1.
Anti-aircraft warfare
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Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent
2.
Battery (electricity)
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An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones. According to a 2005 estimate, the battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year. Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells
3.
International Electrotechnical Commission
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The IEC also manages three global conformity assessment systems that certify whether equipment, system or components conform to its International Standards. The first International Electrical Congress took place in 1881 at the International Exposition of Electricity, at that time the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units was agreed to. The IEC was instrumental in developing and distributing standards for units of measurement, particularly Gauss, Hertz and it also first proposed a system of standards, the Giorgi System, which ultimately became the SI, or Système International d’unités. In 1938, it published a multilingual international vocabulary to unify terminology relating to electrical, electronic and this effort continues, and the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary remains an important work in the electrical and electronic industries. The CISPR – in English, the International Special Committee on Radio Interference – is one of the groups founded by the IEC, originally located in London, the commission moved to its current headquarters in Geneva in 1948. It has regional centres in Asia-Pacific, Latin America and North America, today, the IEC is the worlds leading international organization in its field, and its standards are adopted as national standards by its members. The work is done by some 10,000 electrical and electronics experts from industry, government, academia, test labs, IEC standards have numbers in the range 60000–79999 and their titles take a form such as IEC60417, Graphical symbols for use on equipment. Following the Dresden Agreement with CENELEC the numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000, for example IEC27 became IEC60027. Standards of the 60000 series are also preceded by EN to indicate that the IEC standard is also adopted by CENELEC as a European standard. The IEC cooperates closely with the International Organization for Standardization and the International Telecommunication Union, Standards developed jointly with ISO such as ISO/IEC26300, ISO/IEC27001, and CASCO ISO/IEC17000 series, carry the acronym of both organizations. The use of the ISO/IEC prefix covers publications from ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 - Information Technology, as well as conformity assessment standards developed by ISO CASCO, other standards developed in cooperation between IEC and ISO are assigned numbers in the 80000 series, such as IEC 82045-1. IEC standards are also being adopted by other certifying bodies such as BSI, CSA, UL & ANSI/INCITS, SABS, SAI, SPC/GB, IEC standards adopted by other certifying bodies may have some noted differences from the original IEC standard. The IEC is made up of members, called national committees, national committees are constituted in different ways. Some NCs are public sector only, some are a combination of public and private sector, about 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in industry
4.
Japanese Industrial Standards
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Japanese Industrial Standards specifies the standards used for industrial activities in Japan. The standardization process is coordinated by the Japanese Industrial Standards Committee, Japanese Industrial Standards Committee is composed of many nationwide committees and plays vital role in standardizing activities in Japan. These were summarized to form a standard in 1921. During World War II, simplified standards were established to increase matériel output, the present Japanese Standards Association was established after Japans defeat in World War II in 1945. The Japanese Industrial Standards Committee regulations were promulgated in 1946, Japanese standards was formed, the Industrial Standardization Law was enacted in 1949, which forms the legal foundation for the present Japanese Industrial Standards. The Industrial Standardization Law was revised in 2004 and the JIS mark was changed, since October 1,2005, therefore all JIS-certified Japanese products have had the new JIS mark since October 1,2008. Standards are named like JIS X0208,1997, where X denotes area division, followed by four digits, and the revision release year
5.
Alkaline battery
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Alkaline batteries are a type of primary battery dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide. Another type of batteries are secondary rechargeable alkaline battery, which allows reuse of specially designed cells. Compared with zinc-carbon batteries of the Leclanché or zinc chloride types, alkaline batteries have an energy density and longer shelf-life. The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. Other battery systems also use alkaline electrolytes, but they use different active materials for the electrodes, Alkaline batteries account for 80% of manufactured batteries in the US and over 10 billion individual units produced worldwide. In Japan alkaline batteries account for 46% of all battery sales. In Switzerland alkaline batteries account for 68%, in the UK 60%, Alkaline batteries are used in many household items such as MP3 players, CD players, digital cameras, pagers, toys, lights, and radios, to name a few. Batteries with alkaline electrolyte were first developed by Waldemar Jungner in 1899, on October 9,1957, Urry, Karl Kordesch, and P. A. Marsal filed US patent for the alkaline battery and it was granted in 1960 and was assigned to the Union Carbide Corporation. When introduced in the late 1960s, alkaline batteries contained a small amount of mercury amalgam to control side reactions at the zinc anode. With mercury content reduced by law and improvements in the purity and consistency of materials, in an alkaline battery, the negative electrode is zinc and the positive electrode is manganese dioxide. The alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide is not part of the reaction, only the zinc, the alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide remains, as there are equal amounts of OH− consumed and produced. An alkaline cell can provide three and five times capacity. The capacity of a battery is strongly dependent on the load. An AA-sized alkaline battery might have a capacity of 3000 mAh at low drain, but at a load of 1 ampere, which is common for digital cameras. The voltage of the battery declines steadily during use, so the usable capacity depends on the cut-off voltage of the application. Unlike Leclanche cells, the alkaline cell delivers about as much capacity on intermittent or continuous light loads, on a heavy load, capacity is reduced on continuous discharge compared with intermittent discharge, but the reduction is less than for Leclanche cells. The nominal voltage of an alkaline cell as established by manufacturer standards is 1.5 V
6.
