1.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
2.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
3.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
4.
Russian Airborne Troops
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The Russian Airborne Troops or VDV is a military branch of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. They are a force, on par with the Strategic Rocket Forces. The force was split after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, losing divisions to Belarus and Ukraine, Russian airborne forces have traditionally worn a blue beret and blue-striped telnyashka and are called desant from the French Descente. The first airborne forces parachute jump is dated to 2 August 1930, Airborne landing detachments were established after the initial 1930 experimental jump, but creation of larger units had to wait until 1932–33. On 11 December 1932, a Revolutionary Military Council order established an airborne brigade from the detachment in the Leningrad Military District. V. Two further airborne brigades and three regiments were created in 1936. In March and April 1941, five Airborne Corps were established on the basis of the existing 201st, 204th, 211th, 212th, and 214th Airborne Brigades. The number of Airborne Corps rose from five to ten in late 1941, the Soviet airborne forces were mostly used as foot infantry during the war. Only a few small airborne drops were carried out in the first desperate days of Operation Barbarossa, in the vicinity of Kiev, Odessa, Glantz writes, After the extensive airborne activity during the winter campaign of 1941–42, airborne forces underwent another major reorganization the following summer. Furthermore, the Stavka converted all ten airborne corps into guards rifle divisions to bolster Soviet forces in the south, nine of these divisions participated in the battles around Stalingrad, and one took part in the defense of the northern Caucasus region. The Stavka still foresaw the necessity of conducting actual airborne operations later during the war, to have the Stavka created eight new airborne corps in the fall of 1942. Beginning in December 1942, these corps became ten guards airborne divisions, the new guards airborne divisions trained in airborne techniques, and all personnel jumped three to ten times during training, though many were from jump towers. After the defeat of German forces at Kursk, the bulk of the airborne divisions joined in the pursuit of German forces to the Dnepr River, even as ten guards airborne divisions fought at the front, new airborne brigades formed in the rear areas. In April and May 1943, twenty brigades formed and trained for airborne operations. Most of these brigades had become six new guards airborne divisions by September 1943, the Stavka however, earmarked three of these airborne brigades for use in an airborne operation to cross the Dnepr River, which was unsuccessful. David Glantz wrote in 1984, In August, the Stavka formed the 37th, 38th, by October, the newly formed corps had combined into a separate airborne army under Maj. Gen. I. I. However, because of the growing need for well-trained ground units, in December, separate airborne army the Stavka reorganized the separate airborne army into the 9th Guards Army of Col. Gen. V. V. Glagolev, and all divisions were renumbered as guards rifle divisions. As testimony to the nature of airborne-trained units, the Stavka held the 9th Guards Army out of defensive actions
5.
Airborne forces
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Airborne forces are military units, usually light infantry, set up to be moved by aircraft and dropped into battle, typically by parachute. Thus, they can be placed behind enemy lines, and have the capability to deploy almost anywhere with little warning. The formations are limited only by the number and size of their aircraft, so given enough capacity a huge force can appear out of nowhere in minutes, Major Lewis H. Brereton and his superior Brigadier General Billy Mitchell suggested dropping elements of the U. S. 1st Division behind German lines near Metz, the operation was planned for February 1919 but the war ended before such an attack could be seriously planned. Mitchell conceived that US troops could be trained to utilize parachutes. Following the war, the United States Army Air Service experimented with the concept of having carried on the wings of aircraft pulled off by the opening of their parachutes. The first true paratroop drop was by Italy in November 1927, within a few years several battalions had been raised and were eventually formed into two Folgore and Nembo divisions. Although these would fight with distinction in World War II. Men drawn from the Italian parachute forces were dropped in a special operation in North Africa in 1943 in an attempt to destroy parked aircraft of the United States Army Air Forces. Subsequently, on May 10,1928, Second Lieutenant César Álvarez War Palmas Las voluntarily jumped from a height of 3,000 meters, then on May 16,1928, Major Fernando Melgar Conde and Sergeant 1st. Jose Pineda Castro, jumped from the famous Las Palmas at altitudes of 2,000 and 4,300 meters, at about the same time, the Soviet Union was also experimenting with the idea, planning to drop entire units complete with vehicles and light tanks. To help train enough experienced jumpers, parachute clubs were organized with the aim of transferring into the armed forces if needed, one of the observing parties, Germany, was particularly interested. In 1936, Major F. W. Immans was ordered to set up a school at Stendal. The military had purchased large numbers of Junkers Ju 52 aircraft which were slightly modified for use as paratroop transports in addition to their other duties. The first training class was known as Ausbildungskommando Immans and they commenced the first course on May 3,1936. Other nations, including Argentina, Peru, Japan, France, France became the first nation to organize women in an airborne unit. Recruiting 200 nurses who during peacetime would parachute into natural disasters, several groups within the German armed forces attempted to raise their own paratroop formations, resulting in confusion. As a result, Luftwaffe General Kurt Student was put in command of developing a paratrooper force to be known as the Fallschirmjäger
6.
Light infantry
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Light infantry are soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry, heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight formations that were the core of large battles. Heavy infantry originally had heavier arms and more armour than light infantry, as with so called light infantry of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in order as skirmishers that made them light infantry. Early regular armies of the era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a company as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the infantry but often in widely dispersed groups. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary, and would fight ahead of the line to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position. Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and these became designated as rifle regiments in Britain and Jäger regiments in German speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called voltigeurs and chasseurs, the Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from mountainous frontier areas. Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drum. Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments of light infantry, by the late 19th century the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice, some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments. On the eve of World War I the British Army included seven light infantry regiments, today the term light denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division, 7th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, 25th Infantry Division, operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U. S. Forces, mostly light, during the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability
7.
Air assault
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Invariably the assaulting troops are highly dependent on aerial fire support provided by the armed helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft escorting the VTOL. Air assault should not be confused with air attack, air strike, or air raid, Air assault and air mobility are related concepts. However, air assault is distinctly a combat insertion rather than transportation to an area in the vicinity of combat, Air assault operations are not merely movements of soldiers, weapons, and materiel by Army aviation units and must not be construed as such. Air assault units can vary in organization, using not only in transport but also as close air fire support, medical evacuation helicopters. Airmobile artillery is often assigned to air assault deployments, units vary in size, but are typically company- or brigade-sized units. Airmobile units are designed and trained for air insertion and vertical envelopment, air resupply, one specific type of air assault unit is the US Army air cavalry. It differs from regular air assault units only in fulfilling a traditional cavalry reconnaissance, similarly, the US 101st Airborne Division was originally classed as airborne, then airmobile and now air assault. Air mobility has been a key concept in offensive operations since the 1930s, initial approaches to air mobility focused on airborne and glider-borne troops. During World War II many assaults were done by military gliders, the World War Two era German Fallschirmjäger and Brandenburgers glider borne paras laid the foundation for modern day Air Assault operations. In 1941 the U. S. Army quickly adopted this concept of offensive operations initially utilizing wooden gliders before the development of helicopters, following the war faster aircraft led to the abandonment of the flimsy wooden gliders with the then new helicopters taking their place. Another example being the German Brandenburgers glider borne operation at Ypenburg during World War Two, in 1946, U. S. Marine General Roy S. During this time, The Commandant of the Marine Corps, Alexander Vandegrift and this board recommended that the USMC develop transport helicopters in order to allow a diffused attack on enemy shores. It also recommended that the USMC form an experimental helicopter squadron. HMX-1 was commissioned in 1947 with Sikorsky HO3S-1s, in 1948 the Marine Corps Schools came out with Amphibious Operations—Employment of Helicopters, or Phib-31, which was the first manual for helicopter airmobile operations. The Marines used the vertical envelopment instead of air mobility or air assault. HMX-1 performed its first vertical envelopment from the deck of a carrier in an exercise in 1949. American forces later used helicopters for support and transport to great effect during the Korean War showing that the helicopter could be a versatile, the first helicopter airlift and helicopter sling load mission was conducted on September 13,1951 during the Korean War. Operation Windmill I was conducted by the United States Marine Corps in support of a clearing the enemy from a series of ridges around an extinct volcano called The Punchbowl. In total seven HRS-1 Marine helicopters made 28 flights that delivered 8,550 kg of supplies and evacuated 74 seriously wounded men
8.
Division (military)
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A division is a large military unit or formation, usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. Infantry divisions during the World Wars ranged between 10,000 and 30,000 in nominal strength, in most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, in turn, several divisions typically make up a corps. In the West, the first general to think of organising an army into smaller units was Maurice de Saxe, Marshal General of France. He died at the age of 54, without having implemented his idea, victor-François de Broglie put the ideas into practice. He conducted successful practical experiments of the system in the Seven Years War. The first war in which the system was used systematically was the French Revolutionary War. It made the more flexible and easy to manoeuvre. Under Napoleon, the divisions were grouped together into corps, because of their increasing size, napoleons military success spread the divisional and corps system all over Europe, by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, all armies in Europe had adopted it. In modern times, most military forces have standardized their divisional structures, the peak use of the division as the primary combat unit occurred during World War II, when the belligerents deployed over a thousand divisions. With technological advances since then, the power of each division has increased. Divisions are often formed to organize units of a particular type together with support units to allow independent operations. In more recent times, divisions have mainly been organized as combined arms units with subordinate units representing various combat arms, in this case, the division often retains the name of a more specialized division, and may still be tasked with a primary role suited to that specialization. For the most part, large cavalry units did not remain after World War II, in general, two new types of cavalry were developed, air cavalry or airmobile, relying on helicopter mobility, and armored cavalry, based on an autonomous armored formation. The former was pioneered by the 11th Air Assault Division, formed on 1 February 1963 at Fort Benning, on 29 June 1965 the division was renamed as the 1st Cavalry Division, before its departure for the Vietnam War. After the end of the Vietnam War, the 1st Cavalry Division was reorganised and re-equipped with tanks, the development of the tank during World War I prompted some nations to experiment with forming them into division-size units. Many did this the way as they did cavalry divisions, by merely replacing cavalry with AFVs. This proved unwieldy in combat, as the units had many tanks, instead, a more balanced approach was taken by adjusting the number of tank, infantry, artillery, and support units. A panzer division was a division of the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS of Germany during World War II
9.
