1.
United States Attorney General
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The United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice per 28 U. S. C. §503, concerned with affairs, and is the chief law enforcement officer. The 84th and current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions, who assumed the office on February 9,2017, the attorney general serves as a member of the Cabinet of the President of the United States and is the only cabinet officer who does not have the title Secretary of. The Attorney General is appointed by the President and takes office after confirmation by the United States Senate, the office of Attorney General was established by Congress by the Judiciary Act of 1789. In 1870, the Department of Justice was established to support the general in the discharge of their responsibilities. Parties No party Federalist Democratic-Republican Democratic Whig Republican Status As of April 2017, there are eleven, living former US Attorneys General, the most recent Attorney General to die was Janet Reno on November 7,2016. Barr served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. 2 Richard L. Thornburgh and Eric Holder served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. Both subsequently served as general, Thornburgh 1988–1991 and Holder 2009–2015. 4 Assistant Attorney General for the DOJ Civil Division Stuart M. Gerson was acting general from January 20,1993. Gerson was fourth in the line of succession at the Justice Department, during his time as Acting AG, Gerson supported the Brady bill and was in office in the beginnings of the Waco siege. Janet Reno, President Clintons nominee for attorney general, was confirmed on March 12, Acting Attorney General Gersons last day at the Justice Department was March 19. 5 On August 27,2007, President Bush named Solicitor General Paul Clement as the acting attorney general, to take office upon the resignation of Alberto Gonzales. According to administration officials, Clement took that office at 12,01 am September 17,2007, keisler served as acting attorney general until the nomination of Michael Mukasey on November 9,2007. 6 Deputy Attorney General Mark Filip was asked to assume the position of acting attorney general by then President-elect Obama, Filip led the Department while President Obamas nominee, then Attorney-General Designate Eric Holder, awaited confirmation by the United States Senate. Holder was confirmed on February 2,2009, and sworn in the next day, thus ending Filips tenure as the acting attorney general
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Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
3.
Thomas Watt Gregory
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Thomas Watt Gregory was a political progressive and American attorney who served as United States Attorney General from 1914 to 1919, during President Woodrow Wilsons administration. Gregory was born in Crawfordsville, Mississippi and he graduated from the Webb School in 1881, Southwestern Presbyterian University in 1883, and he was a special student at the University of Virginia. Gregory entered the University of Texas at Austin in 1884 and graduated a year later with a degree in law and he began the practice of law in Austin, in 1885. He served as a regent of the University of Texas for eight years, Gregory Gymnasium was named in honor of his efforts to provide an adequate exercise facility for the students and faculty of the University. Gregory was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention at St. Louis and he was appointed Special Assistant to the US Attorney General in 1913, in the investigation and proceedings against the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company. In 1914, President Woodrow Wilson appointed him Attorney General of the United States, Gregory was a member of Wilsons Second Industrial Conference in 1919 and 1920. During a trip to New York to confer with Franklin Roosevelt, Gregory contracted pneumonia and his portrait was painted in 1917 by the Swiss-born American artist Adolfo Müller-Ury, it hangs in the Department of Justice in Washington, DC. Handbook of Texas Online, Thomas W. Gregory
4.
Harry M. Daugherty
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Harry Micajah Daugherty was an American politician. A key Ohio Republican political insider, Daugherty is best remembered for his service as Attorney General of the United States under Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. Although he sought national office several times, Daugherty was thwarted in his effort to obtain the nomination of his party and was never elected to office again, Daugherty remained an influential figure behind the election of several Congressmen and U. S. Senators. In 1920 he was the manager for Warren G. Harding for President of the United States at the Republican National Convention. Following Hardings successful election Daugherty was named Attorney General of the United States, in this capacity, Daugherty was instrumental in winning Presidential pardons for jailed anti-war dissidents such as Eugene V. Debs. Twice the subject of corruption investigations, in 1924 Daugherty was forced to resign his post as Attorney General by the late Hardings Presidential successor. Harry M. Daugherty was born January 26,1860 in Washington Court House, Ohio, Daughertys father, John H. Daugherty, was the Pennsylvania-born son of Scotch-Irish immigrants and worked as a farmer and tailor. His mother, Jane Draper Daugherty, was from a prominent Ohio family with Virginia roots dating back to the time of the American Revolution, Daugherty was a first cousin of actress Majel Coleman. Daughertys father died of diphtheria when Harry was just four years old, as did one of his brothers, Harry and his older brother, Mally, were forced by economic necessity to take a variety of jobs from a relatively early age to help with the familys living expenses. His mother later recalled that he was so young when he worked in a grocery store that he had to stand on a wooden crate to reach the cash register. Daughertys mother wanted for him to become a Methodist minister, instead, after graduating from High school in the small town of Washington Court House, Daugherty studied medicine for a year before taking a position as a cub reporter for the Cincinnati Enquirer. In 1878 Daugherty entered the University of Michigan Law School, accepted there despite not having first obtained an undergraduate education and he supplemented his insufficient income by gambling, winning a significant sum betting on the election of James Garfield in the Presidential election of 1880. Sports betting was also an area of some interest to Daugherty and his brother, initially successful, this ethically shady activity was ultimately discovered and exposed by local gamblers puzzled by the brothers uncanny success. In 1882 Daugherty was elected by the Fayette County Republican Central Committee as the secretary of the organization. Daugherty ran for office in the election of 1882, winning election as the clerk of nearby Union Township. In this capacity Daugherty served a single term, earning a salary of $1500 per year. The following year Daugherty was elected secretary of the Fayette County Executive Committee and he was selected as one of five delegates from the Fayette Country Republican Party as a delegate to the Ohio State Republican Convention in 1883, held in Columbus. There Daugherty helped select an aggressive young Cincinnati judge named Joseph B, Foraker as the partys 1883 gubernatorial nominee
5.
Democratic National Committee
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The Democratic National Committee is the formal governing body for the United States Democratic Party. The committee coordinates strategy to support Democratic Party candidates throughout the country for local, state and it organizes the Democratic National Convention held every four years to nominate and confirm a candidate for president, and to formulate the party platform. While it provides support for party candidates, it not have direct authority over elected officials. The DNC is composed of the chairs and vice-chairs of each state Democratic Party committee and over 200 members elected by Democrats in all 50 states and its chairperson is elected by the committee. It conducts fundraising to support its activities, the DNC was established at the 1848 Democratic National Convention. The DNCs main counterpart is the Republican National Committee, the DNC is responsible for articulating and promoting the Democratic platform and coordinating party organizational activity. When the president is a Democrat, the party generally works closely with the president, there are state committees in every state, as well as local committees in most cities, wards, and towns. The chairperson of the DNC is elected by vote of members of the Democratic National Committee, primary elections, in particular, are invariably conducted by state governments according to their own laws. Outside of the process of nominating a candidate, the DNCs role in actually selecting candidates to run on the party ticket is minimal. All DNC members are superdelegates to the Democratic National Convention whose role can influence a close primary race, sitting Democratic governors and members of Congress. Distinguished party leaders, consisting of current and former presidents, vice presidents, congressional leaders, in the 2002 election cycle, the DNC and its affiliated committees raised a total of US $162,062,084, 42% of which was hard money. The largest contributor, with US $7,297,937 was the Saban Capital Group, fred Eychaner, the owner of Newsweb Corporation, gave the second highest amount of money to the DNC and its affiliates, US $5,175,000. The third largest contributor was Steve Bing of Shangri-La Entertainment, who gave US $4,758,000, in the 2006 election cycle, the DNC raised a total of US $37,939,887. The three largest contributors were investment bank Goldman Sachs, university of California and Pond North LLP. The DNC introduced a fund raising campaign, the Democracy Bonds program. There were only 31,000 Democracy Bond donors by May 2006, the program no longer is in place. In the 2016 election cycle, the DNC raised a total of US $75,945,536 as of July 21,2016, the three largest contributors were hedge fund Renaissance Technologies, Newsweb Corp and Total Wine. In July 2015, during the 2016 election cycle, the DNC, led by Debbie Wasserman-Schultz, Chair, Tom Perez, former U. S. Secretary of Labor under Barack Obama Deputy Chair, Keith Ellison, U. S. S
6.
