STS-1 mission, may 15 – Donna Payant is murdered by serial killer Lemuel Smith, the first time a female prison officer has been killed on-duty in the United States. June 12 – Major League Baseball goes on strike, forcing the cancellation of 38 percent of the schedule, june 21 – Wayne Williams, a 23-year-old African American, is arrested and charged with the murders of two other African Americans. He is later accused of 28 others, in the Atlanta child murders, june 29 – Morris Edwin Robert, armed with a machine gun, holds hostages in the FBI section at the Atlanta, Georgia Federal Building. After three hours the hostages are rescued and Robert is killed in a shootout with Federal Agents, july 7 – President Ronald Reagan nominates the first woman, Sandra Day OConnor, to the Supreme Court of the United States. July 8 – California Governor Jerry Brown, faced with a Mediterranean fruit fly infestation, chooses to delay the aerial spraying of malathion, in favor of continuing ground-based eradication efforts. July 17 Hyatt Regency walkway collapse, Two skywalks filled with people at the Hyatt Regency Hotel in Kansas City, Missouri collapse into an atrium lobby. Embargo on the export of aircraft to Israel, july 27 – Adam Walsh,6, is kidnapped from a Sears store in Hollywood, Florida. August 1 – MTV is launched on television in the United States. August 5 – Ronald Reagan fires 11,359 striking air-traffic controllers who ignored his order for them to return to work, august 7 – The Washington Star ceases publication after 128 years. August 9 – Major League Baseball resumes from the strike with the All-Star Game in Clevelands Municipal Stadium, august 12 – The original Model 5150 IBM PC is released in the United States at a base price of $1,565. August 19 Gulf of Sidra incident, Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi sends 2 Sukhoi Su-22 fighter jets to intercept 2 U. S. fighters over the Gulf of Sidra, the American jets destroy the Libyan fighters
20.
1982 in the United States
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Events from the year 1982 in the United States. President, Ronald Reagan Vice President, George H. W. Bush Chief Justice, burger Speaker of the House of Representatives, Tip ONeill Senate Majority Leader, Howard Baker Congress, 97th January 8 – AT&T agrees to divest itself into 22 subdivisions. January 11–17 – A brutal cold snap sends temperatures to record lows in dozens of cities throughout the Midwestern United States. January 13 – Shortly after takeoff, Air Florida Flight 90 crashes into Washington, D. C. s 14th Street Bridge and falls into the Potomac River, on the same day, a Washington Metro train derails to the north, killing 3. January 17 – Cold Sunday sweeps over the northern United States, february 27 – Atlanta murders of 1979-1981, Wayne Williams is convicted of the murdering two children and is sentenced to two consecutive life terms. March 10 – The United States places an embargo on Libyan oil imports, march 16 – In Newport, Rhode Island, Claus von Bülow is found guilty of the attempted murder of his wife. March 26 – A ground-breaking ceremony for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial is held in Washington, march 29 – The 54th Academy Awards, hosted by Johnny Carson, are held at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles, California. Chariots of Fire wins Best Picture and three other Academy Awards, april 21 – Queen Beatrix becomes the first Dutch monarch to address the United States Congress. April 23 – Dennis Wardlow, mayor of Key West, Florida, may 1 – A crowd of over 100,000 attends the first day of the 1982 Worlds Fair in Knoxville, Tennessee. The fair is kicked off with an address by President Ronald Reagan, june 8 – President Ronald Reagan becomes the first American chief executive to address a joint session of the British Parliament. June 12 – A rally against nuclear weapons draws 750,000 to New York Citys Central Park, Jackson Browne, James Taylor, Bruce Springsteen, and Linda Ronstadt attend. June 25 – The Institute for Puerto Rican Policy is founded in New York City to research and advocate for Puerto Rican, in 2006, it changes its name to the National Institute for Latino Policy. July 2 – Larry Walters, a. k. a, lawn Chair Larry, flies 16,000 feet above Long Beach, California, in a lawn chair with weather balloons attached. July 9 – Pan Am Flight 759 crashes in Kenner, Louisiana, july 16 – In New York City, The Reverend Sun Myung Moon is sentenced to 18 months in prison and fined $25,000 for tax fraud and conspiracy to obstruct justice. August 20 Lebanese Civil War, A multinational force lands in Beirut to oversee the PLO withdrawal from Lebanon, french troops arrive August 21, U. S. School teacher Carl Robert Brown murders 8 people inside a shop in Miami, Florida. September 3 - Speaker ONeill and President Reagan settle in one of the most unforgettable deals in the US History which would cut the ratio of spendings of three to one and add more taxes, september 5 – Iowa paperboy Johnny Gosch is kidnapped. September 29 – October 1 – The 1982 Chicago Tylenol murders occur when 7 people in the Chicago area die after ingesting capsules laced with potassium cyanide
21.