Russian Armed Forces
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The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation are the military service of the Russian Federation, established after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces is the President of Russia, the Russian Armed Forces were formed in 1992. These are not normally included as branches of the Armed Forces but are used in armed conflicts. The number of personnel is specified by decree of the President of Russia, on 1 January 2008, a number of 2,019,629 units, including military of 1,134,800 units, was set. In 2010 the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated that the Russian Armed Forces numbered about 1,027,000 active troops and in the region of 2,035,000 reserves. As opposed to personnel specified by decree, actual personnel in the forces are paid was reported by the Audit Chamber of Russia as 766,000 in October 2013, as of December 2016, the armed forces are at 93 percent of the required manpower. According to SIPRI, Russia spent $66.4 billion on arms in 2015, between the years 2005-2009 and 2010-2014, Russian exports of major weapons increased by 37 percent according to SIPRI. According to the Russian Defense Ministry, share of weapons in the Armed Forces reached from 26 to 48% among different kinds of troops in December 2014. This was raised to 30. 5–70. 7% as of July 2015, average was 48 per cent over the first half of 2016. The Soviet Union officially dissolved on 31 December 1991, leaving the Soviet military in limbo, for the next year and a half various attempts to keep its unity and to transform it into the military of the Commonwealth of Independent States failed. Until 1995, it was planned to form at least 11 brigades numbering 3,000 to 5,000 each, National Guard military units were to be deployed in 10 regions, including in Moscow, Leningrad, and a number of other important cities and regions. By the end of September 1991 in Moscow the National Guard was about 15,000 strong, in the end, President Yeltsin tabled a decree On the temporary position of the Russian Guard, but it was not put into practice. On 14 February 1992 Shaposhnikov formally became Supreme Commander of the CIS Armed Forces, finally, on 7 May 1992 Yeltsin signed a decree establishing the armed forces and Yeltsin assumed the duties of the Supreme Commander. In May 1992 General Colonel Pavel Grachev became the Minister of Defence, by August or December 1993 CIS military structures had become CIS military cooperation structures with all real influence lost. In the next few years, Russian forces withdrew from central and eastern Europe, the Armed Forces have several bases in foreign countries, especially on territory of the former Soviet Republics. A new military doctrine, promulgated in November 1993, implicitly acknowledged the contraction of the old Soviet military into a military power without global ambitions. Such change proved extremely difficult to achieve, under Pavel Grachev little military reform took place, though there was a plan to create more deployable mobile forces. Later Defence Minister Rodionov had good qualifications but did not manage to institute lasting change, only under Defence Minister Igor Sergeyev did a certain amount of limited reform begin, though attention focused upon the Strategic Rocket Forces
10.
Ivanovo
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Ivanovo is a city and the administrative center of Ivanovo Oblast, Russia, located 254 kilometers from Moscow and approximately 100 kilometers from Yaroslavl, Vladimir, and Kostroma. The Uvod River, a tributary of the Klyazma, flows north to south. There are also two rivers in Ivanovo, the Talka and the Kharinka, the city is first mentioned in 1561, when it was given to the Cherkassky princely family by Ivan IV, after the latters marriage to Maria Cherkasskaya. However, the relevant document has since been lost, the modern city was created by merging the old flax-processing village Ivanovo with the industrial Voznesensky Posad in 1871. Yakov Garelin—a patron of arts, historian, manufacturer, and public figure—is considered to be the founder of the city, under his government, the city began to develop, industrialise, and grow. Until 1932, the name of the city was Ivanovo-Voznesensk. Because of its manufacturing industry, Ivanovo earned the sobriquet of the Russian Manchester during the 19th century. By the early 20th century, Ivanovo was competing with Łódź for the title of the textile production center of Europe. As the workers living conditions were appalling, the strikes were frequent, one of these strikes led to the first Russian revolution. According to the Soviet historiography, the Ivanovo Soviet was one of the first soviets in history, in 1937 the city opened the Interdom - a school for children of foreign Communists, including high learning. In Ivanov the legendary air squadron Normandie-Niemen began operations, by agreement between the Soviet government and the Free French government-in-exile in late 1942, a group of French pilots was sent to the Soviet Union. Construction of a new airport began on the outskirts of the city. The pilots were provided with decent housing, and 14 Yak-1 fighter aircraft, during 1943, the French fought alongside the Soviet Air Forces. After the war, along with the textile industry in Ivanovo engineering. In the 1960s, the city became the center of the Upper-Economic Council, the 1980s saw the accelerated pace of housing construction. Since the beginning of the 21st century there has been declining production in Ivanovo, in the first decade of the century, a large number of enterprises were closed. The weaving factories BIM, BAT melange Plant and other companies in the textile industry ceased to exist. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the City of Ivanovo—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts
11.
Winter War
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The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939–1940. It began with the Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, the League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union from the League on 14 December 1939. Finland refused and the USSR invaded the country, the Soviets possessed more than three times as many soldiers as the Finns, thirty times as many aircraft, and a hundred times as many tanks. The Red Army, however, had been crippled by Soviet leader Joseph Stalins Great Purge of 1937. With more than 30,000 of its officers executed or imprisoned, including most of those of the highest ranks, because of these factors, and high morale in the Finnish forces, Finland repelled Soviet attacks for several months, much longer than the Soviets expected. However, after reorganization and adoption of different tactics, the renewed Soviet offensive overcame Finnish defenses at the borders, hostilities ceased in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty. Finland ceded territory representing 11% of its area and 13% of its economy to the Soviet Union. Soviet losses were heavy, and the international reputation suffered. While the Soviet Union did not conquer all Finland, Soviet gains exceeded their pre-war demands and they gained substantial territory along Lake Ladoga, providing a buffer for Leningrad, and territory in northern Finland. Finland retained its sovereignty and enhanced its international reputation, the end of the war cancelled the Franco-British plan to send troops to Finland through northern Scandinavia. One of the goals of the projected Franco-British operation had been to take control of northern Swedens iron ore. For this reason it was also a factor in the launching of Operation Weserübung, Nazi Germanys invasion of Denmark. The poor performance of the Red Army encouraged Hitler to think that an attack on the Soviet Union would be successful, until the beginning of the 19th century, Finland constituted the eastern part of the Kingdom of Sweden. In 1809, to protect their capital, Saint Petersburg. While abortive because of Russias internal strife, these attempts ruined Russias relations with the Finns, the new Bolshevik Russian government was weak, and with the threat of civil war looming Soviet Russia recognized the new Finnish government just three weeks after the declaration of independence. Sovereignty was fully achieved in May 1918 after a civil war. Finland joined the League of Nations in 1920, from which it sought security guarantees, nevertheless, the government of Sweden carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy. Another Finnish military policy was the top secret military cooperation between Finland and Estonia, the 1920s and early 1930s were a politically unstable time in Finland
12.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
13.
Budapest Offensive
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The Budapest Offensive was the general attack by Soviet and Romanian armies against Nazi Germany and their Axis allies from Hungary. The offensive lasted from 29 October 1944 until the fall of Budapest on 13 February 1945 and this was one of the most difficult and complicated offensives that the Soviet Army carried on in Central Europe. It resulted in a victory for the USSR, as it disabled the last European political ally of Nazi Germany. Having secured Romania in the summer Iasi–Kishinev Offensive, the Soviet forces continued their push in the Balkans, in the process, the Red Army’s forces drew German reserves away from the Warsaw-Berlin central axis, encircled and destroyed the German 6. Armee and forced Army Group South Ukraine’s shattered 8, armee to withdraw west into Hungary. From October 1944, the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Ukrainian Fronts advanced into Hungary, after isolating the Hungarian capital city in late December, the Soviets besieged and assaulted Budapest. On 13 February 1945, the city fell, the battles in these two periods were exceptionally bloody and fierce, since the Germans offered strong resistance against the Soviet onslaught. Though the Red Army managed to gain territory, they failed to capture Budapest, due to the fierce German resistance. In the Third Period, the 3rd Ukrainian Front of Fyodor Tolbukhin reached the Danube river after liberating Belgrade, the Fourth Period was marked by a series of strong counter-offensives launched by German reinforcements in an attempt to relieve the siege of Budapest. Some German units managed to penetrate deep into the outskirts of the city, however, the Soviets managed to withstand all the German attacks and maintain their encirclement. Finally, in the Fifth Period, the Soviets mustered their forces to eliminate the defenders in the city. The German troops fought for half a month more before surrendering on 13 February 1945. Out of the estimated 150,000 defenders less than 1,000 managed to avoid death or captivity, after the Budapest offensive, the main forces of Army Group South virtually collapsed. The road to Vienna, Czechoslovakia and the border of Germany was widely open for the Soviets. According to Soviet claims, the Germans and Hungarians in Budapest lost 49,000 dead soldiers, the expansive goals of this operation were to protect one of the last oil producing regions available to the Axis and to retake Budapest. Siege of Budapest Operation Spring Awakening Soviet occupation of Hungary David M. Glantz, The Soviet‐German War 1941–45, Myths and Realities, A Survey Essay
14.