Joseph F. Guffey
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Joseph Finch Joe Guffey was an American business executive and Democratic Party politician from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He represented Pennsylvania in the United States Senate from 1935 until 1947, Joseph Finch Guffey was born December 29,1870, at Guffey Station in Sewickley Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania to John and Barbaretta Guffey. He was the last born of his brothers, James C, and Alexander S, and sisters, Ida Virginia, Pauletta, Mary Emma, Jane Cambell and he attended but did not graduate from Princeton University. As a Princeton student, he became a disciple of Professor Woodrow Wilson, during Wilsons tenure as Princeton president, Guffey, and other former students were vocal supporters of Wilsons Quad Plan. He was instrumental in helping Wilson to secure the Democratic presidential nomination in 1912 and he was a member of the War Industries Board, as well as the Director of the Bureau of sales in the Alien Property Custodians office during World War I. The charges were dropped as part of a deal made during the Harding/Coolidge Administrations Teapot Dome Scandal. He was a member of the Democratic National Committee from 1920 through 1928, Guffey and his lieutenant, David L. Lawrence led a resurgence of the Pennsylvania Democratic Party. Guffey was elected to the United States Senate in 1934, unseating Republican Senator David Reed, Guffey was the first Democrat to win election as Senator from Pennsylvania since William A. Wallace won election in 1874. In that same year, George H. Earle III became the first Democratic Governor of Pennsylvania since the 19th century and he was the chairperson of the Mines and Mining committee, and was a fervent supporter of the President Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal in the 1930s. He supported the politics of Henry Wallace, who compared the Republicans with fascists. Guffey spoke out against Harry Anslinger for referring to niggers in official correspondence, jones later lost the general election to Republican Arthur H. James. Guffey was at the time working with Lewis, demanding that Pleas E. Greenlee replace Charles F. Hosford Jr. who had been ineffective as chairman of the National Bituminous Coal Commission. A very typical Pennsylvania politician who has decided to throw his lot in with the President and has become an obedient party hack not of the purest integrity. Consistently votes in the direction to his fellow Senator from Pennsylvania. He was reelected in 1940, with Claude Pepper campaigning with him, after leaving the Senate, Guffey retired to Washington, DC, where he died in 1959. Upon his death, he was returned to West Newton, Pennsylvania for burial in the West Newton Cemetery, Guffey Coal Act Joseph Guffey Papers, Seeley G. Joseph F. Guffey, New Deal Politician From Pennsylvania. Claude Pepper Center at Florida State University Library, time Magazine, February 28,1938, March 28,1938, June 3,1946. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
7.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
8.
Pennsylvania's 26th congressional district
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Pennsylvanias 26th congressional district was one of Pennsylvanias districts of the United States House of Representatives. The district was eliminated in 1973, the district was eliminated in 1973. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
9.
White Haven, Pennsylvania
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White Haven is a borough in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, United States. White Haven was created in 1824 by industrialist Josiah White and it is located along the Lehigh River which connects White Haven to Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania. The population was 1,097 at the 2010 census, White Haven is located 17 miles south of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, and 4 miles west of the I-476 and I-80 interchange. White Havens elevation is 1,221 feet above sea level, White Haven is located at 41°3′34″N 75°46′34″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 1.2 square miles, of which 1.2 square miles is land and 0.04 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,182 people,468 households, the population density was 982.1 people per square mile. There were 515 housing units at a density of 427.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 98. 39% White,0. 08% Native American,1. 27% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 76% of the population. The main ancestries reported by White Haven residents on the 2000 Census were Polish, with 17% of the population, Italian with 13%, Irish with 10%, Slovak with 8%, and German with 6%. 26. 5% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.06. In the borough the population was out, with 27. 3% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,28. 0% from 25 to 44,20. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 87.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.8 males, the median income for a household in the borough was $37,438, and the median income for a family was $43,846. Males had an income of $32,159 versus $27,386 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $18,768, about 4. 5% of families and 6. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8. 3% of those under age 18 and 8. 8% of those age 65 or over
10.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
11.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
12.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
13.
Swarthmore College
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Swarthmore College is a private liberal arts college located in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,11 miles southwest of Philadelphia. Founded in 1864, Swarthmore was one of the earliest coeducational colleges in the United States, the school was organized by a committee of Quakers from three Hicksite yearly meetings, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York. Swarthmore was established to be a college. under the care of Friends, by 1906, Swarthmore dropped its religious affiliation, becoming officially non-sectarian. Swarthmore is a member of the Tri-College Consortium, a cooperative arrangement among Swarthmore, Bryn Mawr, in addition, the College is affiliated with the University of Pennsylvania through the Quaker Consortium, allowing for students to cross-register for classes at all four institutions. The name Swarthmore has its roots in early Quaker history, in England, Swarthmoor Hall near the town of Ulverston, Cumbria, was the home of Thomas and Margaret Fell in 1652 when George Fox, fresh from his epiphany atop Pendle Hill in 1651, came to visit. The visitation turned into an association, as Fox persuaded Thomas. Swarthmoor was used for the first meetings of what became known as the Religious Society of Friends, the College was founded in 1864 by a committee of Quakers who were members of the Philadelphia, New York and Baltimore Yearly Meetings of the Religious Society of Friends. Edward Parrish, was its first president, lucretia Mott, and Martha Ellicott Tyson, were among those Friends, who insisted that the new college of Swarthmore be coeducational. Edward Hicks Magill, the president, served for 17 years. In the early 1900s, the College had a major collegiate American football program during the period of the soon-to-be nationwide sport. During World War II, Swarthmore was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, wolfgang Köhler, Hans Wallach and Solomon Asch were noted psychologists who became professors at Swarthmore, a center for Gestalt psychology. Both Wallach, who was Jewish, and Köhler, who was not, had left Nazi Germany because of its policies against Jews. Köhler came to Swarthmore in 1935 and served until his retirement in 1958, Wallach came in 1936, first as a researcher, and also teaching from 1942 until 1975. Asch, who was Polish-American and had immigrated as a child to the US in 1920, joined the faculty in 1947 and served until 1966, Swarthmores Oxbridge tutorial-inspired Honors Program allows students to take double-credit seminars from their junior year and often write honors theses. Seminars are usually composed of four to eight students, students in seminars will usually write at least three ten-page papers per seminar, and often one of these papers is expanded into a 20–30 page paper by the end of the seminar. At the end of their year, Honors students take oral. Usually one student in each discipline is awarded Highest Honors, others are either awarded High Honors or Honors, rarely, each department usually has a grade threshold for admission to the Honors program. Uncommon for an arts college, Swarthmore has an engineering program in which at the completion of four years work
14.
Lafayette College
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Lafayette College is a private liberal arts college based in Easton, Pennsylvania, with a campus in New York City, NY. The school, founded in 1826 by James Madison Porter, son of General Andrew Porter of Norristown, and the citizens of Easton, first began holding classes in 1832. The founders voted to name the school after General Lafayette, who toured the country in 1824–25, as a testimony of respect for talents, virtues. In the great cause of freedom, located on College Hill in Easton, the campus is in the Lehigh Valley, about 70 mi west of New York City and 60 mi north of Philadelphia. Lafayette College guarantees campus housing to all enrolled students, the school requires students to live in campus housing unless approved for residing in private off-campus housing or home as a commuter. The student body, consisting entirely of undergraduates, comes from 46 U. S. states and Territories, students at Lafayette are involved in over 250 clubs and organizations including athletics, fraternities and sororities, special interest groups, community service clubs and honor societies. Lafayette Colleges athletic program is notable for The Rivalry with nearby Lehigh University, since 1884, the two football teams have met 152 times, making it the most played rivalry in the history of college football. The College leads American liberal arts colleges with the most Goldwater Scholarship recipients in the past six years, a group of Easton citizens led by James Madison Porter met on December 27,1824 at Whites Tavern to explore the possibility of opening a college. The recent visit of General Lafayette to New York during his tour of the US in 1824 and 1825 prompted the founders to name the school after the French military officer. The group also established the 35-member Board of Trustees, a system of governance that has remained at the college to this day, in need of an education plan, the meeting gave the responsibility to Porter, lawyer Jacob Wagener, and Yale-educated lawyer Joel Jones. The charter gained approval and on March 9,1826, Pennsylvania Governor John Andrew Shulzes signature made the college official, along with establishing Lafayette as a Liberal Arts College, the charter called for religious equality amongst professors, students, and staff. Over the next few years, the Board met several times to discuss property, six years after the first meeting, Lafayette began to enroll students. The College opened on May 1,1829, with four students under the guidance of Rev. John Monteith, classes began on May 9,1832, with the instruction of 43 students on the south bank of the Lehigh River in a rented farmhouse. In order to earn money to support the students had to labor in the fields. This manual labor infused College took the place of the original Military/Civil Engineering focus on which the school was founded, later that year, Lafayette purchased property on what is now known as College Hill – nine acres of elevated land across Bushkill Creek. The Colleges first building was constructed two years later on the current site of South College, a dispute between Porter and Rev. Junkin led to his resignation of the presidency in 1841. Though still young, Lafayette was beginning to shape, grappling with the possibility of religious affiliation for financial stability. In 1854, Lafayette College became affiliated with the Presbyterian Church, by relinquishing their control, the College was able to collect $1000 a year from the Presbyterian Church Board of Education as regularly as the latter could pay it
15.