Gram
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The gram is a metric system unit of mass. Originally defined as the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of a metre. The only unit symbol for gram that is recognised by the International System of Units is g following the numeric value with a space, the SI does not support the use of abbreviations such as gr, gm or Gm. The word gramme was adopted by the French National Convention in its 1795 decree revising the system as replacing the gravet introduced in 1793. Its definition remained that of the weight of a centimetre of water. French gramme was taken from the Late Latin term gramma and this word, ultimately from Greek γράμμα letter had adopted a specialised meaning in Late Antiquity of one twenty-fourth part of an ounce, corresponding to about 1.14 grams. This use of the term is found in the carmen de ponderibus et mensuris composed around 400 AD, the gram was the fundamental unit of mass in the 19th-century centimetre–gram–second system of units. The gram is today the most widely used unit of measurement for non-liquid ingredients in cooking and grocery shopping worldwide. 1 gram =15.4323583529 grains 1 grain =0.06479891 grams 1 avoirdupois ounce =28.349523125 grams 1 troy ounce =31.1034768 grams 100 grams =3.527396195 ounces 1 gram =5 carats 1 gram =8. 1 gram is roughly equal to 1 small paper clip or pen cap, the Japanese 1 yen coin has a mass of one gram. Conversion of units Duella Gold gram Orders of magnitude Gram at Encyclopædia Britannica
7.
Lithium battery
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Lithium batteries are batteries that have lithium as an anode. These types of batteries are also referred to as lithium-metal batteries and they stand apart from other batteries in their high charge density and high cost per unit. The term lithium battery refers to a family of different lithium-metal chemistries, comprising many types of cathodes and electrolytes, the battery requires from 0.15 to 0.3 kg of lithium per kWh. The most common type of lithium cell used in consumer applications uses metallic lithium as anode and manganese dioxide as cathode, another type of lithium cell having a large energy density is the lithium-thionyl chloride cell. The cell contains a mixture of thionyl chloride and lithium tetrachloroaluminate. A porous carbon material serves as a current collector which receives electrons from the external circuit. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are well suited to extremely low-current applications where long life is necessary, the liquid organic electrolyte is a solution of an ion-forming inorganic lithium compound in a mixture of a high-permittivity solvent and a low-viscosity solvent. Lithium batteries find application in many long-life, critical devices, such as pacemakers and these devices use specialized lithium-iodide batteries designed to last 15 or more years. But for other, less critical applications such as in toys, in such cases, an expensive lithium battery may not be cost-effective. Lithium batteries can be used in place of ordinary alkaline cells in many devices, such as clocks, although they are more costly, lithium cells will provide much longer life, thereby minimizing battery replacement. However, attention must be given to the voltage developed by the lithium cells before using them as a drop-in replacement in devices that normally use ordinary zinc cells. Lithium batteries also prove valuable in oceanographic applications, while lithium battery packs are considerably more expensive than standard oceanographic packs, they hold up to three times the capacity of alkaline packs. The high cost of servicing remote oceanographic instrumentation often justifies this higher cost and they are available in many shapes and sizes, with a common variety being the 3 volt coin type manganese variety, typically 20 mm in diameter and 1. 6–4 mm thick. The heavy electrical demands of many of these devices make lithium batteries a particularly attractive option, in particular, lithium batteries can easily support the brief, heavy current demands of devices such as digital cameras, and they maintain a higher voltage for a longer period than alkaline cells. Lithium primary batteries account for 28% of all battery sales in Japan. In the EU only 0. 5% of all battery sales including secondary types are lithium primaries, the computer industrys drive to increase battery capacity can test the limits of sensitive components such as the membrane separator, a polyethylene or polypropylene film that is only 20-25 µm thick. The energy density of lithium batteries has more than doubled since they were introduced in 1991, when the battery is made to contain more material, the separator can undergo stress. Lithium batteries can provide extremely high currents and can discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, although this is useful in applications where high currents are required, a too-rapid discharge of a lithium battery can result in overheating of the battery, rupture, and even explosion
8.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
9.