Vienna Offensive
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The Vienna Offensive was launched by the Soviet 3rd Ukrainian Front in order to capture Vienna in Austria. The offensive lasted from 2 to 13 April 1945, the city of Vienna was surrounded and under siege for most of the offensive until its capture. After the failure of Operation Spring Awakening, Sepp Dietrichs 6th SS Panzer Army retreated in stages to the Vienna area, the Germans desperately prepared defensive positions in an attempt to guard the city against the rapidly arriving Soviets. In spring 1945, the advance of Soviet General Fyodor Tolbukhins 3rd Ukrainian Front through western Hungary gathered momentum on both sides of the Danube. On 30 March, the advancing Soviets crossed the Hron and Nitra Rivers, Tolbukhin was now ready to advance into Austria and take Vienna. On 2 April, Vienna Radio denied that the Austrian capital had been declared an open city, on the same day, Soviet troops approached Vienna from the south after they overran Wiener Neustadt, Eisenstadt, Neunkirchen and Gloggnitz. Baden and Bratislava were overrun on 4 April, after arriving in the Vienna area, the armies of the Soviet 3rd Ukrainian Front surrounded, besieged, and attacked the city. Involved in this action were the Soviet 4th Guards Army, the Soviet 6th Guards Tank Army, the Soviet 9th Guards Army, and the Soviet 46th Army. The O-5 Resistance Group, Austrians led by Carl Szokoll, wanting to spare Vienna destruction, actively attempted to sabotage the German defenses and to aid the entry of the Red Army. The only major German force facing the Soviet attackers was the German II SS Panzer Corps of the 6th SS Panzer Army, along with ad hoc forces made up of garrison and anti-aircraft units. Declared a defensive region, Viennas defense was commanded by General Rudolf von Bünau, the battle for the Austrian capital was characterized in some cases by fierce urban combat, but there were also parts of the city the Soviets advanced into with little opposition. Defending in the Prater Park was the 6th Panzer Division, along the side of the city were the 2nd and 3rd SS Panzer Divisions. The Soviets assaulted Viennas eastern and southern suburbs with the 4th Guards Army, the German defenders kept the Soviets out of the city’s southern suburbs until 7 April. The western suburbs were especially important to the Soviets because they included Viennas main railway station, the Soviet success in the western suburbs was followed quickly by infiltration of the eastern and northern suburbs later the same day. North of the Danube River, the 46th Army pushed westward through Viennas northern suburbs, central Vienna was now cut off from the rest of Austria. By the 9th of April, the Soviet troops began to infiltrate the center of the city, on the night of 11 April, the 4th Guards Army stormed the Danube canals, with the 20th Guards Rifle Corps and 1st Mechanized Corps moving on the Reichsbrücke Bridge. However, other important bridges were destroyed, Vienna finally fell when the last defenders in the city surrendered on the same day. Bittrichs II SS Panzer Corps, however, pulled out to the west on the evening of 13 April to avoid encirclement, the same day, the 46th Army took Essling and the Danube Flotilla landed naval infantry up the river by Klosterneuburg
15.
Prague Offensive
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The Prague Offensive was the last major Soviet operation of World War II in Europe. The offensive, and the battle for Prague, was fought on the Eastern Front from 6 May to 11 May 1945 and this battle for the city is particularly noteworthy in that it ended after the Third Reich capitulated on 8 May 1945. This battle is notable in that it was fought concurrently with the Prague Uprising. The city of Prague was ultimately liberated by the USSR during the Prague Offensive, all of the German troops of Army Group Centre and many of Army Group Ostmark were killed or captured, or fell into the hands of the Allies after the capitulation. The capitulation of Army Group Centre was nine days after the fall of Berlin, by the beginning of May 1945, Germany had been decisively defeated by the coalition of the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. Germanys capital, Berlin, was on the verge of capitulation in the face of a massive Soviet attack and the great bulk of Germany had been conquered. However, in southeastern Germany, parts of Austria and Czechoslovakia, there were large bodies of active German troops of Army Group Centre. On 2 May 1945, general Alfred Jodl ordered the German forces to avoid being captured by Russia, the German remnant forces continued to resist the USSR 4th and 1st Ukrainian Fronts while only accepted armistice in the Western Front. And while the German command body gradually lost its control over its armed forces, SS and Gestapo forces were still working at its highest intensity. SS officers and comannders were increasingly affiliated in command and control of German armed forces, and in contrast to the declining quality of Nazi units in the last day of the war, SS corps still maintained their remarkably high fighting capability. The Nazi regime considered Czechoslovakia and neighboring areas as their last bastion in the case Berlin fell. Therefore, in 1945 they concentrated many powerful military units in the region, including elements of 6th SS Panzer Army, 1st and 4th Panzer Armies, and 7th, 8th and 17th Combined Armies. Alfred Jodl has ordered the local Nazi regime to prepare numerous fortified buildings which could serve as offices for the new Nazi government and German High Command. From 30 April to 1 May 1945, SS Senior Group Leader, Frank was also a general of the Waffen SS. The situation in Prague was unstable, Frank knew that several Soviet Army fronts were advancing towards Prague. More immediately, he was faced with a city population ready to be liberated, at the same time, two divisions of the Russian Liberation Army arrived in the vicinity of Prague. The KONR 1st Division encamped north of the city while the KONR 2nd Division took up positions south of the city, ostensibly allied with the Germans, the allegiance of the KONR forces would prove to vary depending on the situation they faced. On the Allied side, both Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin saw Prague as a significant prize, the seizure of which could influence the political makeup of postwar Czechoslovakia
16.
First Chechen War
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The First Chechen War, also known as the War in Chechnya, was a conflict between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, fought from December 1994 to August 1996. The official figure for Russian military deaths is 5,732, although there are no accurate figures for the number of Chechen forces killed, various estimates put the number at about 3,000 to 17,391 deaths and missing. The conflict led to a significant decrease of population due to violence. Following long local resistance during the 1817−1864 Caucasian War, Imperial Russian forces defeated the Chechens, in 1936, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin established the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The official pretext was punishment for collaboration with the invading German forces during the 1940–1944 insurgency in Chechnya, eventually, Soviet first secretary Nikita Khrushchev granted the Vainakh peoples permission to return to their homeland and restored their republic in 1957. Russia became an independent nation after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, while Russia was widely accepted as the successor state to the USSR, it lost a significant amount of its military and economic power. In the Soviet period, some of Russias approximately 100 nationalities were granted ethnic enclaves that had various formal federal rights attached, relations of these entities with the federal government and demands for autonomy erupted into a major political issue in the early 1990s. Boris Yeltsin incorporated these demands into his 1990 election campaign by claiming that their resolution was a high priority, there was an urgent need for a law to clearly define the powers of each federal subject. In almost all cases, demands for autonomy or independence were satisfied by concessions of regional autonomy. The treaty outlined three basic types of subjects and the powers that were reserved for local and federal government. The only federal subjects that did not sign the treaty were Chechnya, neither Yeltsin nor the Chechen government attempted any serious negotiations and the situation deteriorated into a full-scale conflict. The storming caused the death of the head of Groznys branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Vitaly Kutsenko and this effectively dissolved the government of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Republic of the Soviet Union. In the following month, Dudayev won overwhelming support to oust the interim administration that was supported by the central government. He was made president and declared independence from the Soviet Union, in November 1991, Yeltsin dispatched Internal Troops to Grozny, but they were forced to withdraw when Dudayevs forces surrounded them at the airport. The newly created republic of Ingushetia then joined the Russian Federation, from 1991 to 1994, tens of thousands of people of non-Chechen ethnicity left the republic amidst reports of violence and discrimination against the non-Chechen population. During the undeclared Chechen civil war, factions both sympathetic and opposed to Dudayev fought for power, sometimes in pitched battles with the use of heavy weapons, in March 1992, the opposition attempted a coup détat, but their attempt was crushed by force. A month later, Dudayev introduced direct rule, and in June 1993. To prevent the invasion of Chechnya, he did not provoke the Russian troops, in August 1994, the coalition of the opposition factions based in north Chechnya launched a large-scale armed campaign to remove Dudayevs government
17.
Second Chechen War
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The Second Chechen War was an invasion launched by the Russian Federation, starting 26 August 1999, in response to the Invasion of Dagestan by the Islamic International Brigade. On 1 October, Russian troops entered Chechnya, the campaign ended the de facto independence of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and restored Russian federal control over the territory. Some Chechen separatists also carried out attacks against civilians in Russia and these attacks, as well as widespread human rights violations by Russian and separatist forces, drew international condemnation. In mid-2000, the Russian government transferred certain military operations to pro-Russian Chechen forces, the military phase of operations was terminated in April 2002, and the coordination of the field operations were given first to the Federal Security Service and then to the MVD in the summer of 2003. By 2009, Russia had severely disabled the Chechen separatist movement, Russian army and interior ministry troops no longer occupied the streets. Grozny underwent reconstruction efforts and much of the city and surrounding areas were rebuilt quickly, sporadic violence continues throughout the North Caucasus, occasional bombings and ambushes targeting federal troops and forces of the regional governments in the area still occur. On 15 April 2009, the government operation in Chechnya was officially ended, as the main bulk of the army was withdrawn, the burden of dealing with the ongoing low-level insurgency mainly fell on the shoulders of the local police force. The exact death toll from this conflict is unknown, unofficial estimates range from 25,000 to 50,000 dead or missing, mostly civilians in Chechnya. Russian casualties are over 5,200 and are about 11,000 according to the Committee of Soldiers Mothers, Chechnya is an area in the Northern Caucasus which has constantly fought against foreign rule, including the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century. The Russian Terek Cossack Host was established in lowland Chechnya in 1577 by free Cossacks who were resettled from the Volga to the Terek River, in 1783, Russia and the Georgian kingdom of Kartl-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, under which Kartl-Kakheti became a Russian protectorate. To secure communications with Georgia and other regions of the Transcaucasia, Russian forces first moved into highland Chechnya in 1830, and the conflict in the area lasted until 1859, when a 250, 000-strong army under General Baryatinsky broke down the highlanders resistance. Frequent uprisings in the Caucasus also occurred during the Russo-Turkish War, the Chechen states were opposed by both sides of the Russian Civil War and most of the resistance was crushed by Bolshevik troops by 1922. Then, months before the creation of the Soviet Union, the Chechen Autonomous Oblast of the Russian SFSR was established and it annexed a part of territory of the former Terek Cossack Host. Chechnya and neighboring Ingushetia formed the Chechen–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, in 1941, during World War II, a Chechen revolt broke out, led by Khasan Israilov. Chechens were accused by Joseph Stalin of aiding Nazi forces, in February 1944 Stalin deported all the Chechens and Ingush to the Kazakh and Kirghiz SSRs. Up to a quarter of people died during the resettlement. In 1957, after the death of Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev allowed the Chechens to return, afterwards, the authority of the Soviet government gradually eroded. During the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Chechnya declared independence, in 1992, Chechen and Ingush leaders signed an agreement splitting the joint Chechen–Ingush republic in two, with Ingushetia joining the Russian Federation and Chechnya remaining independent
18.