Palmer Raids
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The Palmer Raids were a series of raids conducted by the United States Department of Justice to capture, arrest and deport suspected radical leftists, especially anarchists, from the United States. The raids and arrests occurred in November 1919 and January 1920 under the leadership of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. The Palmer Raids occurred in the context of the Red Scare. There were strikes that garnered attention, race riots in more than 30 cities. Particular targets were Germans, with sympathies for their homeland, and Irish, whose countrymen were in revolt against Americas ally, in 1915, President Wilson warned against hyphenated Americans who, he charged, had poured the poison of disloyalty into the very arteries of our national life. Such creatures of passion, disloyalty and anarchy, Wilson continued must be crushed out, the Russian Revolution of 1917 added special force to fear of labor agitators and partisans of ideologies like anarchism and communism. The general strike in Seattle in February 1919 represented a new development in labor unrest that the war had suppressed, the fears of Wilson and other government officials were confirmed when Galleanists—Italian followers of the anarchist Luigi Galleani—carried out a series of bombings in April and June 1919. At the end of April, some 30 Galleanist letter bombs had been mailed to a host of individuals, mostly prominent government officials and businessmen, only a few reached their targets, and not all exploded when opened. Some people suffered injuries, including a housekeeper in Senator Thomas W. Hardwicks residence, at least one person was killed in this second attack, night watchman William Boehner, and fears were raised because it occurred in the capital. Flyers declaring war on capitalists in the name of anarchist principles accompanied each bomb, in June 1919, Attorney General Palmer told the House Appropriations Committee that all evidence promised that radicals would on a certain day. rise up and destroy the government at one fell swoop. He requested an increase in his budget to $2,000,000 from $1,500,000 to support his investigations of radicals, but Congress limited the increase to $100,000. An initial raid in July 1919 against an anarchist group in Buffalo, New York, achieved little when a federal judge tossed out Palmers case. He found in the case that the three arrested radicals, charged under a law dating from the Civil War, had proposed transforming the government by using their free speech rights and not by violence. That taught Palmer that he needed to exploit the more powerful immigration statutes that authorized the deportation of alien anarchists, to do that, he needed to enlist the cooperation of officials at the Department of Labor. Only the Secretary of Labor could issue warrants for the arrest of violators of the Immigrations Acts. On August 1,1919, Palmer named 24-year-old J, the Boston Police Strike in early September raised concerns about possible threats to political and social stability. On October 17, the Senate passed a resolution demanding Palmer explain what actions he had or had not taken against radical aliens. Newspaper accounts reported some were beaten during the arrests
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First Red Scare
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The Scare had its origins in the hyper-nationalism of World War I as well as the Russian Revolution. Fear of radicalism was used to explain the suppression of freedom of expression in form of display of certain flags, the First Red Scare effectively ended in mid-1920, after Attorney General Palmer forecast a massive radical uprising on May Day and the day passed without incident. In 1917, President Woodrow Wilson established the Committee on Public Information to circulate and distribute anti-German and pro-Allied propaganda, revolutionary and pacifist groups, such as the Socialist Party of America and the Industrial Workers of the World, strongly opposed the war. Many leaders of groups, most notably Eugene V. Debs, were prosecuted for giving speeches urging resistance to the draft. Members of the Ghadar Party were also put on trial in the Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial, the effort was also helped by the United States Congress, with the passing of the Espionage Act in 1917 and its sister act the Sedition Act of 1918. After the war ended, the government investigations abated for a few months. They soon resumed in the context of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Russian Civil War, to some Americans, this was a time of uncertainty and fear over the prospects of an anarchist, socialist or communist revolution in the United States. On January 21,1919,35,000 shipyard workers in Seattle went on strike seeking wage increases and they appealed to the Seattle Central Labor Council for support from other unions and found widespread enthusiasm. Within two weeks, more than 100 local unions joined in a call on February 3 for general strike to begin on the morning of February 6, even before the strike began, the press begged the unions to reconsider. In part they were frightened by some of labor’s rhetoric, like the labor newspaper editorial that proclaimed and we are starting on a road that leads – NO ONE KNOWS WHERE. Daily newspapers saw the strike as a foreign import, This is America – not Russia. The non-striking part of Seattles population imagined the worst and stocked up on food, hardware stores sold their stock of guns. Seattle Mayor Ole Hanson announced that he had 1500 police and 1500 federal troops on hand to put down any disturbances and he personally oversaw their deployment throughout the city. The time has come, he said, for the people in Seattle to show their Americanism, the anarchists in this community shall not rule its affairs. He promised to use them to replace striking workers, but never carried out that threat, press and political reaction made the general strike untenable, and they feared Seattle labor would lose gains made during the war if it continued. The national press called the general strike Marxian and a movement aimed at existing government. It is only a step, said the Chicago Tribune. As early as February 8 some unions began to return to work at the urging of their leaders
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Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania
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Stroudsburg is a borough in Monroe County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is located in the Poconos region of the state, approximately five miles from the Delaware Water Gap, at the confluence of the Brodhead, McMichaels and it is also the county seat of Monroe County. Stroudsburg is part of the East Stroudsburg, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area, Stroudsburg was laid out by Col. Jacob Stroud in 1799. Jacob Strouds family had founded Stroudsburg in the mid-1700s, the Academy Hill Historic District, Kitson Woolen Mill, Monroe County Courthouse, and Stroud Mansion are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Currently Stroudsburg has an population of about 6,674 people. In 1900,3,450 people inhabited Stroudsburg, in 1910,4,379, in 1940,6,186, in 2000,5,756, and in 2008,6,294 people were living here. The immediate greater Stroudsburg area, including Stroudsburg and East Stroudsburg, Stroud Township, Hamilton Township, Stroudsburg is located at 40°59′9″N 75°11′43″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 1.8 square miles.1.8 square miles of it is land and 0.04 square miles of it is water. Stroudsburg is located 38 miles north of Allentown and 53 miles southeast of Scranton, stroudsburgs elevation is 500 feet above sea level. Stroudsburg is located in the heart of the Pocono Mountains, the Pocono region remains Pennsylvania’s biggest tourist attraction and has nearly $1 billion in economic impact with over 8 million visitors annually. Downtown Stroudsburg is the hub for the surrounding area, serving as the Monroe County seat. It is the traditional downtown in the area. There are 600 hotel rooms within 2 miles of Downtown Stroudsburg, currently the total trade area population is about 250,000. This includes all of Monroe and Pike Counties, as well as northern Northampton County and Warren County, Downtown Stroudsburg is the anchor for the more and more modern shopping centers that are being built around the area, wanting to be in or near the historic downtown. Stroudsburg has a continental climate As of the census of 2000, there were 5,756 people,2,422 households. The population density was 3,245.1 people per square mile, there were 2,630 housing units at an average density of 1,482.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 58. 05% White,30. 01% African American,0. 21% Native American,1. 89% Asian,2. 26% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 95% of the population. 34. 8% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.98
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Revenue Act of 1913
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It was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on October 3,1913, and was sponsored by Alabama Representative Oscar Underwood. President Woodrow Wilson summoned a special session of Congress in April 1913 and his immediate objective was to confront the perennial tariff question, and he brought special attention to the matter by deciding to appear in person before Congress to make his appeal. He was the first president since John Adams to do so, the joint session was a spectacular event. A huge crowd gathered and every seat in the House chamber was taken, Wilson spoke only briefly, but made it clear that tariff reform was needed, and that he would not be a party to a repeat of the embarrassment of the thwarted reform of 1894. The burden was clearly on Democratic shoulders because they controlled both houses of Congress for the first time in 18 years, Wilson, unlike many of his predecessors, took the offensive. He went to the Capitol and twisted the arms of backsliding Democrats, the president was successful with generating a public reaction. Angry constituents wrote their congressmen and demanded tariff reform, the Revenue Act of 1913 passed the House,281 to 139, on May 8,1913. Wilson used his powers to guide it to Senate passage 44 to 37. Politically it was considered a triumph for President Woodrow Wilson. The 1913 Act established the lowest rates since the Walker Tariff of 1857, most schedules were put on an ad valorem basis. The duty on woolens went from 56% to 18. 5%, steel rails, raw wool, iron ore, and agricultural implements had zero rates. The reciprocity program the Republicans had been pushing was eliminated, Congress rejected proposals for a tariff board to scientifically fix rates, but did set up a study commission. The Underwood-Simmons measure vastly increased the free list, adding woolens, iron, steel, farm machinery and many raw materials, the average rate was approximately 26 percent. The Act also provided for the reinstitution of an income tax as a means to compensate for anticipated lost revenue because of the reduction of tariff duties. That obstacle, however, was removed by ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment on February 3,1913, the Act provided in part that. The incomes of couples exceeding $4,000, as well as those of single persons earning $3,000 or more, were subject to a one percent federal tax. Further, the measure provided a tax structure, meaning that high income earners were required to pay at higher rates. It would require only a few years for the income tax to become the chief source of income for the government
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Tariffs in United States history