MP3 player
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An MP3 player or Digital Audio Player is an electronic device that can play digital audio files. It is a type of Portable Media Player, the term MP3 player is a misnomer, as most players play more than the MP3 file format. Since the MP3 format is used, almost all players can play that format. In addition, there are many digital audio formats. Some formats are proprietary, such as MP3, Windows Media Audio, some of these formats also may incorporate digital rights management, such as WMA DRM, which are often part of paid download sites. Other formats are patent-free or otherwise open, such as Vorbis, FLAC, in 1981, Kane Kramer filed for a UK patent for the IXI, the first Digital Audio Player. UK patent 2115996 was issued in 1985, and U. S, patent 4,667,088 was issued in 1987. Plans were made for a 10-minute stereo memory card and the system was at one time fitted with a drive which would have enabled over an hour of recorded digital music. However, in 1988 Kramers failure to raise the £60,000 required to renew the patent meant it entering the public domain, but he still owns the designs. In the year 1987 a German Company by the name of Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft started the program for coding music with the high quality. The project was controlled by an expert in mathematics and electronics, the first MP3 player was developed by SaeHan Information Systems in 1997. Nevertheless, the first one on the American market was the Eiger Labs F10, a 32MB portable that appeared in the summer of 1998. It was a basic unit and wasnt user expandable, though owners could upgrade the memory to 64MB by sending the player back to Eiger Labs with a check for $69.00 + $7.95 shipping. The second MP3 player needed was the Rio PMP300 from Diamond Multimedia, the Rio was a big success during the Christmas 1998 season as sales significantly exceeded expectations, spurring interest and investment in digital music. Eiger Labs and Diamond and went on to establish a new segment in the audio player market. Other early MP3 portables include Sensory Sciences Rave MP2100, the I-Jam IJ-100 and these portables were small and light, but only held enough memory to hold around 7 to 20 songs at normal 128kbit/s compression rates. As more users migrated to Win 98 by 2000, all players went USB, at the end of 1999, a company called Remote Solutions significantly broke that barrier by utilizing a laptop drive for song storage rather than low capacity flash memory. The Personal Jukebox had 4. 8GB, which held about 1200 songs and this segment eventually became the dominant type of digital music player
10.
AA battery
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The AA battery—also called a double A or Mignon battery—is a standard size single cell cylindrical dry battery. The IEC60086 system calls it size R6, and ANSIC18 calls it size 15, historically, it is known as HP7 in official documentation the United Kingdom, though it is colloquially known as a double A battery. AA batteries are common in electronic devices. An AA battery is composed of an electrochemical cell that may be either a primary battery or a rechargeable battery. The exact terminal voltage and capacity of an AA size battery depends on cell chemistry, however, ANSI and IEC Battery nomenclature gives several designations for cells in this size, depending on cell features and chemistry. An AA cell measures 49. 2–50.5 mm in length, alkaline AA cells have a weight of roughly 23 g, lithium AA cells have a mass around 15 g, and rechargeable Ni-MH cells around 31 g. Primary zinc–carbon AA batteries have around 400–900 milliamp-hours capacity, with measured capacity highly dependent on test conditions, duty cycle, zinc–carbon batteries are usually marketed as general purpose batteries. Zinc-chloride batteries store around 1000 to 1500 mAh are often sold as heavy duty or super heavy duty, alkaline batteries from 1700 mAh to 3000 mAh cost more than zinc-chloride batteries, but last proportionally longer. Lithium iron disulfide batteries are intended for use in equipment compatible with alkaline zinc batteries, a fresh alkaline zinc battery can have an open-circuit voltage of 1.6 volts, but an iron-disulfide battery with an open-circuit voltage below 1.7 volts is entirely discharged. Lithium ion chemistry has a voltage of 3. 6-3.7 volts. Nickel-zinc cell AAs are also available, but not widely used, in 2011, AA cells accounted for approximately 60% of alkaline battery sales in the United States. In Japan, 58% of alkaline batteries sold were AA, known in country as tansan. In Switzerland, AA batteries totaled 55% in both primary and secondary battery sales, list of battery sizes Battery nomenclature Datasheet for Energizer alkaline AA battery Datasheet for Energizer lithium AA battery Datasheet for Duracell alkaline AA battery
11.