1983 in the United States
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Events from the year 1983 in the United States. President, Ronald Reagan Vice President, George H. W. Bush Chief Justice, january 2 – The musical Annie is performed for the last time after 2,377 shows at the Alvin Theatre on Broadway, New York City. January 3 – Kilauea begins slowly erupting on the Big Island of Hawaii and is still flowing as of 2016, january 19 – Apple Inc. releases the Apple Lisa personal computer. January 26 – Lotus 1-2-3 is released for IBM-PC compatible computers, january 30 – The Washington Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins by a score of 27 –17 in Super Bowl XVII. February 18 – Wah Mee massacre,13 people are killed in a robbery in Seattle. February 23 The United States Environmental Protection Agency announces its intention to buy out and evacuate the dioxin-contaminated community of Times Beach, failure of automatic shut-down at Salem Nuclear Power Plant, New Jersey, USA. February 24 – A special commission of the Congress of the United States releases a report critical of the practice of Japanese internment during World War II, february 28 – The final episode of M*A*S*H airs, setting a new record for most-watched television broadcast in American history. March 8 – IBM releases the IBM PC XT, march 9 – Anne Burford resigns as head of the United States Environmental Protection Agency amid scandal. March 23 – Strategic Defense Initiative, U. S. President Ronald Reagan makes his proposal to develop technology to intercept enemy missiles. The media dub this plan Star Wars, march 25 – Michael Jackson performs the dance move that will forever be known as the moonwalk at Motown 25. April 18 – The April 1983 U. S. Embassy bombing in Beirut kills 63 people. April 25 – Manchester, Maine schoolgirl Samantha Smith is invited to visit the Soviet Union by its leader Yuri Andropov, may 17 – Lebanon, Israel, and the United States sign an agreement on Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon. May 25 – National Missing Childrens Day is proclaimed by President Ronald Reagan, may 28 – The 9th G7 summit begins at Williamsburg, Virginia. June 13 – Pioneer 10 becomes the first man-made object to leave the solar system, june 18 – STS-7, Sally Ride becomes the first American woman in space, on the Space Shuttle Challenger. July 7 – Samantha Smith flies to the Soviet Union, August 1 – America West Airlines begins operations out of Phoenix, Arizona and Las Vegas, Nevada. August 18 – Hurricane Alicia hits the Texas coast, killing 22, August 24 – The Old Philadelphia Arena is destroyed by arson. August 30 – STS-8, Space Shuttle Challenger carries Guion S. Bluford, September 1 – Cold War, Korean Air Lines Flight 007 is shot down by a Soviet Union jet fighter when the commercial aircraft enters Soviet airspace. All 269 on board are killed including U. S, September 5 – Tom Brokaw becomes lead anchor for NBC Nightly News
22.