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Graph, Share of tariff revenues in U. S. Federal budget. Tariffs in United States history have played important roles in trade policy, political debates, the main goal of the tariff was money to pay the federal budget. Controversy arose over whether manufacturing interests were favored and consumer interests hurt by high tariffs, the 1st United States Congress, wanting a straightforward tax that was not too onerous and easy to collect, passed the Tariff Act of 1789. Treasury agents collected the tariff before goods could be landed, Tariffs were the largest source of federal revenue until the Federal income tax began after 1913. For well over a century the government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20% on foreign imports. There are no tariffs for imports or shipments from other states, since the 1940s, foreign trade policies have focused more on reciprocal tariffs and low tariff rates rather than using tariffs as a significant source of Federal tax revenue. The goal of using higher tariffs to promote industrialization was urged by the first Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton and they generally failed because Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democrats said the tariff should be only high enough to pay the governments bills, otherwise, it would hurt the consumers. The Republicans, however, made high tariffs the centerpiece of their economic policy beginning in 1861, since 1930, tariffs have not been a major political issue. Tariffs were the source of all Federal revenue from 1790 to 1914. At the end of the American Civil War in 1865 about 63% of Federal income was generated by the excise taxes, in 1915 during World War I tariffs generated only 30. 1% of revenues. Since 1935 tariff income has continued to be a percentage of Federal tax income. Constitution of 1789 gave the government authority to tax, stating that Congress has the power to. Lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, pay the debts and provide for the common defense, and also To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes. Tariffs between states is prohibited by the U. S. Constitution, and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax-free. The tariff issue was central to political party debates in the Second Party System, Third Party System and Fourth Party System, in general Democrats favored a tariff that would pay the cost of government, but no higher. Whigs and Republicans favored higher tariffs to encourage or protect industry, Tariffs were generally low before 1860, and high after that. Since the 1930s, however, tariffs have been low and have been much less a matter of partisan debate. It should be noted that the adjacent table determines the average tariff by calculating the ratio of customs duties collected to the value of dutiable *and* duty-free items
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Income tax in the United States
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In the United States, a tax is imposed on income by the federal government, most state governments, and many local governments. The income tax is determined by applying a tax rate, which may increase as income increases, Individuals and corporations are directly taxable, and estates and trusts may be taxable on undistributed income. In the United States, the payroll tax usually refers to FICA taxes that pay into Social Security and Medicare, while income tax refers to taxes that pay into state. Partnerships are not taxed, but their partners are taxed on their shares of partnership income, residents and citizens are taxed on worldwide income, while nonresidents are taxed only on income within the jurisdiction. Several types of credits reduce tax, and some types of credits may exceed tax before credits, an alternative tax applies at the federal and some state levels. Taxable income is total income less allowable deductions, Individuals may also deduct a personal allowance and certain personal expenses, including home mortgage interest, state taxes, contributions to charity, and some other items. Some deductions are subject to limits, Capital gains are taxable, and capital losses reduce taxable income to the extent of gains. Individuals currently pay a rate of tax on capital gains. Taxpayers generally must self assess income tax by filing tax returns, advance payments of tax are required in the form of withholding tax or estimated tax payments. Taxes are determined separately by each jurisdiction imposing tax, due dates and other administrative procedures vary by jurisdiction. April 15 following the tax year is the last day for individuals to file tax returns for federal and many state, Tax as determined by the taxpayer may be adjusted by the taxing jurisdiction. A tax is imposed on net income in the United States by the federal, most state. Income tax is imposed on individuals, corporations, estates, the definition of net taxable income for most sub-federal jurisdictions mostly follows the federal definition. The rate of tax at the level is graduated, that is. Some states and localities impose a tax at a graduated rate. Federal tax rates in 2013 varied from 10% to 39. 6%, Individuals are eligible for a reduced rate of federal income tax on capital gains and qualifying dividends. The tax rate and some deductions are different for individuals depending on filing status, married individuals may compute tax as a couple or separately. Single individuals may be eligible for reduced tax rates if they are head of a household in which live with a dependent
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Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
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Boies Penrose
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Boies Penrose was an American lawyer and Republican politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He represented Pennsylvania in the United States Senate from 1897 until his death in 1921, Penrose was the fourth boss of the Pennsylvania Republican machine, following Simon Cameron, Donald Cameron, and Matthew Quay. Penrose was the longest-serving Pennsylvania Senator until Arlen Specter surpassed his record in 2005, born into a prominent Philadelphia family of Cornish descent, he was brother to Richard Penrose and Spencer Penrose. Penrose graduated second in his class from Harvard University in 1881, although Penrose wrote two books on political reform, he joined the political machine of Matthew Quay, a Pennsylvania political boss. He was elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives in 1884, and was elected to the State Senate in 1886, in 1903 Boies, along with his brothers and father, invested in the formation of the Utah Copper Company. Penrose was an outdoorsman and took pleasure in mountain exploration. A mountain in Montana and another in the Dickson Range in the Bridge River Country in British Columbia were climbed and named by him. The Senator was a large, heavy man and according to his hunting guide, W. G. Manson, they had to all over the place to get a horse big enough to fit Penrose. The horse was called Senator, and was retired to the pasture because no standard saddle would fit him, Penrose stepped down from his position as a State Senator in 1897 to take office as a United States Senator, defeating John Wanamaker for the position. He was elected Chairman of the State Republican Party in 1903, a year later, Quay died, and Penrose was appointed to succeed him as the states Republican National Committeeman. He quickly became a broker in the state, enabling figures like Richard Baldwin to advance through loyalty to his organization. He was forced out of power by the faction of the party, led by William Flinn. At that years party convention, Penrose did not stand for re-election to his national committee post, in 1914, Penrose faced his first direct election, Penrose publicly campaigned for the first time in his life and defeated Democrat A. Mitchell Palmer and Progressive Gifford Pinchot. In the 1912 presidential election, Penrose strongly supported incumbent President William Howard Taft over former President Theodore Roosevelt, after a campaign that consisted of heavy attacks on Penrose, Roosevelt won the state in the 1912 election, although Democrat Woodrow Wilson won the national vote. Penrose was also a supporter of Warren Harding, and helped the Ohio Senator win the 1920 Republican nomination. Penroses role in Hardings election helped earn Pennsylvanian Andrew W. Mellon the role of Secretary of the Treasury, Penrose was a dominant member of the Senate Finance Committee and supported high protective tariffs. One of Penroses most important legislative actions was adding the oil depletion allowance to the Revenue Act of 1913, Penrose consistently supported pro-business policies, and opposed labor reform and womens rights. The Liberty Bell has not been moved from Pennsylvania again, a statue of Penrose has been in Harrisburg, Pennsylvanias Capitol Park since September 1930
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Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
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The Progressive Party of 1912 was an American third party. The new party was known for taking advanced positions on progressive reforms, beset by factionalism and failure to win many offices, the party went into rapid decline by 1914 and virtually disappeared in 1916. The Progressive party was nicknamed the Bull Moose Party after journalists quoted Roosevelt saying that he felt fit as a bull moose shortly after the new party was formed. He had selected Taft, his Secretary of War, to succeed him as presidential candidate, Roosevelt became disappointed by Tafts increasingly conservative policies. Taft upset Roosevelt when he used the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to sue U. S. Steel for an action that President Roosevelt had explicitly approved and they became openly hostile, and Roosevelt decided to seek the presidency. Roosevelt entered the late, as Taft was already being challenged by progressive leader Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin. Most of La Follettes supporters switched to Roosevelt, leaving the Wisconsin Senator embittered, nine of the states where progressive elements were strongest had set up preference primaries, which Roosevelt won. For example, he bought up the votes of delegates from the southern states, the Republican national convention rejected Roosevelts protests. Roosevelt and his supporters walked out, and the convention re-nominated Taft, the next day, Roosevelt supporters met to form a new political party of their own. California governor Hiram Johnson became its chairman, and a new convention was scheduled for August, Roosevelts family gave $77,500 and others gave $164,000. The total was nearly $600,000, far less than the major parties, the new party had serious structural defects. Since it insisted on running complete tickets against the regular Republican ticket in most states, the exception was California, where the progressive element took control of the Republican Party and Taft was not even on the November ballot. Only five of the 15 more progressive Republican Senators declared support for it, Republican Representatives, governors, committeemen, and the publishers and editors of Republican-leaning newspapers showed comparable reluctance. Many of Roosevelts closest political allies supported Taft, including his son-in-law, for men like Longworth, expecting a future of his own in Republican politics, bolting the party would have seemed tantamount to career suicide. However, many independent reformers still signed up, despite these obstacles, the August convention opened with great enthusiasm. Over 2,000 delegates attended, including many women, in 1912, neither Taft nor Wilson endorsed womens suffrage on the national level. The notable suffragist and social worker Jane Addams gave a speech for Roosevelts nomination. However, Roosevelt insisted on excluding black Republicans from the South, yet he alienated white southern supporters on the eve of the election by publicly dining with black people at a Rhode Island hotel
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Gifford Pinchot