Voltage
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Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension is the difference in electric potential energy between two points per unit electric charge. The voltage between two points is equal to the work done per unit of charge against an electric field to move the test charge between two points. This is measured in units of volts, voltage can be caused by static electric fields, by electric current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or some combination of these three. A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage between two points in a system, often a reference potential such as the ground of the system is used as one of the points. A voltage may represent either a source of energy or lost, used, given two points in space, x A and x B, voltage is the difference in electric potential between those two points. Electric potential must be distinguished from electric energy by noting that the potential is a per-unit-charge quantity. Like mechanical potential energy, the zero of electric potential can be chosen at any point, so the difference in potential, i. e. the voltage, is the quantity which is physically meaningful. The voltage between point A to point B is equal to the work which would have to be done, per unit charge, against or by the electric field to move the charge from A to B. The voltage between the two ends of a path is the energy required to move a small electric charge along that path. Mathematically this is expressed as the integral of the electric field. In the general case, both an electric field and a dynamic electromagnetic field must be included in determining the voltage between two points. Historically this quantity has also called tension and pressure. Pressure is now obsolete but tension is used, for example within the phrase high tension which is commonly used in thermionic valve based electronics. Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages, therefore, the conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage. Current can flow from lower voltage to higher voltage, but only when a source of energy is present to push it against the electric field. This is the case within any electric power source, for example, inside a battery, chemical reactions provide the energy needed for ion current to flow from the negative to the positive terminal. The electric field is not the only factor determining charge flow in a material, the electric potential of a material is not even a well defined quantity, since it varies on the subatomic scale. A more convenient definition of voltage can be found instead in the concept of Fermi level, in this case the voltage between two bodies is the thermodynamic work required to move a unit of charge between them
12.
Ampere hour
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The commonly seen milliampere hour is one-thousandth of an ampere hour. The ampere hour is used in measurements of electrochemical systems such as electroplating. A milliampere second is a unit of measure used in X-ray imaging, diagnostic imaging and this quantity is proportional to the total X-ray energy produced by a given X-ray tube operated at a particular voltage. The same total dose can be delivered in different time periods depending on the X-ray tube current, an ampere hour is not a unit of energy. In a battery system, for example, accurate calculation of the energy delivered requires integration of the power delivered over the discharge interval, generally, the battery voltage varies during discharge, an average value or nominal value may be used to approximate the integration of power. The Faraday constant is the charge on one mole of electrons and it is used in electrochemical calculations. An AA size dry cell has a capacity of about 2 to 3 ampere hours, automotive car batteries vary in capacity but a large automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine would have about a 50 ampere hour battery capacity. Since one ampere hour can produce 0.336 grams of aluminium from aluminium chloride
13.
Kilowatt hour
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The kilowatt-hour is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate over a period of time, the kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities. The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power sustained for one hour. 1 k W ⋅ h = =3600 =3600 k J =3.6 M J One watt is equal to 1 J/s. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 megajoules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is done at a rate of one thousand watts for one hour. The base unit of energy within the International System of Units is the joule, the hour is a unit of time outside the SI, making the kilowatt-hour a non-SI unit of energy. The kilowatt-hour is not listed among the non-SI units accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI, although the hour, an electric heater rated at 1000 watts, operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt-hour, a 40-watt light bulb operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. Electrical energy is sold in kilowatt-hours, cost of running equipment is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours, the unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to their peak usage, the symbol kWh is commonly used in commercial, educational, scientific and media publications, and is the usual practice in electrical power engineering. Other abbreviations and symbols may be encountered, kW h is less commonly used and it is consistent with SI standards. This is supported by a standard issued jointly by an international and national organization. However, at least one major usage guide and the IEEE/ASTM standard allow kWh, One guide published by NIST specifically recommends avoiding kWh to avoid possible confusion. KW·h is, like kW h, preferred with SI standards, the US official fuel-economy window sticker for electric vehicles uses the abbreviation kW-hrs. Variations in capitalization are sometimes seen, KWh, KWH, kwh, the notation kW/h, as a symbol for kilowatt-hour, is not correct. To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row. All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt-hour, a kilowatt-hour is 1,000 W·h (symbols kW·h, kWh or kW h, a megawatt-hour is 1 million W·h, a milliwatt-hour is 1/1000 W·h and so on. Megawatt-hours, gigawatt-hours, and terawatt-hours are often used for metering larger amounts of energy to industrial customers
14.