Early 1980s recession
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The early 1980s recession describes the severe global economic recession affecting much of the developed world in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The United States and Japan exited the recession relatively early, in the early 1980s, Canada experienced higher inflation, interest rates, and underemployment than the United States did. The Bank of Canada rate hit 21% in August 1981, the inflationary period made Canadians seek to protect themselves through investment in the housing market. Some saw an advantage to high interest rates by speculation in real estate, the increase in transactions was financed through borrowing and ultimately caused debt levels to rise. Canadian firms, preoccupied with prospective investment opportunities because of inflation, no longer focused on innovation. In addition, high inflation was partly responsible for government spending. The overall tax burden rose from 27% of income in 1951, to 34% in 1969, from 1975 to 1992 national debt more than tripled to 8% of GDP. The resulting high interest rates caused more Canadian income to be out to foreign holders of Canadian public. Canada changed from a producing and exporting mainly primary products to one producing and exporting more manufactured goods. Jobs were lost to mechanization in industry, moreover, globalization meant that Canadian firms had to downsize their workforce in order to stay efficient and compete internationally. In early 1980s, Canada’s unemployment rate peaked at 12% and it took almost four years for the number of full-time jobs to be restored. A slowdown in productivity also emerged during the recession, real GDP declined by 5% between June 1981 and December 1982 and average output per worker slowed to 1%. The U. S. decision to switch to an exchange rate devalued the Canadian dollar. By 1979, the Canadian dollar was worth 85 cents U. S. which made U. S. imports more expensive, on the other hand, Canada’s major exports declined in price. Combined with high inflation, and interest rates, these high commodity prices reduced the standard of living, as with most of the rest of the developed world, recession hit the United Kingdom at the beginning of the 1980s. This followed a string of crises that plagued the British economy for most of the 1970s, consequently, unemployment had gradually increased since the mid-1960s. Inflation was about 10% and some 1.5 million people were unemployed, compared to some 1 million in 1974,580,000 in 1970, Thatcher set about controlling inflation with monetarist policies and changing trade union legislation in an attempt to reduce the strikes of public-sector workers. Thatchers battle against inflation resulted in the closure of many inefficient factories, shipyards, inflation fell below 10% by the turn of 1982 and by spring 1983, it had fallen to a 15-year low of 4%
23.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
24.
Iran hostage crisis
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The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic standoff between Iran and the United States. S. It stands as the longest hostage crisis in recorded history, the crisis was described by the Western media as an entanglement of vengeance and mutual incomprehension. President Jimmy Carter called the victims of terrorism and anarchy and said. After his overthrow in 1979, the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was purportedly admitted to the United States for cancer treatment, Iran demanded that he be returned to stand trial for crimes he was accused of committing during his reign. Specifically, Pahlavi was accused of committing crimes against Iranian citizens with the help of his secret police, Iranians saw the decision to grant him asylum as American complicity in those atrocities. The Americans saw the hostage-taking as a violation of the principles of international law. The crisis reached a climax after diplomatic negotiations failed to win release for the hostages, six American diplomats who had evaded capture were eventually rescued by a Canadian effort on January 27,1980. Shah Pahlavi left the United States in December 1979 and was granted asylum in Egypt. In September 1980, the Iraqi military invaded Iran, beginning the Iran–Iraq War and these events led the Iranian government to enter negotiations with the U. S. with Algeria acting as a mediator. The hostages were released into United States custody the day after the signing of the Algiers Accords, just minutes after the new American president. The crisis is considered an episode in the history of Iran–United States relations. Political analysts cite it as a factor in the downfall of Jimmy Carter’s presidency. In Iran, the crisis strengthened the prestige of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the crisis also led to the United States’ economic sanctions against Iran, further weakening ties between the two countries. In February 1979, less than a year before the crisis, for several decades before that, the United States had allied with and supported the Shah. During World War II, Allied powers Britain and the Soviet Union occupied Iran to force the abdication of first Pahlavi monarch Reza Shah Pahlavi, in favor of his eldest son, Crown Prince Mohammad. Because of its importance in the Allied victory, Iran was subsequently called The Bridge of Victory by Winston Churchill, by the 1950s, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was engaged in a power struggle with Iran’s prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh, an immediate descendant of the preceding Qajar dynasty. Mosaddegh led a strike on behalf of impoverished Iranians, demanding a share of the nation’s petroleum revenue from Britain’s Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. However, he overstepped in trying to get $50 million in damages, in 1953, the British and American spy agencies helped Iranian royalists depose Mosaddegh in a military coup détat codenamed Operation Ajax, allowing the Shah to extend his power
25.
Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan
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On March 30,1981, a shooting occurred at the Washington Hilton Hotel in Washington D. C. which targeted Ronald Reagan, the 40th President of the United States. While leaving an engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel in Washington. There were no fatalities in the aftermath of the attack. Reagan was shot in the chest, just below the left underarm and he suffered a punctured lung and heavy internal bleeding, but prompt medical attention allowed him to recover quickly. The most seriously wounded victim was White House Press Secretary James Brady and he would later die in 2014 of causes a Virginia medical examiner found were directly related to the 1981 shooting. Hinckley also wounded Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy and Washington D. C. police officer Thomas Delahanty, Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the President at his trial, and Foster was required by a federal judge to testify. Hinckley remained confined to a psychiatric facility, on July 27,2016 it was announced he would be released to live with his mother in Williamsburg, Virginia, no earlier than August 5, he was subsequently released on September 10. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Bradys death, Hinckleys motivation for the attack was born of his obsession with actress Jodie Foster because of erotomania. While living in Hollywood in the late 1970s, he saw the film Taxi Driver at least 15 times, apparently identifying strongly with Travis Bickle, the arc of the story involves Bickles attempts to protect a 12-year-old child prostitute, played by Foster. Towards the end of the film, Bickle attempts to assassinate a United States Senator who is running for president and he wrote numerous letters and notes to her in late 1980. He called her twice and refused to give up when she indicated that she was not interested in him, convinced that by becoming a national figure he would be Fosters equal, Hinckley decided to emulate Bickle and began to stalk President Jimmy Carter. His parents briefly put him under the treatment of a psychiatrist, subsequently, Hinckley turned his attention to Ronald Reagan whose election, he told his parents, would be good for the country. He wrote three or four notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to her dean, who gave them to the Yale police department, which sought to track Hinckley down but failed. On March 21,1981, Ronald Reagan, the new President of the United States, visited Fords Theatre in Washington, D. C. with his wife Nancy for a fundraising event. He recalled, I looked up at the box above the stage where Abe Lincoln had been sitting the night he was shot. I thought that even all the Secret Service protection we now had. Hinckley arrived in Washington on March 28, by bus and checked into the Park Central Hotel and he noticed Reagans schedule listed in The Washington Star, and decided it was time to act
26.
STS-1
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STS-1 was the first orbital spaceflight of NASAs Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, Columbia, launched on 12 April 1981 and returned on 14 April,54.5 hours later, Columbia carried a crew of two – mission commander John W. Young and pilot Robert L. Crippen. It was the first American manned space flight since the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975. STS-1 was also the maiden test flight of a new US spacecraft to carry a crew, though it was preceded by atmospheric testing of the orbiter. The launch occurred on the 20th anniversary of the human spaceflight. This was a rather than a celebration of the anniversary. Both Young and Crippen were selected as the STS-1 crew in March 1978, Young was the most experienced astronaut in NASA at the time and was also the only member of his astronaut class in service. He had first flown in 1965 as pilot of Gemini 3, the first manned flight of the Gemini program, and would later command Gemini 10 in 1966. After the conclusion of the Gemini program, Young flew as command pilot of Apollo 10 in 1969. He later became Chief of the Astronaut Office in 1974, Crippen, who had joined NASA in 1969 after the cancellation of the Manned Orbiting Laboratory, was a rookie and would become the first of his astronaut group to fly in space. Columbia was manifested with EMUs for both Young and Crippen in the event of an emergency spacewalk, if such an event occurred, Crippen would go outside the orbiter, with Young standing by in case Crippen required assistance. To that end, they suggested that STS-1, instead of being an orbital flight and this involved an abort being called in the first few moments after launch, and using its main engines, once the SRBs had been jettisoned, to power it back to the launch site. The NASA managers were swayed by Young questioning the need for the test, and the weight of his opinion was strong especially as someone who not only been to the moon twice, but walked on it. Young, commander, and Robert L. Crippen, pilot, lifted off from Pad A, Launch Complex 39, the launch took place at 7 a. m. A launch attempt two days earlier was scrubbed because of a problem in one of Columbia’s general-purpose computers. Not only was this the first launch of the Space Shuttle, STS-1 was also the first U. S. manned space vehicle launched without an unmanned powered test flight. The primary mission objectives of the flight were to perform a general check out of the Space Shuttle system, accomplish a safe ascent into orbit. All of these objectives were met successfully, and the orbiters spaceworthiness was verified, during the second day of the mission, the astronauts received a phone call from Vice President George H. W. Bush