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Gifford Pinchot was an American forester and politician. He was a member of the Republican Party for most of his life, Pinchot is known for reforming the management and development of forests in the United States and for advocating the conservation of the nations reserves by planned use and renewal. He called it the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield for the service of man, Pinchot coined the term conservation ethic as applied to natural resources. He was the first to demonstrate the practicality and profitability of managing forests for continuous cropping and his leadership put conservation of forests high on Americas priority list. Asked how to say his name, he told The Literary Digest as though it were spelled pincho and he graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy and in 1889, Yale University, where he was a member of Skull and Bones. He had a brother Amos Pinchot and a sister Antoinette, the Pinchots made a great fortune from lumbering and land speculation, and Pinchots father regretted the damage his familys work had done to the land. James made conservation a family affair and suggested that Gifford should become a forester, Gifford studied as a postgraduate at the French National School of Forestry, in Nancy, for a year. He returned home and plunged into the nascent forestry movement, intent on shaping a national forest policy, family financial affairs were managed by brother Amos Pinchot, thus freeing Gifford to do the more important work of developing forest management concepts. Unlike some others in the movement, Giffords wealth allowed him to singly pursue this goal without worry of income. Pinchots approach set him apart from the leading forestry experts, especially Bernhard E. Fernow. Schenck was Pinchots successor at the Biltmore Estate and founder of the Biltmore Forest School on Biltmore Estate. Perhaps, the men who had the most influence on his development as a forester were Sir Dietrich Brandis, who had brought forestry to the British Empire, and Sir Wilhelm Schlich, Brandis successor. Pinchot relied heavily upon Brandis advice for introducing professional forest management in the U. S. in 1896, the National Academy of Sciences formed the National Forest Commission. Pinchot was the only non-Academy member, President Grover Cleveland later asked Pinchot to develop a plan for managing the nations Western forest reserves. In 1897, Pinchot became a member of Boone and Crockett Club one of North Americas first conservation organizations, in 1898, Gifford Pinchot succeeded Bernhard Fernow as chief of the Division of Forestry, later renamed the United States Forest Service in 1905. Thus, management of the federal forests changed from the United States Department of the Interior to this agency within the Department of Agriculture. Pinchot introduced better forestry methods into the operations of private owners, large and small, by using new forestry school graduates to good practices. In 1900, Pinchot established the Society of American Foresters and this helped bring credibility to the new profession of forestry, and was part of the broader professionalization movement underway in the United States at the turn of the twentieth century
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World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
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Anarchism
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
28.
Luigi Galleani
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Luigi Galleani was an Italian anarchist active in the United States from 1901 to 1919, viewed by historians as an insurrectionary anarchist. From 1914 to 1932, Galleanis followers in the United States, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts against institutions and persons they viewed as class enemies. After Galleani was deported from the United States to Italy in June 1919, his colleagues are alleged to have carried out the Wall Street bombing of 1920, luigi Galleani was born in the city of Vercelli, Italy, to a family of modest means. Galleani became an anarchist as an adolescent, while studying law at the University of Turin in northern Italy, leaving the university before completing his degree, he had already begun a strong advocacy of anarchism and anarchist ideals. Wanted by police in Turin, he fled to France in 1880, Galleani remained in France for nearly 20 years. He spent some time in Switzerland, where he was allied with the noted geographer, in addition to assisting him with his masterwork, La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, Galleani worked with Reclus to organize a demonstration of students at the University of Geneva in 1887. The event was held in honor of the Haymarket martyrs of Chicago, for this, he was arrested and later deported from Switzerland. Moving to France, Galleani was deported from that country a few years later and he returned to Italy, where within a few years he was arrested, convicted of conspiracy, and sentenced to five years in prison. Beginning in 1894, when he was 33 years old, he spent more than five years in prison and internal exile, on Pantelleria, he met and married Maria, who already had a young son, Salvatore. Luigi and Maria Galleani eventually had four children of their own, escaping from Pantelleria in 1900, Galleani fled to Egypt. It had a large Italian expatriate community, and he stayed with fellow anarchists for several months, notified by the Egyptian authorities that they would soon begin proceedings to extradite him to Italy, Galleani abruptly left Egypt and went to London via ship. He then immigrated to the United States, arriving in 1901, settling in Paterson, New Jersey, Galleani became the editor of La Questione Sociale, the leading Italian anarchist periodical in the United States at the time. By all accounts, Galleani was an effective speaker and advocate of his policy of revolutionary violence. Carlo Buda, the brother of Galleanist bombmaker Mario Buda, said of him, You heard Galleani speak, and you were ready to shoot the first policeman you saw. In 1902, silk workers at a factory in Paterson went on strike and Galleani spoke on their behalf, urging workers to declare a general strike, when police opened fire on the strikers, Galleani was wounded in the face. He was later indicted for inciting a riot and he fled to Canada and was apprehended by authorities there, who expelled him by escorting him just across the U. S. border. Galleani was attracted to the Italian community in Barre, Vermont and these laborers formed the bulk of Barres socialist and anarchist community. Galleani held forth at local anarchist meetings, assailed timid socialists, gave fire-breathing speeches, Galleani published the anarchist newsletter for fifteen years until the United States government closed it down under the Sedition Act of 1918
29.
1919 United States anarchist bombings
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The 1919 United States anarchist bombings were a series of bombings and attempted bombings carried out by anarchist followers of Luigi Galleani from April through June 1919. These bombings led to the Red Scare of 1919–20, the mail bombs were wrapped in brown paper with similar address and advertising labels. A small vial of acid was fastened to the wood block. Opening one end of the box released a coil spring that caused the acid to drip from its vial onto the blasting caps, the Galleanists intended their bombs to be delivered on May Day. Since 1890 and the Second International, May 1 had been celebrated as the day of communist, anarchist. Langer opened the wrong end of the box, and the bottle of acid dropped onto a table without detonation and he took the bomb to the local police, who notified the Post Office and other police agencies. On April 29, Georgia senator Thomas W. Hardwick, who had co-sponsored the anti-radical Immigration Act of 1918 and it blew off the hands of his housekeeper when she attempted to open the package. The senators wife was injured in the blast, which severely burned her face and neck. Another 12 bombs were recovered before reaching their intended targets. The addressees were, On the evening of June 2,1919 and these bombs were much larger than those sent in April, using up to 25 pounds of dynamite, and all were wrapped or packaged with heavy metal slugs designed to act as shrapnel. The homes of Mayor Harry L. Davis of Cleveland, Pittsburghs Federal Judge W. H. S, sibray, Massachusetts State Representative Leland Powers, Judge Charles C. Nott of New York, and Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, though not seriously injured, Palmer and his family were shaken by the blast, and the house itself was largely demolished. Two near-casualties of the bomb were Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his wife Eleanor. They had walked past the house just minutes before the explosion, salsedo committed suicide, and Elia refused an offer to cancel deportation proceedings if he would testify about his role in the Galleanist organization. Unable to secure evidence for criminal trials, authorities continued to use the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Under suspicion of violating the Espionage Act, the Sedition Act, and/or the Immigration Act of 1918, approximately 10,000 people were arrested, of those held in detention,556 resident aliens were eventually deported. The bombings were dramatized in the 2012 film No God, No Master, anarchism and violence Propaganda of the deed September 1920 Wall Street bombing Palmer Raids Espionage Act of 1917 Allen, F. L. Only yesterday, an history of the nineteen-twenties
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Red Summer
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In most instances, whites attacked African Americans. In some cases many black people back, notably in Chicago. In addition, it was a time of labor unrest in which some industrialists used black people as strikebreakers and they also feared foreign anarchists, who had bombed homes and businesses of prominent business and government leaders. In 1919, he organized protests against the racial violence of that summer. With the manpower mobilization of World War I and immigration from Europe cut off, northern manufacturers recruited throughout the South and an exodus of workers ensued. African-American workers filled new positions in expanding industries, such as the railroads, in some cities, they were hired as strikebreakers, especially during the strikes of 1917. This increased resentment against them among many whites, immigrants or first-generation Americans. During the First Red Scare of 1919-20, following the Russian Revolution, authorities viewed with alarm African Americans advocacy of racial equality, labor rights, or the rights of victims of mobs to defend themselves. In a private conversation in March 1919, President Woodrow Wilson said that the American Negro returning from abroad would be our greatest medium in conveying bolshevism to America, other whites expressed a wide range of opinions, some anticipating unsettled times and others seeing no signs of tension. They have awakened, but they have not yet the complete conception of what they have awakened to and we stand again to look America squarely in the face and call a spade a spade. We sing, This country of ours, despite all its better souls have done, following the violence-filled summer, in the autumn of 1919, Haynes reported on the events as a prelude to an investigation by the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. He identified 38 separate riots in widely scattered cities, in which whites attacked black people, unlike earlier race riots in U. S. history, the 1919 events were among the first in which black people in number resisted white attacks and fought back. Philip Randolph, a rights activist and leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. The states appeared powerless or unwilling to interfere or prosecute such mob murders, after the riot of May 10 in Charleston, South Carolina, the city imposed martial law. US Navy sailors led the riot, Isaac Doctor, William Brown. Five white men and eighteen men were injured. A Naval investigation found that four U. S. sailors, in early July, a white race riot in Longview, Texas led to the deaths of at least four men and destroyed the African-American housing district in the town. On July 3, local police in Bisbee, Arizona attacked the 10th U. S. Cavalry and they rioted, randomly beat black people on the street, and pulled others off streetcars for attacks
31.