Russo-Georgian War
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The Russo-Georgian War was a war between Georgia, Russia and the Russian-backed self-proclaimed republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The war took place in August 2008 following a period of worsening relations between Russia and Georgia, both constituent republics of the Soviet Union. The fighting took place in the strategically important Transcaucasia region, which borders the Middle East and it was regarded as the first European war of the 21st century. The Republic of Georgia declared its independence in early 1991 as the Soviet Union began to fall apart, following the war, a joint peacekeeping force of Georgian, Russian, and Ossetian troops was stationed in the territory. Meanwhile, a stalemate developed in the region of Abkhazia. By August 1,2008, Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages, to put an end to these deadly attacks and restore order, the Georgian Army was sent to the South Ossetian conflict zone on 7 August. Georgians took control of most of Tskhinvali, a separatist stronghold, Georgia later stated it was also responding to Russia moving non-peacekeeping units into the country. Russia accused Georgia of aggression against South Ossetia, and launched a land, air. Russian and Ossetian forces battled Georgian forces in and around South Ossetia for several days, Russian and Abkhaz forces opened a second front by attacking the Kodori Gorge held by Georgia. Russian naval forces blockaded part of the Georgian coast and this was the first war in history in which cyber warfare coincided with military action. An active information war was waged during and after the conflict. President of France Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated an agreement on 12 August. Russian forces temporarily occupied the Georgian cities of Zugdidi, Senaki, Poti, the South Ossetians destroyed most ethnic Georgian villages in South Ossetia and were responsible for an ethnic cleansing of Georgians. Russia recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia as separate republics on 26 August, in response, Russia mostly completed its withdrawal of troops from Georgia proper on 8 October. In the aftermath, Russias international relations were largely unharmed, the war displaced 192,000 people and while many returned to their homes after the war,20,272 people remained displaced as of 2014. Russia has, since the war, occupied Abkhazia and South Ossetia in violation of the agreement of August 2008. In the tenth century AD, Georgia for the first time emerged as a concept in the territories where the Georgian language was used to perform Christian rituals. After the Mongol invasions of the region, the Kingdom of Georgia eventually was broken up into several kingdoms, in the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire gradually annexed the Georgian lands
19.
War in Donbass
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The War in Donbass is an armed conflict in the Donbass region of Ukraine. Prior to a change of the top leadership in August 2014, during the middle of 2014, Russian paramilitaries were reported to make up between 15% and 80% of the combatants. Crossings occurred both in areas under the control of forces and areas that were not under their control, such as the south-eastern part of Donetsk Oblast. These events followed the reported shelling of Ukrainian positions from the Russian side of the border over the course of the preceding month, head of the Security Service of Ukraine, Valentyn Nalyvaichenko said that the events of 22 August were a direct invasion by Russia of Ukraine. Western and Ukrainian officials described these events as an invasion of Ukraine by Russia. Russian President Vladimir Putin justified the incursion as defending the Russian-speaking population in the Donbass, as a result of this, DPR and LPR insurgents regained much of the territory they had lost during the preceding government military offensive. A deal to establish a ceasefire, called the Minsk Protocol, was signed on 5 September 2014, violations of the ceasefire on both sides were common. The ceasefire completely collapsed in January 2015, with renewed heavy fighting across the zone, including at Donetsk International Airport. A new ceasefire, called Minsk II, was agreed to on 12 February 2015, immediately following the signing of the agreement, separatist forces launched an offensive on Debaltseve and forced Ukrainian forces to withdraw from it. In the months after the fall of Debaltseve, minor skirmishes continued along the line of contact, but no territorial changes occurred. This state of stalemate led the war to be labelled by some a frozen conflict, despite this, the area stayed a war zone, with dozens of soldiers and civilians killed each month. Since the start of the conflict there have been eleven ceasefires, each intended to be indefinite, with the latest having started on 20 February 2017, pro-Russian protesters occupied the Donetsk RSA from 1–6 March, before being removed by the Security Service of Ukraine. On 6 April,1, 000–2,000 people gathered at a rally in Donetsk to demand a status similar to the one held in Crimea in March. The demonstrators stormed the RSA building, and took control of its first two floors, as these demands were not met, the activists held a meeting in the RSA building, and voted in favour of independence from Ukraine. They proclaimed the Donetsk Peoples Republic, concurrent to the events in Donetsk, armed forces led by Russian operative Igor Girkin stormed and occupied government buildings in other regional centers beginning on 12 April. Protesters barricaded the building, and demanded that all arrested separatist leaders be released, at this assembly, they elected Valery Bolotov to the position of Peoples Governor. The Luhansk Peoples Republic was declared on 27 April, representatives of the Republic demanded that Ukrainian government provide amnesty for all protesters, enshrine Russian as an official language, and hold a referendum on the status of the region. They issued an ultimatum that stated that if Kiev did not meet their demands by 14,00 on 29 April, in response to the widening unrest, the acting Ukrainian President, Oleksandr Turchynov, vowed to launch a major anti-terror operation against separatist movements in Donetsk Oblast
20.
Order of the Red Banner
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The Order of the Red Banner was the first Soviet military decoration. The order was established on 16 September 1918, during the Russian Civil War by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and it was the highest award of Soviet Russia, subsequently the Soviet Union, until the Order of Lenin was established in 1930. Recipients were recognised for extraordinary heroism, dedication, and courage demonstrated on the battlefield, the order was awarded to individuals as well as to military units, cities, ships, political and social organizations, and state enterprises. In later years it was awarded on the twentieth and again on the thirtieth anniversary of military service without requiring participation in combat. The Russian Order of the Red Banner was established during the Russian Civil War by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of September 16,1918, the first recipient was Vasily Blyukher on September 28,1918. The second recipient was Iona Yakir, during the Civil War there existed similarly named orders and decorations established by the Soviet communist governments of several other constituent and nonconstituent republics. The August 1,1924 decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee established the all-Soviet Order of the Red Banner for deserving personnel of the Red Army, from 1918 till the late 1930s there was also a collective variant - the Revolutionary Red Banner of Honor. This was in the form of a military color awarded to distinguished Red Army, Soviet Air Force and it was more older than the order, having been established on August 3, a month and several weeks before. As a military decoration, The Order of the Red Banner recognised heroism in combat or otherwise extraordinary accomplishments of military valour during combat operations. Before the establishment of the Order of Lenin on April 5,1930, during World War II, under various titles, it was presented both to individuals and to units for acts of extreme military heroism. Nearly all well-known Soviet commanders became recipients of the Order of the Red Banner, the order was awarded to individuals as well as whole formations, which then added the prefix Red Banner to their official designations. Naval vessels also flew a special ensign, the Order of the Red Banner was also used as a long service award between 1944 and 1958 to mark twenty and thirty years of service in the military, state security, or police. This was surrounded by two golden panicles of wheat, at the bottom were the letters SSSR, additional awards of the Order bore a white enamelled shield with a silver sequence number at the bottom of the obverse. A recipient of three Orders of the Red Banner would wear a badge of the order followed by his second award bearing a number 2. The early variants of the Order were screw back badges to wear on clothing. Later variants hung from a standard Soviet pentagonal mount with a ring through the suspension loop, the mount was covered with an overlapping 24mm wide red silk moiré ribbon with 1. 5mm wide white edge stripes and a 7mm wide white central stripe. The Order of the Red Banner was worn on the side of the chest. If worn in the presence of Orders or medals of the Russian Federation, pavel Dybenko won 3 Orders of the Red Banner, his first in the 1921 bloody suppression of the naval rebellion in Kronstadt, his 2 others in 1922 in the suppression of peasants uprisings
21.
Order of Kutuzov
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The Order of Kutuzov is a military decoration of the Russian Federation named after famous Russian Field Marshal Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov. The Order was established during the German-Soviet War to reward senior Red Army officers, the Order of Kutuzov has three classes and was retained by the Russian Federation after the Dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Order of Kutuzov was established in three classes, 1st class, 2nd class, and 3rd class, general Ivan Galanin who distinguished himself during the Battle of Stalingrad became the first recipient of the Order 1st class. During World War II,669 Orders of Kutuzov 1st class were awarded, the Order of Kutuzov 1st class was also awarded to Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant in 1945, to recognize the enormous contribution of its workers towards the defeat of Nazi Germany. The Order 2nd class was awarded to 3,325 corps, division, the Order 3rd class was awarded to regimental commanders, their chiefs of staff, battalion and company commanders and was only established on February 8,1943. 3,328 3rd class orders were awarded, the present Order was modified to its current design and award criteria by Presidential Decree 1099 of September 7,2010. The Order of Kutuzov is worn on the side of the chest. The badge of the Order of Kutuzov is a 40mm wide silver cross pattée with gold rays protruding between its arms at an obtuse angle, in the center of the obverse, a silver medallion bordered by a wide white enamelled band surrounded by a gilt laurel and oak wreath. In the medallion, the gold plated left profile bust of M. I, Kutuzov with the image of the Kremlin wall in the background. On the sides of the white enamelled band, the gilt inscription Mikhail Kutuzov. The reverse is plain, the serial number is inscribed on the reverse of the cross lower arm. The Order of Kutuzov is suspended from a standard Russian pentagonal mount by a ring through the suspension loop, the mount is covered by an overlapping dark blue silk moiré ribbon with a central 5mm wide orange stripe. Awards and decorations of the Russian Federation Awards and decorations of the Soviet Union The Commission on State Awards under the President of the Russian Federation Legal Library of the USSR
22.