27.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
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Sandra Day O'Connor
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Sandra Day OConnor is a retired associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, serving from her appointment in 1981 by Ronald Reagan until her retirement in 2006. She was the first woman to serve as a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Prior to OConnors tenures on the Court, she was an elected official, on July 1,2005, she announced her intention to retire effective upon the confirmation of a successor. Samuel Alito was nominated to take her seat in October 2005, considered a federalist and a moderate Republican, OConnor tended to approach each case narrowly without arguing for sweeping precedents. She most frequently sided with the conservative bloc, although in the latter years of her tenure. OConnor was Chancellor of The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia and she also served on the Board of Trustees for Colonial Williamsburg. Several publications have named OConnor among the most powerful women in the world, on August 12,2009, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor of the United States, by President Barack Obama. She was born in El Paso, Texas, the daughter of Harry Alfred Day, a rancher and her sister was Ann Day, who served in the Arizona Legislature. She grew up on a ranch near Duncan, Arizona where she had to change automobile flat tires herself in dangerous environments. She later wrote a book with her brother, H. Alan Day, Lazy B, Growing up on a Cattle Ranch in the American West, about her childhood experiences on the ranch. For most of her schooling, OConnor lived in El Paso with her maternal grandmother, and attended school at the Radford School for Girls. She graduated sixth in her class at Austin High School in El Paso in 1946 and she attended Stanford University, where she received her B. A. in economics in 1950. She continued at the Stanford Law School for her LL. B and she has stated that she graduated third in her law school class, although Stanfords official position is that the law school did not rank students in 1952. On December 20,1952, six months after graduating law school. Her husband suffered from Alzheimers disease for twenty years until his death in 2009. After graduation from law school, at least forty law firms refused to interview her for a position as an attorney because she was a woman. She eventually found employment as a deputy county attorney in San Mateo, California, after she offered to work for no salary and without an office, sharing space with a secretary. When her husband was drafted, she decided to pick up and they remained there for three years before returning to the states, where they settled in Maricopa County, Ariz. to begin their family
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Beatrix of the Netherlands
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Beatrix reigned as Queen of the Netherlands from 1980 until her abdication in 2013, after a reign of exactly 33 years. Beatrix is the eldest daughter of Queen Juliana and her husband, upon her mothers accession in 1948, she became heir presumptive. Beatrix attended a primary school in Canada during World War II. In 1961, she received her law degree from Leiden University, in 1966, Beatrix married Claus von Amsberg, a German diplomat, with whom she had three children. When her mother abdicated on 30 April 1980, Beatrix succeeded her as queen, on Koninginnedag,30 April 2013, Beatrix abdicated in favour of her eldest son, Willem-Alexander, and resumed the title of princess. At the time of her abdication, Beatrix was the oldest reigning monarch of the Netherlands, Beatrix was born Princess Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld, on 31 January 1938 at the Soestdijk Palace in Baarn, Netherlands. She is the first child of Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, Beatrix was baptized on 12 May 1938 in the Great Church in The Hague. Beatrixs middle names are the first names of her grandmother, the then reigning Queen Wilhelmina. When Beatrix was one old, in 1939, her younger sister Princess Irene was born. World War II broke out in the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, on 13 May, the Dutch Royal Family evacuated to London, United Kingdom. One month later, Beatrix went to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, with her mother Juliana and her sister Irene, while her father Bernhard, the family lived at the Stornoway residence. With bodyguards and ladies in waiting, the family summered at Bigwin Inn on Lake of Bays, while on Bigwin Island, the constitution of the Netherlands was stored in the cast iron safe of Bigwin Inns Rotunda building. In order to them with a greater sense of security, culinary chefs. Upon their departure, the musicians of the Bigwin Inn Orchestra assembled dockside, and at every public performance afterward through to the end of World War II. In the years following the shuttering and neglect of the island resort, the second sister of Beatrix, Princess Margriet, was born in Ottawa in 1943. During their exile in Canada, Beatrix attended nursery and Rockcliffe Park Public School, on 5 May 1945, the German troops in the Netherlands surrendered. The family returned to the Netherlands on 2 August 1945, Beatrix went to the progressive primary school De Werkplaats in Bilthoven. Her third sister Princess Christina was born in 1947, in April 1950, Princess Beatrix entered the Incrementum, a part of Baarnsch Lyceum, where, in 1956, she passed her school-graduation examinations in the subjects of arts and classics