Rechargeable alkaline battery
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A rechargeable alkaline battery is a type of alkaline battery that is capable of recharging for repeated use. The first-generation rechargeable alkaline technology was developed by Battery Technologies Inc in Canada and licensed to Pure Energy, EnviroCell, Rayovac, subsequent patent and advancements in technology have been introduced. The formats include AAA, AA, C, D, rechargeable alkaline batteries are manufactured fully charged and have the ability to hold their charge for years, longer than NiCd and NiMH batteries, which self-discharge. Rechargeable alkaline batteries can have a high recharging efficiency and have environmental impact than disposable cells. Most alkaline batteries available are disposable, designed to be used until exhausted, there are also rechargeable alkaline batteries, designed to be recharged. Disposable alkaline batteries are classed as primary batteries, manufacturers do not support recharging, despite this advice, alkaline batteries have successfully been recharged, and suitable chargers have been available. The capacity of an alkaline battery declines with number of recharges. Low-ripple direct current is not suitable for charging disposable alkaline batteries, more suitable is a current pulsed at a rate of 40 to 200 pulses per second, pulsed charging appears to reduce the risk of electrolyte—usually potassium hydroxide —leakage. The charging current is low to prevent rapid production of gases that can rupture the cell, cells that have leaked electrolyte are a safety hazard and unsuitable for reuse. Attempting to recharge a discharged alkaline battery can cause the production of gas within the canister, as the canister is normally sealed, pressure generated by rapid accumulation of gas can open the pressure relief seal and cause leakage of electrolyte. Potassium hydroxide in the electrolyte is corrosive and may cause injury and damage, some materials used in batteries are damaging to the environment. In some jurisdictions it is illegal to dispose of batteries in ordinary waste streams, free collection points for used portable batteries are often available where batteries are sold. As an alkaline battery is discharged, chemicals inside the battery react to create an electric current, however, once the chemicals have reached chemical equilibrium, the reaction stops, and the battery is depleted. By driving a current through the battery in the reverse direction, different batteries rely on different chemical reactions. Some reactions are reversible, some are not. The reactions used in most alkaline batteries fall into the latter category, although these batteries can be used in any device that supports a standard size, they are formulated to last longest in periodical use items. If they are discharged by less than 25%, they can be recharged for hundreds of cycles to about 1.42 V, if they are discharged by less than 50%, they can be almost fully recharged for a few dozen cycles, to about 1.32 V. After a deep discharge, they can be brought to their original high-capacity charge only after a few charge-discharge cycles, the rechargeable alkaline battery is cheaper than other rechargeable types
15.
Lithium-ion battery
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A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, the electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell. Lithium-ion batteries are common in home electronics and they are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric vehicle, for example, lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the lead–acid batteries that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles. Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types, handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide, which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate, lithium ion manganese oxide battery and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide offer lower energy density, such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide and lithium titanate are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles, the newer lithium–sulfur batteries promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte, an expert notes If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, there have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Note 7 recall for battery fires. This article covers just the topics and general principles of lithium-ion batteries. Nearly all facets have elements that are impacted by currently very active development or research, a cell is a basic electrochemical unit that contains the basic components, such as electrodes, separator, and electrolyte. In the case of cells, this is the single cylindrical, prismatic or pouch unit. In this regard, the simplest battery is a cell with perhaps a small electronic circuit for protection. In many cases, distinguishing between cell and battery is not important, however, this should be done when dealing with specific applications, for example, battery electric vehicles, where battery may indicate a high voltage system of 400 V, and not a single cell. The term module is used as an intermediate topology, with the understanding that a battery pack is made of modules. In electrochemistry, the anode is the electrode where oxidation is taking place in the battery, i. e. electrons get free, however, this happens on opposite electrodes during charge vs. discharge. Historically, for lithium cells, which started as single use discharge cells and this is true on discharge, but with a rechargeable system, the negative electrode chemically becomes the cathode while charging
16.