Battle honour
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In European military tradition, military units may be acknowledged for their achievements in specific wars or operations of a military campaign. These honours usually take the form of a place and a date, theatre honours could be listed and displayed on regimental property but not emblazoned on the colours. Since battle honours are emblazoned on colours, artillery units. These honour titles were permitted to be used as part of their official nomenclature, similar honours in the same tenor include unit citations. Battle honours, theatre honours, honour titles and their ilk form a part of the variety of distinctions which serve to distinguish military units from each other. For the British Army, the need to adopt a system to recognise military units battlefield accomplishments was apparent since its formation as an army in the later part of the 17th century. Although the granting of battle honours had already been in place at the time, before then, a regiments colours were practical tools for rallying troops in the battlefield and not quite something for displaying the units past distinctions. The first battle honour to be awarded in the British Army was granted to the 15th Hussars for the Battle of Emsdorf in 1760, thereafter, other regiments received battle honours for some of their previous engagements. The battle honour is held by the successor regiment, the Princess of Waless Royal Regiment. During these early years of the British standing army, a regiment needed only to engage the enemy with musketry before it was eligible for a battle honour, thus in 1882, a committee was formed to adjudicate applications of battle honour claims. This committee, later called the Battles Nomenclature Committee, still maintains its function in the British Army today. A battle honour may be granted to infantry/cavalry regiments or battalions, as well as ships and squadrons, they are granted to sub-units such as companies. Battle honours are presented in the form of a name of a country, region, or city where the units distinguished act took place. Not every battle fought will automatically result in the granting of a battle honour, conversely, a regiment or a battalion might obtain more than one battle honour over the course of a larger operation. Similarly, while in Korea, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry earned both Kapyong and Korea 1951–1953, supporting corps/branches such as medical, service, ordnance, or transport do not currently receive battle honours. However and uniquely the Royal Logistic Corps has five battle honours inherited from its previous transport elements, Commonwealth artillery does not maintain battle honours as they carry neither colours nor guidons—though their guns by tradition are afforded many of the same respects and courtesies. However, both the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers were in 1832 granted by King William IV the right to use the Latin Ubique, meaning everywhere and this is worn on the cap badge of both the Corps of Royal Engineers and the Royal Regiment of Artillery. The practice was extended to these same regiments and corps in the successor Commonwealth armed forces
23.
Guards unit
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Guards units are elite units and formations in the armed forces of the former Soviet Union and currently in the armed forces of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine. These units were awarded Guards status after distinguishing themselves in service, the Guards designation originated during the Great Patriotic War of 1941–45, its name coming from the Tsarist Imperial Guard. Belarusian, Гвардыя, Hvardyya, Russian, Гвардия, Gvardiya, Ukrainian, Гвардія, the 100th, 127th, 153rd and 161st Rifle Divisions were renamed into the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Guards Divisions, respectively. By December 31,1941 the 107th, 120th, 64th, 316th, 78th, all artillery units equipped with Katyusha multiple rocket launchers were designated Guards Mortars Units. Some twenty Guards Airborne Brigades were converted into the 11th–16th Guards Rifle Divisions in December 1943, the units and formations nominated for the Soviet Guard title received special Guards banners in accordance with the decision of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. On May 21,1942, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR introduced Guards ranks, in June 1943, they introduced the Guards Red Banners for the land forces, and in February 1944 for the naval forces. After the Second World War a number of Guards troops were stationed in Eastern Europe, for example, since the break-up of the Soviet Union, Guards designations for military units have been retained by Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan. Ukraine retained the Guards designations until 2016, a number of former Soviet republics have national guard branches of their armed forces, including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Divisions of the Soviet Union 1917-1945 has an almost complete list of Soviet Guards divisions List of guards units of Russia List of guards units of Ukraine Russian Guards David Glantz, colossus Reborn, The Red Army at War 1941–43. Russias War, A History of the Soviet Effort, 1941–1945, steven J. Zaloga and James Grandsen. Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two, Red Army Guards, from the U. S
24.
Svir River
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The Svir is a river in Podporozhsky, Lodeynopolsky, and Volkhovsky districts in the north-east of Leningrad Oblast, Russia. It flows westwards from Lake Onega to Lake Ladoga, thus connecting the two largest lakes of Europe and it is the largest river flowing into Lake Ladoga. The length of the Svir is 224 kilometres, whereas the area of its basin is 84,400 square kilometres. The towns of Podporozhye and Lodeynoye Pole, as well as urban-type settlements Voznesenye, Nikolsky, Vazhiny, and Svirstroy are located at the banks of the Svir. After Peter the Great connected the Svir with the Neva River by the Ladoga Canal in the 18th century, the Onega Canal is a bypass of Lake Onega from the south, which connects the Svir with the Vytegra River. The Svir is heavily used for navigation, with cargo traffic and cruise ships. There are two dams with power plants on the river. The Lower Svir Hydroelectric Station, in Svirstroy, sits 81 kilometres from the mouth while the Upper Svir Hydroelectric Station. Above the Upper Svir Hydroelectric Station, the Svir is built as the Ivinsky Razliv Reservoir, locks are built around both dams. The main tributaries of Svir proper are the Vazhinka River, the Oyat River, the main rivers in the basin of the Svir are the Suna River, the Shuya River, the Vodla River, and the Vytegra River. The river flows past the Alexander-Svirsky Monastery, which used to house Svirlag, the area around the river saw heavy fighting during the Continuation War 1941–1944. The right bank of the lower Svir is occupied by the Nizhnesvirsky Nature Reserve, established in 1980
25.
Moscow Military District
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The Moscow Military District was a military district of the Soviet Armed Forces and the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. In 2010 it was merged with the Leningrad Military District, the Northern Fleet, in the beginning of the second half of the 19th century Russian officials realized the need for re-organization of the Imperial Russian Army to meet new circumstances. A tsarist edict of 6 August 1864, announced in a Defence Minister’s order on 10 August of the year, established ten military districts. The District’s territory then comprised 12 provinces, Vladimir, Vologda, Kaluga, Kostroma, Moscow, Nizhniy Novgorod, Ryazan, Smolensk, Tambov, Tver, Tula, and Yaroslavl. The District was intended as a reinforcement source for troops and equipment, the District dispatched five infantry and a cavalry division south to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–8, as well as sending another division to the Caucasus area. This force totaled around 30,000 men and 20,000 horses, over 80,000 men were also called into reserve units. The District also housed 21,000 Turkish prisoners of war, during the First World War over a million men were stationed in the district. By a resolution of the Moscow military revolutionary committee on 17 November 1917, muralyov was assigned as the new commander of the district. From June to the middle of September 1919 the District conducted 33 callups totalling more than 500,000 people. In Moscow the 1 Moscow Rifle Division, Warsaw revolutionary infantry regiment, and 2nd revolutionary infantry regiment were formed, in Voronezh two cavalry divisions were formed, two rifle divisions and two rifle regiments in Nizhniy Novgorod, and the 16th Rifle Division in Tambov. Artillery units too were also being raised in the capital area, autumn maneuvers began to be conducted yearly here in the district. The 2nd Rifle Corps was stationed in the district from 1922 to 1936, in the beginning of the 1930 tanks started to be introduced, including the MS or T-18, T-26, T-27, BT, T-28, and the heavy T-35. In 1930 the first mechanized infantry brigade in the Soviet Army was formed in the district, the Russian Ground Forces official site notes that the first tactical parachute landing took place in the District on 2 August 1930. In World War II the District formed three fronts,23 armies,128 divisions of all arms, and 197 brigades of all arms, in 1944–5 alone the District sent to the front 1,200,000 soldiers. From summer 1945 to summer 1946, in order to supervise the process, the District was subdivided into four, the Moscow, Voronezh, Gorki. General Kirill Moskalenko took command of the District in 1953 and would later be a Marshal of the Soviet Union after leaving his post, the Voronezh Military District was reactivated in 1949 and was active until 1960. In 1979 Scott and Scott reported the HQ address as being Moscow, A-252, the Districts dispositions at the end of the 1980s were, 13th Guards Army Corps, Gorkiy. In the early 1990s the District received the headquarters of the First Guards Tank Army from the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany and it was relocated to Smolensk, and consisted of the 4th Guards Tank Division and 144th Guards Motor Rifle Division
26.
9th Guards Army
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The 9th Guards Army was a field army of the Red Army during World War II, which fought in the Vienna Offensive and the Prague Offensive at the end of the war. The army was formed in January 1945 and included airborne divisions converted into infantry, postwar, the army headquarters became Soviet airborne headquarters. The 9th Guards Army was formed on 5 January 1945 under the command of Vasily Glagolev as directed by the Stavka directive of 18 December 1944 and it was formed from the headquarters of the 7th Army and the Separate Airborne Army. It was composed of the 37th, 38th and 39th Guards Rifle Corps, in February, the army was transferred to southeastern Hungary, near Budapest. It became part of the 2nd Ukrainian Front on 27 February to participate in the Vienna Offensive and it was transferred to the 3rd Ukrainian Front on 9 March. Between 8 and 14 March the army was moved from the Kecslemet area across the Danube into the Zámoly sector, between 16 March and 15 April, the army fought in the Vienna Offensive. Units of the army broke through German defences north of Székesfehérvár in conjunction with the 4th Guards Army, advancing in the left flank and rear of the 6th SS Panzer Army, the 9th Guards Army broke through other German units between Lake Balaton and Velence. For the assault on Vienna, the armys 39th Guards Rifle Corps would follow the attack of the 6th Guards Army in the southwestern sector, the 38th Guards Rifle Corps was to cut the Vienna-Linz road and use two divisions to protect the attack from the west. The 37th Guards Rifle Corps protected the forces left flank. The 9th Guards Army attacked the road out of Vienna in conjunction with the 6th Guards Tank Army. On 13 April, the army helped capture Vienna, the army then fought in the Prague Offensive, where it captured Znojmo on 8 May in conjunction with the 7th Guards Army. It also captured Retz and Písek, ending the war on the Elbe, the army had its headquarters in Szolnok from July 1945 to June 1946 and was part of the Central Group of Forces. In 1946, its headquarters became the Soviet airborne headquarters and its corps were converted into airborne corps, the army was composed of the following units in February 1945. Stalins War with Germany, The road to Berlin, Красная Армия в победах и поражениях 1941–1945 гг. Slugin, S. A. Вооруженные силы СССР после Второй Мировой войны, tomsk, Scientific and Technical Literature Publishing. Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War
27.