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United States Senate elections, 1982 and 1983
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The United States Senate elections,1982 were held on November 2,1982. It was an election for the United States Senate following Republican gains in 1980, a total of four seats changed hands between parties, and the lone independent, Senator Harry Byrd, retired. Democrats made a net gain of one seat in the election, Byrd, Jr. was taken by a Republican, and the open seat in New Jersey that was held by an appointed Republican was taken by a Democrat. In 1983, Henry M. Jackson died, and a Republican, Dan Evans, was appointed to fill the vacancy and this is not included in the numbers below. A bolded state indicates an article about that states election. United States elections,1982 United States House of Representatives elections,1982 97th United States Congress 98th United States Congress
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Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981
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The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, also known as the ERTA or Kemp-Roth Tax Cut, was a federal law enacted in the United States in 1981. This act slashed estate taxes and trimmed taxes paid by corporations by $150 billion over a five-year period. Additionally the tax rates were indexed for inflation, though the indexing was delayed until 1985 and it passed Congress on August 4,1981, and was signed into law on August 13,1981, by President Ronald Reagan at Rancho del Cielo, his California ranch. The Dow Jones average, which had been over 1000 before enactment of ERTA, much of the 1981 ERTA was backed out in September 1982 by the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982, sometimes called the largest tax increase of the post-war period. The Reagan recovery began within weeks of enactment of TEFRA and this bill and the Tax Reform Act of 1986 are known together as the Reagan tax cuts. The maximum expense in calculating credit was increased from $2000 to $2400 for one child, the credit increased from 20% or a maximum of $400 or $800 to 30% of $10,000 income or less. The 30% credit is diminished by 1% for every $2,000 of earned income up to $28000, at $28000, the credit for earned income is 20%. The amount a married taxpayer who files a join return increased under the Economic Recovery Tax Act to $125,000 from $100,000, a single person is limited to an exclusion of $62,500. It also increases the amount of a one time exclusion of gain realized on the sale of principal residence by a persons at least 55 years old. Accelerated Cost Recovery System This was a component of the ERTA and was eventually amended to the Modified Accelerated cost Recovery System in 1986. The system changed the way that assets are evaluated for tax purposes from estimating the perspective useful life of assets to the depreciation of the assets. Assets now fell into categories,3,5,10, for example, the agriculture industry saw a re-evaluation of their farming assets. Things like automobiles and swine were given 3 year depreciation values, the idea here was that there would be a rise in tax cuts due to the optimistic consideration of depreciating values. This would in turn put more cash into the pockets of owners to promote investment. The most lasting impact and significant change of the Act was the indexing of the tax code parameters for inflation, of the nine federal tax laws between 1968 and this Act, six were tax cuts compensating for inflation driven bracket creep. Following enactment in August 1981, the first 5% of the 25% total cuts took place beginning in October, an additional 10% began in July 1982, followed by a third decrease of 10% beginning in July 1983. The total share borne by middle income earners of the 50th to 95th percentiles decreased from 57. 5% to the 48. 7% between 1981 and 1988, another explanation is any such across the board tax cut removes some from the tax rolls. Those who remain pay a percentage of a now smaller tax pie even though they pay less in absolute taxes
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United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
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Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982
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The Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982, also known as TEFRA, is a United States federal law that rescinded some of the effects of the Kemp-Roth Act passed the year before. The rapid rise in the deficit created concern among many in Congress. TEFRA was introduced November 13,1981 and was sponsored by Representative Pete Stark of California, after much deliberation, the final version was signed by President Ronald Reagan on September 3,1982. The Act includes certain provisions related to the US Health Care System, excise taxes on cigarettes were temporarily doubled, and excise taxes on telephone service temporarily tripled, in TEFRA. President of the United States Ronald Reagan agreed to the tax hikes on the promise from Congress of a $3 reduction in spending for every $1 increase in taxes, some conservatives, led by then-Congressman Jack Kemp, claim that the promised spending reductions never occurred. One week after TEFRA was signed, H. R.6863 – the Supplemental