J. Edgar Hoover
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John Edgar Hoover, better known as J. Edgar Hoover, was the first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation of the United States. Later in life and after his death, Hoover became a figure as evidence of his secretive abuses of power began to surface. Hoover consequently amassed a great deal of power and was in a position to intimidate, according to biographer Kenneth Ackerman, the notion that Hoovers secret files kept presidents from firing him is a myth. However, Richard Nixon was recorded as stating in 1971 that one of the reasons he did not fire Hoover was that he was afraid of reprisals against him from Hoover, according to President Harry S. Truman, Hoover transformed the FBI into his private secret police force. Truman stated, we want no Gestapo or secret police, the FBI is tending in that direction. They are dabbling in sex-life scandals and plain blackmail, J. Edgar Hoover would give his right eye to take over, and all congressmen and senators are afraid of him. John Edgar Hoover was born on New Years Day 1895 in Washington, D. C. to Anna Marie, who was of Swiss-German descent, Hoovers maternal great-uncle, John Hitz, was a Swiss honorary consul general to the United States. He was the closest to his mother in the family, who was the moral guide. Hoover did not have a birth certificate filed upon his birth, two of his siblings had certificates, but Hoovers was not filed until 1938 when he was 43. During debates, he argued against women getting the right to vote, the school newspaper applauded his cool, relentless logic. Hoover stuttered as a boy, which he overcame by teaching himself to talk quickly—a style that he carried through his adult career and he eventually spoke with such ferocious speed that stenographers had a hard time following him. Hoover lived in Washington, D. C. for his entire life, Hoover was 18 years old when he accepted his first job, an entry-level position as messenger in the orders department, at the Library of Congress. The library was a mile from his house. The experience shaped both Hoover and the creation of the FBI profiles, as Hoover noted in a 1951 letter and it gave me an excellent foundation for my work in the FBI where it has been necessary to collate information and evidence. Immediately after getting his LL. M. degree, Hoover was hired by the Justice Department to work in the War Emergency Division. He soon became the head of the Divisions Alien Enemy Bureau, authorized by President Wilson at the beginning of World War I to arrest and he received additional authority from the 1917 Espionage Act. Out of a list of 1,400 suspicious Germans living in the U. S. the Bureau arrested 98, americas First Red Scare was beginning, and one of Hoovers first assignments was to carry out the Palmer Raids. Hoover and his assistant, George Ruch, monitored a variety of U. S. radicals with the intent to punish, arrest
32.
May Day
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May Day is a public holiday usually celebrated on May 1. It is an ancient northern hemisphere spring festival and it is also a traditional spring holiday in many cultures. Dances, singing, and cake are usually part of the celebrations that the day includes, in the late 19th century, May Day was chosen as the date for International Workers Day by the Socialists and Communists of the Second International to commemorate the Haymarket affair in Chicago. International Workers Day may also be referred to as May Day and it is also associated with the Gaelic Beltane, most commonly held on April 30. The day was a summer holiday in many pre-Christian European pagan cultures. While February 1 was the first day of spring, May 1 was the first day of summer, hence, as Europe became Christianised, the pagan holidays lost their religious character and May Day changed into a popular secular celebration. A significant celebration of May Day occurs in Germany where it is one of days on which St. Walburga. The secular versions of May Day, observed in Europe and America, may be best known for their traditions of dancing around the maypole and crowning the Queen of May. Fading in popularity since the late 20th century is the giving of May baskets, small baskets of sweets or flowers, usually left anonymously on neighbours doorsteps. May 1 is also one of two feast days of the Catholic patron saint of workers St Joseph the Worker, a carpenter, husband to Mother Mary, and surrogate father of Jesus. Replacing another feast to St. Joseph, this date was chosen by Pope Pius XII in 1955 as a counterpoint to the communist International Workers Day celebrations on May Day. In the late 20th century, many neopagans began reconstructing traditions, traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole. Historically, Morris dancing has been linked to May Day celebrations, much of this tradition derives from the pagan Anglo-Saxon customs held during Þrimilci-mōnaþ along with many Celtic traditions. May Day has been a day of festivities throughout the centuries. May Day is most associated with towns and villages celebrating springtime fertility and revelry with village fetes, seeding has been completed by this date and it was convenient to give farm labourers a day off. Perhaps the most significant of the traditions is the maypole, around which traditional dancers circle with ribbons, the spring bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978, May Day itself – May 1 – is not a public holiday in England. Unlike the other Bank Holidays and common law holidays, the first Monday in May is taken off from schools by itself and this is because it has no Christian significance and does not otherwise fit into the usual school holiday pattern. May Day was abolished and its celebration banned by Puritan parliaments during the Interregnum, may 1,1707, was the day the Act of Union came into effect, joining England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain
33.
1920 Democratic National Convention
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The 1920 Democratic National Convention was held at the Civic Auditorium in San Francisco, California from June 28 to July 6,1920. It resulted in the nomination of Governor James M. Cox of Ohio for President and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt from New York for Vice President. In addition to the nominee, Cox, the other high-scoring candidates as the voting proceeded were, Secretary of the Treasury William McAdoo. On the forty-fourth ballot, Governor James M. Cox of Ohio was nominated for the Presidency, the platform adopted by the convention supported the League of Nations, albeit with qualifications, and womens suffrage. Early favorites for the nomination had included McAdoo and Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, others placed in nomination included New York Governor Al Smith, United Kingdom Ambassador John W. Davis, New Jersey Governor Edward I. Edwards, and Oklahoma Senator Robert Latham Owen and it seemed that this was going to be a free for all too, but Cox had asked the delegates to support former Assistant Navy Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, because, as some thought, he had a magic name. FDR was nominated by voice vote and received the nomination by acclamation,1920 Republican National Convention United States presidential election,1920 Democratic National Convention Democratic Party Platform of 1920 at The American Presidency Project
34.
James M. Cox
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James Middleton Cox was the 46th and 48th Governor of Ohio, U. S. Representative from Ohio and Democratic candidate for President of the United States in the election of 1920 and he founded the chain of newspapers that continues today as Cox Enterprises, a media conglomerate. Cox was born on a farm near the tiny Butler County, Ohio, village of Jacksonburg and he was educated in a one-room school until the age sixteen. After his parents divorced, he moved with his mother in 1886 to Middletown, Ohio, in 1892 he received a job at the Cincinnati Enquirer as a copy reader on the telegraph desk, and later started to report on spot news including the railroad news. He also confronted John H. Patterson, president of Daytons National Cash Register Co. revealing facts of antitrust violations, in 1905, foretelling his future media conglomerate, Cox acquired the Springfield Press-Republic published in Springfield, Ohio, and renamed it, the Springfield Daily News. In 1908, he ran for Congress as a Democrat and was elected, Cox represented Ohio in the United States House of Representatives in 1909–1913, resigning after winning election as Governor of Ohio in a three-way race gaining 41. 5% of the vote. Cox served three terms as Governor of Ohio, first, in 1913–1915 and then in 1917–1921 and he presided over a wide range of measures such as laying the foundation of Ohios unified highway system, creating no fault workers compensation system and restricting child labor. He introduced direct primaries and municipal home rule, started educational and prison reforms, during World War I, Cox encouraged voluntary cooperation between business, labor, and government bodies. In 1918, he welcomed constitutional amendments for Prohibition and woman suffrage, Cox supported the internationalist policies of Woodrow Wilson and reluctantly supported US entry into the League of Nations. Cox claimed that teaching German was a menace to Americanism. To fight unemployment and inflation, he suggested simultaneously lower income and he promised to introduce national collective bargaining legislation and pledged his support to the Volstead Act. Cox spoke in support of Americanization to increase loyalty to the United States among immigrant population, despite all efforts, Cox was defeated in the 1920 presidential election by a fellow Ohioan and newspaperman, U. S. Senator Warren G. Harding of Marion, the public had grown weary of the turmoil of the Wilson years, and eagerly accepted Hardings call for a return to normalcy. Coxs running mate was future president, then-Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt, one of the better known analyses of the 1920 election is in Irving Stones book about defeated presidential candidates, They Also Ran. However, Cox would outlive all three men by several years, during the campaign, Cox several times recorded for The Nations Forum, a record label that made voice recordings of American political and civic leaders in 1918-1920. After stepping down from public service, he concentrated on building a media conglomerate. In 1923 he acquired the Miami Daily News and the Canton Daily News, in December 1939, he purchased the Atlanta Georgian and Journal, just a week before that city hosted the premiere of Gone with the Wind. This deal included radio station WSB, which joined his previous holdings, WHIO in Dayton and WIOD in Miami, to give him, air from the Great Lakes on the north to Latin America on the south
35.