Siege of Budapest
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The Siege of Budapest or the Battle of Budapest was the 50-day-long encirclement of the Hungarian capital of Budapest by Soviet forces near the end of World War II. Part of the broader Budapest Offensive, the siege began when Budapest, defended by Hungarian and German troops, was first encircled on 26 December 1944 by the Red Army, during the siege, about 38,000 civilians died from starvation and military action. The city unconditionally surrendered on 13 February 1945 and it was a strategic victory for the Allies in their push towards Berlin. Suffering from nearly 200,000 deaths in three years fighting the Soviet Union, and with the front lines approaching its own cities, as political forces within Hungary pushed for an end to the fighting, Germany preemptively launched Operation Margarethe 19 March 1944, and entered Hungary. Upon hearing of Horthys efforts, Hitler launched Operation Panzerfaust to keep Hungary on the Axis side, Horthy and his government were replaced by Hungarist Ferenc Szálasi, led by the far-right National Socialist Arrow Cross Party. The besieging Soviet forces were part of Rodion Malinovskys 2nd Ukrainian Front, arrayed against the Soviets was a collection of German Army, Waffen-SS, and Hungarian Army forces. The Siege of Budapest was one of the bloodiest sieges of World War II, the Red Army started its offensive against the city on 29 October 1944. More than 1,000,000 men, split into two operating maneuver groups, advanced, the plan was to isolate Budapest from the rest of the German and Hungarian forces. On 7 November 1944, Soviet and Romanian troops entered the suburbs,20 kilometers from the old town. The Red Army, after a pause in hostilities, resumed its offensive 19 December. On 26 December, a road linking Budapest to Vienna was seized by Soviet troops, the nazi Leader of the Nation, Ferenc Szálasi, had already fled 9 December. As a result of the Soviet link-up, nearly 33,000 German and 37,000 Hungarian soldiers, as well as over 800,000 civilians, became trapped within the city. Refusing to authorize a withdrawal, Adolf Hitler had declared Budapest a fortress city, Waffen SS General Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, the commander of the IX Waffen SS Alpine Corps, was put in charge of the citys defenses. Budapest was a target for Joseph Stalin. The Yalta Conference was approaching and Stalin wanted to display his strength to Churchill. He therefore ordered General Rodion Malinovsky to seize the city without delay, during the night of 28 December 1944, the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Front contacted the besieged Germans by radios and loudspeakers and told them about a negotiation for the citys capitulation. The Soviets promised to provide humane conditions and not to mistreat the German and Hungarian prisoners. They also promised that the groups would not bring weapons
28.
Prague
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Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the 14th largest city in the European Union and it is also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters. Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its history and it was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire. Prague is home to a number of cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The city has more than ten major museums, along with theatres, galleries, cinemas. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city, also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe. Prague is classified as an Alpha- global city according to GaWC studies, Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016. Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination, and the city more than 6.4 million international visitors annually. Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul, the region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes, around the area where present-day Prague stands, the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis. In the following century, the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area, most notably in Levý Hradec, Butovice and in the Šárka valley. The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century, the first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest. The other prominent Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad, was founded in the 10th century, Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century. The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied, I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars. She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c.1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya. The region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia, under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973
29.
Belogorsk, Amur Oblast
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Belogorsk is a town in Amur Oblast, Russia, located on the Tom River, a tributary of the Zeya. Population,68, 249 ,67, 422 ,73, the selo of Alexandrovskoye was founded in 1860 by the settlers from the European part of Russia. In 1893, the selo of Bochkaryovka appeared nearby, the two localities grew with the construction of a station on the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1913, and by 1923 Alexandrovskoye and Bochkarevka merged and were transformed into Alexandrovsk. Town status was granted to Alexandrovsk in 1926, in 1931, it was renamed Krasnopartizansk, then, in 1935, Kuybyshevka-Vostochnaya, to commemorate the Soviet statesman Valerian Kuybyshev. In 1957, possibly to reduce the number of localities named after Kuybyshev, while the literal meaning of the name is white mountains, the reasons for renaming are unclear, as the town stands on a plain with no white mountains anywhere in the vicinity. It is possible, however, that the name was due to the color of the quartz sands of the bluffs on the Tom River, or that it was allegorical. Within the framework of administrative divisions, Belogorsk serves as the center of Belogorsky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with one rural locality, as a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban okrug status. Belogorsk is a center for production, as well as construction products. The town is home to important military elements of the Eastern Military District, specifically the headquarters of the 35th Army, nearby is the Ukrainka air base, home to elements of Long Range Aviation. Закон №127-ОЗ от23 декабря2005 г, «О порядке решения вопросов административно-территориального устройства Амурской области», в ред. Закона №272-ОЗ от11 ноября2013 г, «О внесении изменений в Закон Амурской области О порядке решения вопросов административно-территориального устройства Амурской области». Вступил в силу со дня первого официального опубликования, за исключением подпункта б пункта2 статьи7, Опубликован, Амурская правда, №11,24 января2006 г. Закон №423-ОЗ от21 января2005 г, «О наделении муниципального образования города Белогорск статусом городского округа и об установлении его границ». Вступил в силу по истечении десяти дней после дня первого официального опубликования, Опубликован, Амурская правда, №17–18,25 января2005 г. Закон №419-ОЗ от19 января2005 г, «Об установлении границ и наделении соответствующим статусом муниципального образования Белогорского района и муниципальных образований в его составе», в ред. Закона №356-ОЗ от6 мая2014 г, Вступил в силу со дня первого официального опубликования. Опубликован, Амурская правда, №15–16,22 января2005 г
30.
99th Guards Rifle Division
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The 99th Guards Rifle Division was a Red Army division of World War II. It was formed from the 14th Guards Airborne Division in January 1944 and it fought in the Svir-Petrozavodsk Offensive between June and August 1944. It became the 99th Guards Airborne Division in August but was converted into infantry again in December 1944, the division fought in the Budapest Offensive and in the defense against Operation Spring Awakening. At the end of the war it participated in the Vienna Offensive, in August 1945 it transferred to the Far East and was converted into an airborne division in 1946. The division served in the Far East for the decade and was disbanded in 1956. The 99th Guards Rifle Division was formed from the 14th Guards Airborne Division on 19 January 1944, the 14th Guards Airborne Division had been formed on 23 December 1943 from the 6th Guards Airborne Brigade, the 13th Guards Airborne Brigade and the 15th Guards Airborne Brigade. Prior to June 1944, it was stationed in the Moscow Military District, on 21 June 1944, the division crossed the Svir and breaking through the Finnish defences, seized its objectives. On 25 June, it captured the strongpoint of Kuytezha, on the same day, the division captured the strongholds of Pirkinichi and Semenovschinu. The division advanced to the north to Svirstroy and prevented the Finnish from blowing up a dam, on 15 July 1944, the division, supported by the 29th Tank Brigade, attacked. After the Finnish troops were routed,460 soldiers from the division were surrounded after advancing too far. On 9 August, the division was put in reserve near Orsha, on 9 August it became the 99th Guards Airborne Division. In January 1945, the division was transferred to Hungary and was positioned southeast of Budapest, on 13 March 1945, it repulsed the German counterattack during Operation Spring Awakening. During the Vienna Offensive, it broke through the German defences north of Székesfehérvár, into the 6th SS Panzer Armys rear area, on 29 March it fought in the capture of Szombathely. In early April, in conjunction with the 6th Guards Tank Army, it advanced to the Danube, on 1 April 1945 it was on the outskirts of Wiener Neustadt, on 2 April in Baden bei Wien. The division fought in the Vienna Offensive until 13 April, on 8 May, it captured Znojmo. The division advanced to the Elbe and in May was in the area of Mlaka in Czechoslovakia, in August 1945, the division was transferred to the Transbaikal Military District. In 1953 the 196th Guards Airborne Regiment was formed as part of the division, the 99th Guards Airborne Division was disbanded on 4 May 1956. Its 300th Guards Airborne Regiment and 74th Guards Artillery Regiment transferred to the 98th Guards Airborne Division
31.
Antonov An-2
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The Antonov An-2 is a Soviet mass-produced single-engine biplane utility/agricultural aircraft designed and manufactured by the Antonov Design Bureau beginning in 1946. Its remarkable durability, high lifting power, and ability to take off, the An-2 is still produced and remains in service with military and civilian operators around the world. In certain wind conditions it can hover or even fly backwards, the An-2 is used as a light utility transport, parachute drop aircraft, agricultural work and many other tasks suited to this large slow-flying biplane. Its slow flight and good field performance make it suited for short, unimproved fields. Antonov designed a single bay biplane of all-metal construction, with an enclosed cockpit. The first prototype, designated SKh-1 and powered by a Shvetsov ASh-21 radial engine, initial Soviet production was at State Factory 473 in Kiev, Ukrainian SSR where the bulk of up to 5,000 units had been produced by 1960. Later Soviet production was at State Factory 464 at Dolgoprudniy, Russian SFSR, after 1960, however, most An-2s were built at Polands WSK factory in Mielec, with over 13,000 made there before full production ended in 1991. Limited production from parts stocks, as well as spares and maintenance coverage continued until 2001, China also builds the An-2 under licence as the Shijiazhuang Y-5. It has been occasionally and erroneously reported that there was East German production of the An-2, while An-2s were extensively refurbished in East Germany, there were no new aircraft built there. The An-2 was designed as a utility aircraft for use in forestry, however, the basic airframe is highly adaptable and numerous variants have been developed. The most common version is the An-2T 12-seater passenger aircraft, all versions are powered by a 750 kW nine-cylinder Shvetsov ASh-62 radial engine, which was developed from the Wright R-1820. It uses 43 gallons of avgas per hour, the An-2 has design features which make it suitable for operation in remote areas with unsurfaced airstrips, It has a pneumatic brake system to stop on short runways. It has an air line fitted to the compressor, so the pressure in the tires, the batteries are large and easy to remove, so the aircraft does not need a ground power unit to supply power. There is no need for a fuel pump to refuel the aircraft. It has a minimum of complex systems, the crucial wing leading edge slats that give the aircraft its slow flight ability are fully automatic, being held closed by the airflow over the wings. Once the airspeed drops below 64 km/h, the slats will extend because they are on elastic rubber springs, take-off run,170 m, landing run,215 m. A note from the pilots handbook reads, If the engine quits in instrument conditions or at night, the An-2 indeed has no stall speed quoted in the operating handbook. Pilots of the An-2 say one can fly the aircraft in control at 48 km/h
32.