Eneloop
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Eneloop is a brand of 1.2 Volt low self-discharge nickel–metal hydride rechargeable batteries and accessories developed by Sanyo, and introduced in 2005. Eneloop cells lose their charge much slower than the 0. 5% to 4% per day lost by older technology NiMH batteries and this allows them to be sold precharged and ready for use, unlike older types. Because they can replace a number of alkaline batteries over their life cycle. Sanyo was acquired by Panasonic in 2009, as part of that deal, the Japanese Eneloop factories were sold off to Fujitsu, which since then produces 2nd-generation eneloops under its brand. Panasonic eneloops, starting with the 3rd generation, are made in China for some markets, as of November 2015, Eneloop Pro remains made in Japan. The original Eneloop batteries were introduced in AA and AAA size and they could be recharged 1,000 times, and held up to 75% of their charge after one year. The part number for this generation of Eneloop is HR-3UTG and HR-4UTG, the second generation of Eneloop AA and AAA batteries was introduced in 2010. It endured 1,500 recharge cycles and held 85% of the charge after one year, Sanyo introduced C- and D-sized Eneloop batteries with a minimum capacity of 2,700 mAh and 3,000 mAh respectively in 2009, along with a new universal charger. As these sizes were available in Japan and Singapore, Sanyo offered adapter sleeves to fit AA batteries in devices that take C or D batteries. In October 2011 the batteries were again improved to retain up to 90% of their capacity after one year, the batteries can be recharged up to 1,800 times, rather than the 1,500 times of the previous revision. The product numbers for these batteries are HR-3UTGB and HR-4UTGB, at the same time, the C- and D-sized Eneloop batteries stated minimum capacities were increased to 3,000 mAh and 5,700 mAh respectively. They were available in Japan from November 2011, european models went on sale from the beginning of October 2012. Following the acquisition of Sanyo by Panasonic, a generation was introduced in April 2013. The number of charges per cell was increased from 1800 to 2100 cycles for both AA and AAA models, in some countries the batteries are branded as Panasonic. The Eneloop Lite line was released in Japan in June 2010 and they addressed two downsides of alkaline and other NiMH batteries, the initial cost and the long charging time—both achieved by reducing the capacity of the battery. The batteries find suitable applications in devices such as remote control devices and alarms. The AAs have 1,000 mAh of capacity, while the AAAs have 600 mAh, due to reduction of the capacity compared to the regular Eneloop cells, the charging time is halved for the AA and reduced by 25% for the AAA. On the other hand, they can be recharged 3,000 times, the reduction in capacity also reduced the production cost, which decreased the initial investment for rechargeable batteries and they weigh 30% less
17.
Rechargeable battery
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It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term accumulator is used as it accumulates and stores energy through an electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, nickel cadmium, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the sizes and voltages as disposable types. Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable devices, light vehicles, tools, uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, Battery storage power stations use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling and for renewable energy uses. Load-leveling reduces the power which a plant must be able to generate, reducing capital cost. The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association estimated in 2006 that US demand for batteries was growing twice as fast as demand for disposables. Small rechargeable batteries can power portable devices, power tools, appliances. Heavy-duty batteries power electric vehicles, ranging from scooters to locomotives and they are used in distributed electricity generation and in stand-alone power systems. During charging, the active material is oxidized, producing electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit, the energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicles 12-volt DC power outlet. Regardless, to energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source. The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the terminal of the voltage source. Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery, slow dumb chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes, fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating, Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a C rate of current
18.
Battery nomenclature
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Standard battery nomenclature describes portable dry cell batteries that have physical dimensions and electrical characteristics interchangeable between manufacturers. The long history of dry cells means that many different manufacturer-specific and national standards were used to designate sizes. Technical standards for battery sizes and types are set by organizations such as International Electrotechnical Commission. Popular sizes are referred to by old standard or manufacturer designations. The complete nomenclature for the battery will fully specify the size, chemistry, terminal arrangements, the same physically interchangeable cell size may have widely different characteristics, physical interchangeability is not the sole factor in substitution of batteries. National standards for dry cell batteries have been developed by ANSI, JIS, British national standards, civilian, commercial, government and military standards all exist. Two of the most prevalent standards currently in use are the IEC60086 series, both standards give dimensions, standard performance characteristics, and safety information. Modern standards contain both systematic names for types that give information on the composition and approximate size of the cells. The International Electrotechnical Commission was established in France in 1906 and co-ordinates development of standards for a range of electrical products. The IEC maintains two committees, TC21 established in 1933 for rechargeable batteries, and TC35 established in 1948 for primary batteries, the current designation system was adopted in 1992. Battery types are designated with a sequence indicating number of cells, cell chemistry, cell shape, dimensions. Certain cell designations from earlier revisions of the standard have been retained, the first IEC standards for battery sizes were issued in 1957. Since 1992, International standard IEC60086 defines an alphanumeric coding system for batteries, British standard 397 for primary batteries was withdrawn and replaced by the IEC standard in 1996. Standardization of batteries in the United States started in 1919, when the US National Bureau of Standards published recommended test procedures, the first American Standards Association standard C18 appeared in 1928. It listed cell sizes using a code, roughly in order of size from smallest to larger types. The only numerical designation was the 6-inch tall No.6 cell, the 1934 edition of the C18 standard expanded the nomenclature system to include series and parallel arrays of cells. In 1954, mercury batteries were included in the standard, the 1959 edition identified types suitable for use with transistor radios. In 1967, NEMA took over responsibility for development from the National Bureau of Standards, the 12th edition of C18 began to be harmonized with the IEC standard
19.