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
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Bethlehem is a city in Lehigh and Northampton counties in the Lehigh Valley region of the eastern portion of the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 74,982, making it the seventh largest city in Pennsylvania, after Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, Reading. Of this,55,639 were in Northampton County, and 19,343 were in Lehigh County, Bethlehem lies in the center of the Lehigh Valley, a region of 731 square miles that is home to more than 800,000 people. Smaller than Allentown but larger than Easton, Bethlehem is the Lehigh Valleys second most populous city, in turn, this metropolitan area comprises Pennsylvanias third-largest metropolitan area and the states largest and most populous contribution to the greater New York City metropolitan area. There are four sections of the city, central Bethlehem, the south side, the east side. Each of these sections blossomed at different times in the citys development, ZIP codes that use the address Bethlehem totaled 116,000 in population in the year 2000. These ZIP codes include Bethlehem Township and Hanover Township, the Norfolk Southern Railways Lehigh Line, runs through Bethlehem heading east to Easton, Pennsylvania and Phillipsburg, New Jersey across the Delaware River. The Norfolk Southern Railways Reading Line runs through Bethlehem heading west to Allentown, in July 2006, Money magazine placed Bethlehem as number 88 on its Top 100 Best Places to Live. The areas along the Delaware River and its tributaries in eastern Pennsylvania were long inhabited by peoples of various cultures. By the time of European contact, these areas were the historic territory of the Algonquian-speaking Lenape Nation and they traded with the Dutch and then English colonists in the mid-Atlantic area. They came to set up missionary communities among the Native Americans and they named the settlement after the Biblical town Bethlehem of Judea, the birthplace of Jesus. Count Zinzendorf said, Brothers, how more fittingly could we call our new home than to name it in honor of the spot where the event we now commemorate took place and we will call this place Bethlehem. And so was Bethlehem named after the birthplace of the Man of Peace, originally it was a typical Moravian Settlement Congregation, where the Church owned all the property. Until the 1850s, only members of the Moravian Church were permitted to land plots in Bethlehem. The historic Brethrens House, Sisters House, Widows House and Gemeinhaus with the Old Chapel are remnants of this period of communal living, the Moravians ministered to regional Lenape Native Americans through their mission in the area, as well as further east in the New York colony. In the historic Bethlehem Gods Acre cemetery, converted Lenape lie buried alongside the Moravians, in 1762, Bethlehem built the first water-works in America to pump water for public use. While George Washington and his troops stayed in Valley Forge, Washington stored his personal effects at the farm of James Burnside in Bethlehem – as of 1998 a historical museum, the prosperous village was incorporated into a free borough in the County of Northampton in 1845. After the Unity Synod of 1848, Bethlehem became the headquarters of the Northern Province of the Moravian Church in North America
36.
Phi Kappa Psi
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There are over 100 chapters and colonies at accredited four year colleges and universities throughout the United States. More than 119,000 men have initiated into Phi Kappa Psi since its founding. Phi Kappa Psi and Phi Gamma Delta, both founded at the college, form the Jefferson Duo. In the winter of 1850, a fever epidemic hit Jefferson College in Canonsburg. Among those who remained were William Henry Letterman and Charles Page Thomas Moore and they chose to care for their classmates who were stricken with the contagious disease, and a strong bond was formed. In the following year, Letterman and Moore decided to found a fraternity based on the great joy of serving others that they experienced during the epidemic. On February 19,1852, Phi Kappa Psi was founded, the Executive Council of Phi Kappa Psi is composed of the President, Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, and 6 Archons. Since its founding, Phi Kappa Psi has been controlled by undergraduates and this unique system of governance is achieved by a governing body, the Executive Council, which is made up of a majority of elected undergraduates. These undergraduates, known as Archons, represent the six Districts of Phi Kappa Psi, Archons are elected during meetings of each District during Woodrow Wilson Leadership Schools, held during odd-numbered years. Four alumni also serve on the Executive Council and are elected at Grand Arch Councils, Phi Kappa Psis first form of government centered on a Grand Chapter. One chapter at a time was designated the Grand Chapter, and this lasted until 1886 when a new constitution changed to the current form of government. In 1992, Phi Kappa Psi began to award one exceptional chapter with the Grand Chapter Award and its name is derived from the fraternitys first form of government. This award was initially granted biennially at Grand Arch Councils,2001 marked the first time that this award was granted in an odd-numbered year, and it has been an annual award ever since. William Henry Letterman was born in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania and he was twenty years old when Phi Kappa Psi was founded by him and his colleague Charles Page Thomas Moore. William graduated from Jefferson College and then went on to receive his M. D. from Jefferson Medical College in 1856 and his father was the physician to the town of Canonsburg and died early in Williams life. He died on May 23,1881, and was buried in the cemetery at Duffau, Charles Page Thomas Moore was a co-founder of the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity in 1852 at Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. He was born in Virginia in a portion of the state along the Ohio River now located in West Virginia, Moore was a justice of the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals, and died in West Virginia. Officers may vary from each chapter with some chapters not using certain positions, the duties of each officer may vary from each chapter as well
37.
61st United States Congress
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It met in Washington, DC from March 4,1909 to March 4,1911, during the first two years of William H. Tafts Presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twelfth Census of the United States in 1900, both chambers had a Republican majority. March 4,1909, William Howard Taft became President of the United States August 5,1909 – Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act,6,36 Stat.11 June 18,1910, Mann-Elkins Act, ch. 309,36 Stat.539 June 25,1910, Mann Act,395,36 Stat.825 March 3,1911, Judicial Code of 1911, ch. A few senators were elected directly by the residents of the state, the count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Lyon Clerk at the Speaker’s Table, Asher C, biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress. Archived from the original on June 1,2006, archived from the original on June 1,2006. Archived from the original on June 1,2006, official Congressional Directory for the 61st Congress, 1st Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 61st Congress, 2nd Session, official Congressional Directory for the 61st Congress, 2nd Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 61st Congress, 3rd Session
38.
62nd United States Congress
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It met in Washington, DC from March 4,1911 to March 4,1913, during the third and fourth years of William H. Tafts presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twelfth Census of the United States in 1900, additional House seats were assigned to the two new states of New Mexico and Arizona. The size of the House was to be 435 starting with the new Congress coming into session in 1913, the Senate had a Republican majority, and the House had a Democratic majority. April 27,1911, Following the resignation and death of William P. Frye, a compromise is reached to rotate the office of President pro tempore of the United States Senate. April 30,1911, Great Fire of 1911 May 15,1911, The Supreme Court declared Standard Oil to be a monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act. April 15,1912, The RMS Titanic sank, June 25,1912, The Democratic National Convention nominated New Jersey Gov. Woodrow Wilson in Baltimore. August 5,1912, Dissident Republicans formed the Progressive or Bull Moose Party, october 30,1912, Vice President James S. Sherman died. November 5,1912, U. S. presidential election,1912, Woodrow Wilson beat incumbent William Howard Taft, August 8,1911, Public Law 62-5, Pub. L. 62–5 August 24,1912, Lloyd–La Follette Act, ch, february 14,1912, Arizona admitted to the Union August 24,1912, Alaska Territory created. For the remainder of this Congress, the office rotated among five Senators, the Senate at that time was split between progressive Republicans, conservative Republicans, and Democrats. Each put forth a candidate, and the ballots were deadlocked until August 1911 when a compromise was reached, democrat Augustus Bacon served for one day on August 14,1911, and thereafter he and four Republicans rotated holding the seat for the remainder of the Congress. These Republicans were, Charles Curtis, Jacob H. Gallinger, a few senators were elected directly by the residents of the state. The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. There were 20 changes,6 deaths,2 resignations,1 invalidated election,6 appointees replaced by electees,4 seats added from new states, Democrats had a 4-seat net gain, and no other parties had a net change. Sorted Chronologically by date of vacancy House vacancies are filled by elections. State laws regulate when there will be special elections, Charles F. Riddell of Indiana, elected July 18,1912. Biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress, archived from the original on 1 June 2006. Archived from the original on 1 June 2006, archived from the original on 1 June 2006
39.