Odessa Military District
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It was reorganized as part of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the Military of Moldova in 1992. In 1998 most of its territory was transformed into the Southern Operational Command and it was the second of two districts on the territory of the future Ukraine, the other being Kiev Military District. OVO existed from 1862 -1918 as part of the Imperial Russian Armed Forces and it encompassed the territories of Kherson, Yekaterinoslav, Tauride, Bessarabia guberniyas. The district bordered Kingdom of Romania, Kiev Military District, Don Voisko Oblast, in the 1870s and 1880s the Commander of the district served as the interim Governor General of Odessa city concurrently. In January 1918 the Odessa Military District headquarters was transformed into the headquarters of the Soviet Romanian Front under the jurisdiction of Rumcherod, with the establishment of the Ukrainian government on its territory, it was terminated. OVO was reinstated as the Ukrainian forces were pushed out the area in April to August 1919, the district was reformed by the decision of October 11,1939 specifically for the occupation of Bessarabia after the Soviet Union signed Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. At that time its territory included the newly created Moldovian SSR, six oblasts of the Ukrainian SSR, by directives OV/583 and OV/584 of the Soviet Peoples Commissariat of Defense, units of the Odessa Military District, currently commanded by Mjr. Boldin, were ordered into battle ready state in the spring of 1940, Soviet troop concentrations along the Romanian border took place between April 15 and June 10,1940. The Southern Front had 32 infantry divisions,2 motorized infantry divisions,6 cavalry divisions,11 tank brigades,3 paratrooper brigades,30 artillery regiments, the first plan was prepared for the case that Romania would not accept to evacuate Bessarabia and Bukovina. The Soviet 12th Army was supposed in such a situation to strike Southward along the Prut river towards Iaşi, the target of this plan was to surround the Romanian troops in the Bălţi-Iaşi area. The second plan took into consideration the case that Romania would succumb to Soviet demands, in such a situation, Soviet troops were given the mission to reach quickly the Prut river, and take charge of the evacuation process of the Romanian troops. The first plan was taken as the basis of action, along the portions where the offensive was supposed to take place, Soviets prepared to have at least a triple superiority of men and means. On September 10,1941 the district was abolished as it was overran by the Armed Forces of Nazi Germany, the District was reformed on April 23,1944 with its headquarters at Kirovohrad, which in October 1944 relocated to Odessa. In 1948, 4th Guards Army, with 10th Guards Rifle Corps and 24th Guards Rifle Corps, 82nd Rifle Corps existed until 13 June 1955, when it was renamed 25th Rifle Corps, and 25.6.57 it was renamed 25th Army Corps. HQ in Nikolayev with the 28th Guards Motor Rifle Division, 34th gv. MSD, in May 1955 the districts forces included the 10th Guards Rifle Corps, 25th Rifle Corps and 32nd Rifle Corps, and the 48th, and 66th Guards Rifle Divisions. In May 1957 the 20th Rifle Division became the 93rd Motor Rifle Division, in 1960 the 113th Guards Motor Rifle Division and 95th Motor Rifle Division were disbanded. From September 1984 the District came under command of the South-Western Strategic Direction, the Odessa Military District was transferred to the jurisdiction of Ukraine after the dissolution of the Soviet Union on January 3,1992 at 18,00. William E. Odom says that in accordance with the Minsk agreements, Shaposhnikov sent an order on 3 January 1992, president Kravchuk then approved the firing of the three military district commanders
33.
106th Guards Airborne Division
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The 106th Guards Tula Red Banner Order of Kutuzov Airborne Division, more generally referred to as the Tula Division, is one of the four airborne divisions of the Russian Airborne Troops, the VDV. Based in the city of Tula, to the south of Moscow and it became the 106th Guards Rifle Division in December 1944, as all the original VDV divisions and brigades were being reconstituted as Guards Rifle formations. The Divisions honorifics are Red Banner, Order of Kutuzov, though an early Western writer reported them as Dneipr-Transbaikal seemingly incorrectly, on 7 June 1946, the 106th Guards Rifle Division was converted to an airborne division at Tula, part of the new 38th Guards Airborne Corps. On 1 October 1948, the divisions 347th Guards Air Landing Regiment was used to form the 11th Guards Airborne Division and it was replaced by the new 51st Guards Air Landing Regiment, which became an airborne unit in 1949. On 5 May 1955, the 137th Guards Airborne Regiment joined the division from the disbanded 11th Guards Airborne Division, on 6 January 1959, the 110th Separate Military-Transport Aviation Squadron was formed with the division, equipped with ten Antonov An-2 transports. On 15 August 1960, the 205th Guards Artillery Regiment became the 845th Separate Guards Artillery Battalion, at the same time, the 351st Guards Airborne Regiment transferred to the 105th Guards Airborne Division and was replaced by the 105ths 331st Guards Airborne Regiment. On 27 April 1962, the 845th Separate Guards Artillery Battalion became the 1182nd Guards Artillery Regiment, the Tula Division, from that point until the present day, was to be one of the most frequently-used elements of it. Two of its regiments took part in the Soviet war in Afghanistan, as nationalist unrest grew in the southern republics of the USSR throughout the end of the 1980s, the division was deployed to Baku, Azerbaijan, in 1988 and to Fergana, Uzbekistan, in 1990. Throughout this time the division was commanded by General Alexander Lebed, in 1991, an attempted coup against the Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev took place in Moscow. When they arrived, Lebed stated that he had orders to secure the Parliament building and he did not, however, give the order for his men, equipped with BMD armoured vehicles, to launch an attack. Following the failure of the coup and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, in 1992, battalions of the Tula Division were attached to Group West. In March 1995, the battalions were transferred to the command of Group North and continued fighting, in May, they withdrew from Chechnya. The divisions losses in the first war are unclear,36 of its soldiers have been confirmed killed in action, the Second Chechen War began in 1999. With Moscow determined to avoid a repeat of the quagmire that the first war had become, the Tula Divisions contribution to that force was the 51st and 119th Parachute Landing Regiments. Its losses in war were still considerable but less than in the first,67 of its soldiers were reported either killed or missing in action. For its actions in the campaign, the Tula Division was awarded the MoD Pennant. On 26 April 2004, the Tula Division celebrated its 60th anniversary, in August 2014 the divisions 137th Guards Airborne Regiment had participated in the War in Donbass. On 13 August 2015, the division was given the honorific name Tula, modern Russian airborne divisions are relatively smaller formations, in manpower terms, typically, they number around over 5,000 men
34.
Bolhrad
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Bolhrad, sometimes known as Bolgrad, is a small city in Odessa Oblast of southwestern Ukraine, in the historical region of Budjak. It is the center of Bolhrad Raion. Population,15, 499 Bolhrad was founded in 1821 by Bulgarian settlers in Bessarabia, under the direction of General Ivan Inzov who is revered by Bolhrad residents as the Founder of Our City. Bolhrad became part of Moldavia from 1856 to 1859, Romania from 1859 to 1878,1918 to 1940, and 1941 to 1944, before being incorporated into the USSR, the surrounding Bolhradsky district is predominantly populated by ethnic Bulgarians. Bolhrad itself is inhabited by a number of Bessarabian Bulgarians and is considered by locals to be the unofficial capital of the Bessarabian historic district of Budjak. As of 1920, Bolhrad had a coal industry, the Georgi Sava Rakovski Bolhrad High School founded in 1858 is the oldest high school of the Bulgarian National Revival
35.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
36.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union was dissolved on December 26,1991. It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and that evening at 7,32, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag. Previously, from August to December, all the individual republics, the week before the unions formal dissolution,11 republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol formally establishing the CIS and declaring that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the USSR also signalled the end of the Cold War, on the other hand, only the Baltic states have joined NATO and the European Union. Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by the Politburo on March 11,1985, Gorbachev, aged 54, was the youngest member of the Politburo. His initial goal as general secretary was to revive the Soviet economy, the reforms began with personnel changes of senior Brezhnev-era officials who would impede political and economic change. On April 23,1985, Gorbachev brought two protégés, Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, into the Politburo as full members. He kept the power ministries happy by promoting KGB Head Viktor Chebrikov from candidate to full member and this liberalisation, however, fostered nationalist movements and ethnic disputes within the Soviet Union. Under Gorbachevs leadership, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1989 introduced limited competitive elections to a new central legislature, in May 1985, Gorbachev delivered a speech in Leningrad advocating reforms and an anti-alcohol campaign to tackle widespread alcoholism. Prices of vodka, wine, and beer were raised in order to make these drinks more expensive and a disincentive to consumers, unlike most forms of rationing intended to conserve scarce goods, this was done to restrict sales with the overt goal of curtailing drunkenness. Gorbachevs plan also included billboards promoting sobriety, increased penalties for public drunkenness, however, Gorbachev soon faced the same adverse economic reaction to his prohibition as did the last Tsar. The disincentivization of alcohol consumption was a blow to the state budget according to Alexander Yakovlev. Alcohol production migrated to the market, or through moonshining as some made bathtub vodka with homegrown potatoes. The purpose of these reforms, however, was to prop up the centrally planned economy, unlike later reforms. The latter, disparaged as Mr Nyet in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs, gromyko was relegated to the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, as he was considered an old thinker. In the fall of 1985, Gorbachev continued to bring younger, at the next Central Committee meeting on October 15, Tikhonov retired from the Politburo and Talyzin became a candidate. Finally, on December 23,1985, Gorbachev appointed Yeltsin First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party replacing Viktor Grishin, Gorbachev continued to press for greater liberalization. The CTAG Helsinki-86 was founded in July 1986 in the Latvian port town of Liepāja by three workers, Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss and its name refers to the human-rights statements of the Helsinki Accords
37.