Appropriations Act of 1982 which Ronald Reagan claimed would bust the budget was passed by both houses of Congress over his veto, the original TEFRA bill as passed by the House would have lowered taxes. The Republican-controlled Senate replaced the text of the original House bill with a number of tax increases, in 1988, libertarian political writer Sheldon Richman described TEFRA as the largest tax increase in American history. In 2003, former Reagan adviser Bruce Bartlett wrote in National Review that TEFRA raised taxes by $37, however, this increase was achieved primarily through the cancellation of future tax cuts scheduled by ERTA the year before that had yet to take effect at the time of TEFRAs passage. Taxpayers still receive $375 billion in tax cuts in the 3 years following TEFRA, a chart from the United States Department of the Treasury study showing the bills effect on government revenues is reproduced below. As it shows, the TEFRA increased tax revenues by almost 1% of GDP, in marked contrast to the 1981 tax cuts and it allowed States to add a hospice benefit to the Medical program
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Nuclear Waste Policy Act
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The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 is a United States federal law which established a comprehensive national program for the safe, permanent disposal of highly radioactive wastes. During the first 40 years that nuclear waste was being created in the United States, Nuclear waste, some of which remains radioactive with a half-life of more than one million years, was kept in various types of temporary storage. Of particular concern during nuclear waste disposal are two long-lived fission products, Tc-99 and I-129, which spent fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Np-237 and Pu-239, most existing nuclear waste came from production of nuclear weapons. About 77 million gallons of military nuclear waste in liquid form was stored in tanks, mostly in South Carolina, Washington. In the private sector,82 nuclear plants operating in 1982 used uranium fuel to produce electricity, highly radioactive spent fuel rods were stored in pools of water at reactor sites, but many utilities were running out of storage space. Congress assigned responsibility to the U. S. Department of Energy to site, construct, operate, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency was directed to set public health and safety standards for releases of radioactive materials from a repository, and the U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission was required to promulgate regulations governing construction, operation, generators and owners of spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste were required to pay the costs of disposal of such radioactive materials. The waste program, which was expected to cost billions of dollars, an Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management was established in the U. S. Department of Energy to implement the Act. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act required the Secretary of Energy to issue guidelines for selection of sites for construction of two permanent, underground nuclear waste repositories, DOE was to study five potential sites, and then recommend three to the President by January 1,1985. Five additional sites were to be studied and three of them recommended to the president by July 1,1989 as possible locations for a second repository, a full environmental impact statement was required for any site recommended to the President. Salt and granite formations in other states from Maine to Georgia had also been surveyed, but not evaluated in great detail. The amount of waste or spent fuel that could be placed in the first repository was limited to the equivalent of 70,000 metric tons of heavy metal until a second repository was built. The Act required the government to take ownership of all nuclear waste or spent fuel at the reactor site, transport it to the repository. The Act authorized DOE to provide up to 1,900 metric tons of storage capacity for spent fuel from civilian nuclear reactors. It required that spent fuel in storage facilities be moved to permanent storage within three years after a permanent waste repository went into operation. Costs of temporary storage would be paid by fees collected from electric utilities using the storage, Environmental assessments were required for the sites. It barred construction of an MRS facility in a state under consideration for a permanent waste repository, the DOE in 1985 recommended an integral MRS facility
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Howard Baker
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Howard Henry Baker Jr. was an American politician and diplomat who served as a Republican U. S. Senator from Tennessee and Senate Majority Leader, Baker later served as White House Chief of Staff for President Ronald Reagan, and a United States Ambassador to Japan. He worked as a lobbyist and adviser at Baker, Donelson, Bearman, known in Washington, D. C. as the Great Conciliator, Baker was often regarded as one of the most successful senators in terms of brokering compromises, enacting legislation and maintaining civility. Baker was a conservative who was also respected enormously by most of his Democratic colleagues. Baker was born in Huntsville, Tennessee, to Dora Ann and his father served as a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from 1951 until 1964, representing a traditionally Republican district in East Tennessee. Baker attended The McCallie School in Chattanooga, and