Battery recycling
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Battery recycling is a recycling activity that aims to reduce the number of batteries being disposed as municipal solid waste. Batteries contain a number of metals and toxic chemicals and disposing them by the same process as regular trash has raised concerns over soil contamination. Most types of batteries can be recycled, however, some batteries are recycled more readily than others, such as lead–acid automotive batteries and button cells. Other types, such as alkaline and rechargeable, e. g. nickel–cadmium, nickel metal hydride, lithium-ion and nickel–zinc, can also be recycled. These batteries include but are not limited to, car batteries, golf cart batteries, UPS batteries, industrial fork-lift batteries, motorcycle batteries and these can be regular lead–acid, sealed lead–acid, gel type, or absorbed glass mat batteries. These are recycled by grinding them, neutralizing the acid, the recovered materials are used in a variety of applications, including new batteries. The lead in a battery can be recycled. Elemental lead is toxic and should therefore be out of the waste stream. Many cities offer battery recycling services for lead–acid batteries, in some jurisdictions, including U. S. states and Canadian provinces, a refundable deposit is paid on batteries. This encourages recycling of old instead of abandonment or disposal with household waste. In the United States, about 99% of lead from used batteries is reclaimed, businesses that sell new car batteries may also collect used batteries for recycling. Some businesses accept old batteries on a basis, as opposed to in exchange for a new battery. Most battery shops and recycling centres pay for scrap batteries and this can be a lucrative business, enticing especially to risk-takers because of the wild fluctuations in the value of scrap lead that can occur overnight. When lead prices go up, scrap batteries become targets for thieves, used most frequently in watches, toys, and some medical devices, silver oxide batteries contain a small amount of mercury. Most jurisdictions regulate their handling and disposal to reduce the discharge of mercury into the environment, silver oxide batteries can be recycled to recover the mercury. To prevent a shortage of cobalt, nickel, and lithium and to enable a sustainable life cycle of these technologies. These processes have to not only cobalt, nickel, copper, and aluminum from spent battery cells. Once removed, the rolls are separated and the materials removed by ultrasonic agitation, leaving the electrodes ready for melting down
20.
Battery holder
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A battery holder is one or more compartments or chambers for holding a battery. For dry cells, the holder must also make contact with the battery terminals. For wet cells, cables are connected to the battery terminals. Battery holders may have a lid to retain and protect the batteries, or may be sealed to prevent damage to circuitry, coiled spring wire or flat tabs that press against the battery terminals are the two most common methods of making the electrical connection inside a holder. External connections on battery holders are made by contacts with pins, surface mount feet, solder lugs. Where the battery is expected to last over the life of the product, no holder is necessary, in the late 1800s patents were issued for consumer products like flashlights, patent no.617592 dated March 1898 is for an early metal flashlight that accepted D batteries. Some early 1900s battery holders were often no more than a box with copper contacts. By the 1920s, battery holders used twin metal clips to hold the battery in place while making electrical contact. Patent no.1439429 was granted in Dec.1922 for an assembly with two spring arm clips, a switch and a lamp assembly on the end of connected wires. The introduction of polypropylene in the 1950s and miniature batteries by Eveready allowed for the use of small plastic battery holders and these are still common in toys, decorations, and lighted or blinking items. In 1957, electric wrist watches gained popularity with the public, Battery holders developed in parallel with batteries over time, as battery package sizes shrunk so did the holders. In the 1980s, the first circuit board mounting lithium coin cell battery holders appeared in the form of patent no.4487820 by the battery holder manufacturer MPD, the electronics industry now uses many surface mounted lithium battery holders or sockets. CR2/3A, CR1/2AA and CR123A batteries began in camera applications, but expanded into new markets like alarm systems, hand held computers, design of the battery holder requires knowledge of how and where the larger product will be used. Human factors to be considered include ease of exchange, age range. These elements must be taken into account for a design to be successful and are part of the design process, a designer must select between a battery holder molded into the product case or made as a separate part. For many products regulations and product safety standards affect the battery holder selection, most current battery holders are made with polypropylene or nylon bodies rated for 80-100 °C. Battery contacts are the most important part of the design and require serious consideration, since batteries are nickel-plated, it is recommended the contacts be nickel-plated to prevent galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals. Battery contacts may be fixed contacts, flexible contacts, or some combination of the two, fixed contacts are inexpensive but prone to loss of electrical connection
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
22.