Abakan
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Abakan is the capital city of the Republic of Khakassia, Russia, located in the central part of Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of 165, 214—a slight increase over 165,197 recorded during the 2002 Census, abakansky ostrog, also known as Abakansk, was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675. In the 1780s, the selo of Ust-Abakanskoye was established in this area and it was granted town status and given its current name on April 30,1931. In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz, the identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside of the borders of the Han Empire, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well, more recently, for example, it was claimed by A. A. Kovalyov as the residence of Lu Fang, a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era, in the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830–1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines, after Stalins death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in. Abakan is the capital of the republic, the city has a river port, industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a center that produces footwear, foodstuffs. Abakan was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway, now it is an important railway junction. The city is served by the Abakan International Airport, the 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until ca. Abakans sites of interest include Holy Transfiguration Cathedral, Good Angel of Peace sculpture, park of topiary art, bandy is the one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-Khakassia was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012–13 season but was relegated for the 2013–14 season, Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012. Abakan has a humid continental /cold semi-arid climate. Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia, precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadow from nearby mountains
38.
Ivanovo Severny (air base)
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Ivanovo Severny is an air base in Russia located 6 km north of Ivanovo. It is a transport operation airfield with hangars and significant tarmac space. The runway was built in 1935 and upgraded in 1965, the airfield received the Soviet Unions first Ilyushin Il-76 delivery on June 3,1974. Ivanovo Severny was home to 81 VTAP flying Il-76, An-12 and it is also home to 2457 Air Base of SDRLO flying the Beriev A-50. It is not to be confused with the civilian Ivanovo Yuzhny Airport
39.
2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine
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During the first stage of the unrest, Crimea was invaded and annexed by the Russian Federation after a Russian military intervention, and an internationally criticized Crimean referendum. Protests in Donetsk and Luhansk regions escalated into an armed pro-Russian separatist insurgency, from late 2014, cities outside of the Donbass combat zone, such as Kharkiv, Odessa, Kiev and Mariupol, were struck by bombings that targeted pro-Ukrainian unity organizations. Ukraine became gripped by unrest when President Viktor Yanukovych refused to sign an agreement with the European Union on 21 November 2013. An organized political movement known as Euromaidan demanded closer ties with the European Union, and this movement was ultimately successful, culminating in the February 2014 revolution, which removed Yanukovych and his government. Various demonstrations were held in Crimea in favour of leaving Ukraine and accession to the Russian Federation, on 1 March, regional state administration buildings in various eastern Ukrainian oblasts were briefly occupied by pro-Russian activists. By 11 March, all occupations had ended, after units of the local police, in Donetsk, protests escalated into violence on multiple occasions, including on 13 March, when a pro-Ukrainian protester was stabbed to death. In Kharkiv, Patriots of Ukraine militants killed a protester and a passer-by on the night of 15 March. The attendees of the protests included Russian citizens from across the border who came to support the efforts of activists in Ukraine. Donetsk oblast governor Serhiy Taruta said that rallies in Donetsk contained ex-convicts, Ukraines police and border guards had denied more than 8,200 Russians entry into Ukraine between 4 and 25 March. On 27 March, National Security and Defence Council Secretary Andriy Parubiy said that between 500 and 700 Russians were being denied entry daily, a poll conducted by Kyiv International Institute of Sociology from 8–18 February 2014 assessed support for union with Russia throughout Ukraine. It found that, overall, 12% of those polled favoured union with Russia,68. 0% of those from the four regions surveyed agreed that Ukraine should remain independent, with friendly relations maintained between Russia and Ukraine. Only 5% of respondents in eastern Ukraine felt that Russian-speakers were definitely under pressure or threat, 43% of ethnic Russians supported the decision of the Russian Federation to send its military to protect Russian-speaking citizens of Ukraine. 59% of those polled in eastern Ukraine would like to join the Russian-led customs union, among all the Ukrainians polled overall, 34% favour joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, while 44% are against joining it. In eastern Ukraine and southern Ukraine, only 14% and 11% of the respondents respectively favour joining NATO, while 67% in eastern Ukraine, 72% of people polled in eastern Ukraine thought that the country was going in the wrong direction, compared with only 36% in the western Ukraine. A poll conducted by the Institute of Social Research and Policy Analysis analysed the identities of Donetsk inhabitants, while support for separatism was low, just over a third of polled Donetsk inhabitants identified themselves as citizens of Ukraine. More preferred Russian-speaking residents of Ukraine or residents of Donbass, the same poll determined that 66% of Donetsk residents that were polled supported remaining in a unified Ukraine, while 18. 2% supported joining Russia, and 4. 7% supported independence. A second poll conducted from 26–29 March showed that 77% of residents condemned the takeover of administrative buildings, furthermore,40. 8% of Donetsk citizens supported rallies for Ukraines unity, while 26. 5% supported pro-Russian rallies. In another research poll conducted 8–16 April by KIIS, a vast majority disapproved of the seizure of buildings by protesters
40.
Kostroma
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Kostroma is a historic city and the administrative center of Kostroma Oblast, Russia. A part of the Golden Ring of Russian towns, it is located at the confluence of the Volga and Kostroma Rivers. The city was first recorded in the chronicles for the year 1213, like other towns of the Eastern Rus, Kostroma was sacked by the Mongols in 1238. It then constituted a small principality, under leadership of Prince Vasily the Drunkard, a younger brother of the famous Alexander Nevsky. Upon inheriting the grand ducal title in 1271, Vasily didnt leave the town for Vladimir, as one of the northernmost towns of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Kostroma served for grand dukes as a place of retreat when enemies besieged Moscow in 1382,1408, and 1433. In 1375, the town was looted by Novgorod pirates, the spectacular growth of the city in the 16th century may be attributed to the establishment of trade connections with English and Dutch merchants through the northern port of Archangel. Boris Godunov had the Ipatiev and Epiphany monasteries rebuilt in stone, the construction works were finished just in time for the city to witness some of the most dramatic events of the Time of Troubles. Kostroma was twice ravaged by the Poles, it took a six-month siege to them from the Ipatiev monastery. The heroic peasant Ivan Susanin became a symbol of the resistance to foreign invaders. The future Tsar, Mikhail Romanov, also lived at the monastery and it was here that an embassy from Moscow offered him the Russian crown in 1612. It is understandable why the Romanov Tsars regarded Kostroma as their special protectorate, the Ipatievsky monastery was visited by many of them, including Nicholas II, the last Russian Tsar. The monastery had been founded in the early 14th century by a Tatar prince, the Romanovs had the magnificent Trinity Cathedral rebuilt in 1652, its frescoes and iconostasis are a thing of beauty. A wooden house of Mikhail Romanov is still preserved in the monastery, there are also several old wooden structures transported to the monastery walls from distant districts of the Kostroma Oblast. Town status was granted to Kostroma in 1719, in 1773, Kostroma was devastated by a great fire. Afterwards the city was rebuilt with streets radiating from a focal point near the river. They say that Catherine the Great dropped her fan on the city map, one of the best preserved examples of the 18th century town planning, Kostroma retains some elegant structures in a provincial neoclassical style. These include a palace, a fire tower, a rotunda on the Volga embankment. The First Workers Socialist Club based in Kostroma was one of the best documented workers clubs run by Proletkult, as an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Kostroma—an administrative unit with a status equal to that of the districts
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Ryazan
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Ryazan is a city and the administrative center of Ryazan Oblast, Russia, located on the Oka River 196 kilometers southeast of Moscow. It is argued that the Ryazan kremlin was founded in 800, by Slavic settlers, initially it was built of wood, gradually replaced by masonry. The oldest preserved part of the dates back to the 12th century. However, the first written mention of the city, under the name of Pereslavl, at that time, the city was part of the independent Principality of Ryazan, which had existed since 1078 and which was centered on the old city of Ryazan. The first ruler of Ryazan was supposedly Yaroslav Sviatoslavich, Prince of Ryazan, by the end of the 12th century, the capital of Duchy was burnt several times by the armies of Suzdal. Ryazan was the first Russian city to be sacked by the Mongol horde of Batu Khan, on December 21,1237, it was thoroughly devastated and never fully recovered. As result of the sack, the seat of the principality was moved about 55 kilometers to the town of Pereslavl-Ryazansky, the site of the old capital now carries the name of Staraya Ryazan, close to Spassk-Ryazansky. Late in the 13th century, the Princes of Ryazan moved their capital to Pereslavl, the principality was finally incorporated into that of Moscow in 1521. Immediately after World War II, rapid development of the city began, Ryazan became a major industrial, scientific, and military center of the European part of Russia. Massive factories were constructed in the city, occupying the urban areas. Leading areas of industry are heavy and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil refining and machine-tool industry, mechanical engineering, more than half of the plants produce for export. Several positioned MANPADS protect the urban sky, besides the Airborne School, Ryazan hosts the Automobile School and Institute of Communications, a regiment of railway troops, airbase strategic bombers, and a training center in Diaghilev. Ryazan developed particularly rapidly while Nadezhda Nikolaevna Chumakova served as Chair of the Council of Peoples Deputies of Ryazan and Ryazan mayor, under Chumakova, the citys population increased more than seven times, from 72 to 520 thousand people. Chumakova oversaw the construction of social and cultural amenities, more than 20 urban areas, landscaping became a fundamental strategy for the development of the city at that time. Ryazan repeatedly won recognition among the cities of the Soviet Union for its landscaping, during her 26 years in office, Nadezhda Chumakova often accepted awards of the Red Banner of the USSR on behalf of Ryazan. In September 1999, Ryazan became one of the involved in the Russian apartment bombings episode. In the Political system of Ryazan, the legislature, a city council is the Ryazan City Duma, kind of the lower house of the municipality - Youth Parliament, preparing draft legislative initiatives. Executive power in the city of Ryazan carried by the administration headed by the city manager, control over the activities of the authorities is administered by the Public Chamber of the city of Ryazan, work with youth involved in the headquarters of youth activists
Soviet Union
Russia
Russian Airborne Troops.svg){kind=small}
Russian Armed Forces
Order of the Red Banner
Order of Kutuzov
Guards