after graduating, during World War II, he trained at a U. S. Navy facility on the campus of the University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee, in the V-12 Navy College Training Program. He served in the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946, the same year, he was admitted to the Tennessee bar and began his law practice. The rotunda at the University of Tennessee College of Law is now named for Baker, while he was delivering a commencement speech during his grandsons graduation at East Tennessee State University on May 5,2007, Baker was awarded an honorary doctorate degree. Baker was an alumnus of the Alpha Sigma Chapter of the Pi Kappa Phi fraternity. Baker began his career in 1964, when he lost to the liberal Democrat Ross Bass in a U. S. Senate election to fill the unexpired term of the late Senator Estes Kefauver. Baker won the election, capitalizing on Clements failure to energize the Democratic base. He won by a somewhat larger-than-expected margin of 55.7 percent to Clements 44.2 percent, Baker thus became the first Republican senator from Tennessee since Reconstruction and the first Republican to be popularly elected to the Senate from Tennessee. Harry W. Wellford, then an attorney but later a U. S. District Court justice and then U. S. 6th Circuit Court of Appeals Justice, served as Bakers campaign chair. Baker was re-elected in 1972 and again in 1978, serving altogether from January 3,1967, to January 3,1985. In 1969, he was already a candidate for the Minority Leadership position that opened up with the death of his father-in-law, Everett Dirksen, at the beginning of the following Congress in 1971, Baker ran again, losing to Scott this time 20–24. President Richard Nixon asked Baker in 1971 to fill one of the two empty seats on the U. S. Supreme Court, when Baker took too long to decide whether he wanted the appointment, Nixon changed his mind and nominated William Rehnquist instead. In 1973-74, Baker became the ranking minority member of the Senate committee chaired by Senator Sam Ervin. Baker is famous for having asked aloud, What did the President know, the question is sometimes attributed to being given to him by his counsel and former campaign manager, future U. S
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Ted Stevens
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Theodore Fulton Ted Stevens Sr. was a United States Senator from Alaska, whose tenure extended from December 24,1968, until January 3,2009. He was thus the longest serving Republican senator in history at the time he left office, his record was surpassed in January 2017 by Orrin Hatch of Utah. He was President pro tempore in the 108th and 109th Congresses from January 3,2003, to January 3,2007, Stevens served for six decades in the American public sector, beginning with his service in World War II. In 1952, his law career took him to Fairbanks, Alaska, in 1956, he returned to Washington D. C. to work in the Eisenhower Interior Department, where he played an important role in bringing about statehood for Alaska. He was elected to the Alaska House of Representatives in 1964, in 1968, Stevens ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for U. S. Senate, but was appointed to Alaskas other Senate seat when it became vacant later that year. He was also known for his sponsorship of the Amateur Sports Act of 1978, in 2008, Stevens was embroiled in a federal corruption trial as he ran for re-election to the Senate. He was found guilty, and eight days later was defeated at the polls. Stevens is the most senior U. S, Senator to have ever lost a reelection bid. However, prior to sentencing, the indictment was dismissed—effectively vacating the conviction—when a Justice Department probe found evidence of prosecutorial misconduct. Many have argued the prosecution was unfair and politically motivated, Stevens died on August 9,2010, when a de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter he and several others were flying in crashed en route to a private fishing lodge. The family later lived in Chicago, where George Stevens was an accountant before losing his job during the Great Depression, the only adult in the household with a job was Stevenss grandfather. Stevens helped to support the family by working as a newsboy, and would later remember selling many newspapers on March 1,1932, in 1934 Stevenss grandfather punctured a lung in a fall down a tall flight of stairs, contracted pneumonia, and died. Stevenss father, George, died in 1957 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, Stevens and his cousin Patricia moved to Manhattan Beach, California, to live with Patricias mother, Gladys Swindells. After graduating from school in 1942, Stevens enrolled at Oregon State University to study engineering, attending for a semester. With World War II in progress, Stevens attempted to join the Navy and serve in Naval Aviation and he corrected his vision through a course of prescribed eye exercises, and in 1943 he was accepted into an Army Air Force Air Cadet program at Montana State College. After scoring near the top of an aptitude test for training, Stevens was transferred to preflight training in Santa Ana, California. Stevens served in the China-Burma-India theater with the Fourteenth Air Force Transport Section and he and other pilots in the transport section flew C-46 and C-47 transport planes, often without escort, mostly in support of Chinese units fighting the Japanese. Stevens received the Distinguished Flying Cross for flying behind enemy lines, the Air Medal, and he was discharged from the Army Air Forces in March 1946