63rd United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from March 4,1913 to March 4,1915, during the first two years of Woodrow Wilsons presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Thirteenth Census of the United States in 1910, both chambers had a Democratic majority. March 4,1913, Woodrow Wilson became President of the United States, March 9,1914, The Senate adopted a rule forbidding smoking on the floor of the Senate because Senator Ben Tillman, recovering from a stroke, found the smoke irritating. July 28,1914, World War I began in Europe August 15,1914, The Panama Canal was inaugurated August 19,1914, may 8,1914, Smith-Lever Act, ch. 717,15 U. S. C. §41 October 2,1914, River and Harbors Act of 1914 October 15,1914, Clayton Antitrust Act, a few senators were elected directly by the residents of the state. The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress, donnelly, Cornelius Ford Secretary, Charles G. Bennett of New York James M. Baker of South Carolina, elected March 13,1913. Clerk, South Trimble of Kentucky, elected April 7,1913, sergeant at Arms, Robert B. Gordon of Ohio, elected April 7,1913. Doorkeeper, Joseph J. Sinnott of Virginia, elected April 7,1913, postmaster, William M. Dunbar of Georgia, elected April 7,1913. Clerk at the Speaker’s Table, Bennett C. Clark Chaplain, Henry N. Couden, Universalist, biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress. Archived from the original on 1 June 2006, archived from the original on 1 June 2006. Archived from the original on 1 June 2006, official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 1st Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 2nd Session, official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 2nd Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 2nd Session, official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 3rd Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 3rd Session
40.
Oscar Underwood
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Oscar Wilder Underwood was an American lawyer and politician from Alabama, and also a candidate for President of the United States in 1912 and 1924. Underwood was the only Democrat to lead his party in both the U. S. House of Representatives and the U. S. Senate, and the first formally designated floor leader in the U. S. Senate. Underwood was born in Louisville, Kentucky, on May 6,1862, Eugene Underwood also had three sons with his first wife before her death in 1857. His paternal grandfather, Joseph R. Underwood, served as U. S, representative and Senator from Kentucky, as well as on the Kentucky Supreme Court. His maternal grandfather, cotton merchant Jabez Smith, once served as mayor of Petersburg, in 1865, the Underwood family moved to St. Paul, Minnesota, hoping the climate would help Oscars chronic bronchitis, as well as his mothers health. After ten years, the family moved back to Louisville, where Oscar graduated from the Rugby University School and he then attended the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, where he was president of the Jefferson Society, as well as excelled in debate. He also received a doctor of laws degree from Columbia College in New York by 1920 and he served as president of the University of Virginia Alumni Association in 1913 and 1914. Oscar Underwood married twice, the first time in Charlottesville on October 8,1885 to Eugenia Massie, after graduation, Underwood returned to Minnesota to begin his legal career. However, his half brother William soon convinced him of better opportunities awaiting in in Birmingham. There, he moved in September 1884 and established a legal practice, working for a decade. Alabama earned a seat after the census of 1890. Two years later, voters elected him as a Democrat to the United States House of Representatives, however, Truman H. Aldrich successfully challenged that election result, forcing Underwood to resign in the middle of the term, on June 9,1896. However, Underwood persisted, and campaigned for tariff reform and he won the seat again in the election at years end, then re-election numerous times, serving nine terms. Underwood became as the first Democratic House Minority Whip, serving from about 1900 to 1901 and he then became House Majority Leader from 1911 to 1915. At the convention that year in Baltimore, Wilsons managers offered Underwood the vice-presidential nomination, in return, Wilson granted him considerable control over patronage and appointed Albert S. Burleson Postmaster-General upon Underwoods recommendation. Underwood twice won election to the United States Senate, in 1914 and 1920 and he was Senate minority leader from 1920 to 1923. Underwood led the anti-Ku Klux Klan forces at the 1924 Democratic National Convention and he was a longtime opponent of the Klan. It will not succeed. I maintain that the organization is a national menace. It is either the Ku Klux Klan or the United States of America. Between the two, I choose my country, by 1924 Underwood was one of very few anti-Klan officeholders left in the South
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Democratic National Convention
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The Democratic National Convention is a series of presidential nominating conventions held every four years since 1832 by the United States Democratic Party. They have been administered by the Democratic National Committee since the 1852 national convention, the primary goal of the Democratic National Convention is to nominate and confirm a candidate for president and vice president, adopt a comprehensive party platform and unify the party. Pledged delegates from all fifty U. S, like the Republican National Convention, the Democratic National Convention marks the formal end of the primary election period and the start of the general election season. The partys presidential nominee is chosen in a series of state caucuses. Superdelegates, delegates whose votes are not bound to the outcome of a caucus or primary. To secure the nomination for the Democratic party in 2016, a candidate must secure 2,383 delegates and this number includes both pledged delegates and superdelegates. Prior to 1936, nomination for president was required, not merely by a majority, unless there was a popular incumbent, something that only happened three times between the Civil War and World War II, getting that many votes on the first ballot was implausible. The choice was a contentious debate that riled the passions of party leaders. Delegates were forced to vote for a nominee repeatedly until someone could capture a number of delegates needed. In 1912,1920 and most notoriously in 1924, the voting went on for dozens and dozens of ballots, backroom deals by party bosses were normal and often resulted in compromise nominees that became known as dark horse candidates. Dark horse candidates were people who never imagined they would run for president until the last moments of the convention, dark horse candidates were chosen in order to break deadlocks between more popular and powerful prospective nominees that blocked each other from gaining enough delegates to be nominated. The rules were changed to a majority in 1936. Since then only one multi-ballot convention has taken place, before about 1970, the partys choice of the vice-presidential nominee was usually not known until the last evening of the convention. This was because the nominee had little to do with the process. In order to prevent such things happening in the future, the presumptive nominee has, since 1984, announced his choice before the convention even opened. By 1824, the nominating caucus had fallen into disrepute and collapsed as a method of nominating presidential. A national convention idea had been brought up but nothing occurred until the next decade, state conventions and state legislatures emerged as the nomination apparatus until they were supplanted by the national convention method of nominating candidates. The first national convention of the Democratic Party began in Baltimore on May 21,1832, in that year the 2/3 rule was created, requiring a 2/3 vote to nominate a candidate, in order to show the partys unanimous support of Martin Van Buren for vice president
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Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
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National Child Labor Committee
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The National Child Labor Committee, or NCLC, is a private, non-profit organization in the United States that serves as a leading proponent for the national child labor reform movement. Its mission is to promote the rights, awareness, dignity, well-being and education of children and youth as they relate to work, NCLC, headquartered on Broadway in Manhattan, New York, is administered by a board of directors that is currently chaired by Betsy Brand. The conference culminated on April 25,1904 at a meeting held in Carnegie Hall. At the meeting, both men and women concerned with the plight of working children overwhelmingly supported the formation of the National Child Labor Committee, the new organization moved swiftly in procuring the support of prominent Americans. With the leadership of such prominent reformers, the organization began to attract additional support and moved towards action. According to the 1900 US Census, a total of 1,752,187 children between the ages of five and ten were engaged in occupations in the United States. This number represents a fifty percent increase from the 1,118,356 children working for wages in 1880 and this trend alarmed Americans who, while supporting the traditional role of children in agriculture, found the idea of American youth laboring for meager wages in industrial factories appalling. From 1909 to 1921 the NCLC capitalized on this moral outrage by making it the point of the NCLC campaign against child labor. Over the next ten years Hine would publish thousands of photographs designed to pull at the nations heartstrings, Hines subjects included both boys and girls employed by mills and factories and other occupations all over the United States. For the average American, Hine provided an otherwise unavailable window into the working conditions facing Americas youth. When asked about his work on the subject Hine simply stated that he wanted to show things that had to be corrected, Hines work resulted in a wave of popular support for federal child labor regulations put forward by the NCLC. In effect, Hines photographs became the face of the National Child Labor Committee, lewis Hine was an influential photo journalist in the years leading up to the First World War. It was during those years that the American economy was doing well, cheap labor was necessary, and American businesses were not only looking for immigrant workers but also child labor as well. The factory-oriented jobs were very specific, and a child was a candidate for the work that was necessary. Their small hands and energy was beneficial to the assembly line There was a shift in thinking in the early 1900s towards an end to child labor. The argument from reformers, as they were called, was that child labor was a cycle that was inevitably going to end in a future of poverty for the children in the work force. The long hours were robbing children of not only an education, lewis Hine became an investigative photojournalist for the National Child Labor Committee in the early 1900s. Hine took many pictures of workers under the age of 16 in the field and it is his pictures that appear in many books on the history of child labor