AAAA battery
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The AAAA battery is 42.5 mm long and 8.3 mm in diameter. The alkaline cell weighs around 6.5 g and produces 1.5 V and this size battery is also classified as R8D425 and 25. The alkaline battery in this size is known by Duracell type number MN2500 or MX2500. This battery size is most often used in devices such as laser pointers, LED penlights, powered computer styluses, glucose meters. These batteries are not as popular as AAA or AA type batteries, some models of alkaline nine-volt battery may consist of a bundle of six LR61 cells inside, connected together by welded tabs. These cells are similar to AAAA cells and can be used in their place in some devices. These cells are often unmarked so special care must be taken with polarity, Battery nomenclature Battery Battery recycling Brand Neutral Drawing Of AAAA Alkaline battery based on ANSI Specifications
23.
C battery
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The C battery is a standard size of cell typically used in medium-drain applications such as toys and musical instruments. As of 2007, C batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline battery sales in the United States. In Switzerland as of 2008, C batteries totalled 5. 4% of primary battery sales and 3. 4% of secondary battery sales, a C battery measures 50 millimetres length and 26.2 millimetres diameter. The voltage and capacity of a C-size battery depends on the battery chemistry, Alkaline C batteries can hold up to 8,000 mAh, rechargeable NiMH C batteries can hold up to 6,000 mAh, and zinc-carbon C batteries usually hold up to 3,800 mAh. Like the D battery, the C battery size has been standardized since the 1920s, the AA, AAA, and N sizes have been in common use since the 1950s. The C battery is called 14 in current ANSI standards of battery nomenclature, archived from the original on 8 June 2012. Duracell Overview Of Primary Alkaline Manganese Dioxide Systems Energizer C Size Battery Specification for Alkaline Cell
24.
D battery
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A D battery is a size of dry cell. A D cell is cylindrical with a contact at each end. A D cell may be either rechargeable or non-rechargeable and its terminal voltage and capacity depend upon its cell chemistry. The National Carbon Company introduced the first D cell in 1898, before smaller cells became more common, D cells were widely known as flashlight batteries. The U. S. military designation for this battery has been BA-30 since sometime before World War II, during World War II it was designated the Type C battery by the Navy leading to confusion with the smaller C cell battery. In 2007, D batteries accounted for 8% of alkaline battery sales in the US. In 2008, Swiss purchases of D batteries amounted to 3. 4% of primary and 1. 4% of secondary sales, a batterys capacity depends upon its cell chemistry and current draw. Energizer brand rates its alkaline D cell at approximately 20, 000mAh at 25mA draw and this effect is generally less pronounced in cells with NiCd and NiMH chemistries, see Peukerts law. Many commonly available size D rechargeable cells are actually sub-C cells in a D-sized holder, D batteries have, Nominal diameter of 33.2 ±1 millimeters
25.
N battery
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An N battery is a standard size of dry cell battery. An N battery is cylindrical with electrical contacts on each end, the battery has a length of 30.2 mm and a diameter of 12.0 mm, and is approximately three-fifths the length of a AA battery. A zinc-carbon battery in this type is designated as R1 by IEC standards, likewise, ANSI designates this battery as 910A and 910D for alkaline and zinc-carbon chemistries, respectively. Mercury batteries of the dimensions are no longer manufactured because of their toxicity. Former mercury cells such as the Mallory RM401, Duracell RM-401, IEC-MR1, rechargeable N-size batteries are also available, in nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride chemistries. However, these are far less common than other rechargeable sizes, rechargeable N-Series batteries may be charged in a AA charger using a makeshift adapter. Some universal battery chargers are also able to charge N size batteries, an N-cell battery has a similar size to the A23 battery, which has a 12 V output. Battery recycling Brand-neutral drawing of alkaline N battery based on ANSI specifications
26.
Nine-volt battery
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The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, in its most common form was introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular shape with rounded edges and a polarized snap connector at the top. This type is used in walkie talkies, clocks and smoke detectors. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format, once common, have not been manufactured in many due to their mercury content. Designations for this format include NEDA1604 and IEC 6F22 or MN1604 6LR61, the size, regardless of chemistry, is commonly designated PP3 - a designation originally reserved solely for carbon-zinc - or in some countries, E or E-block. Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1. 5V LR61 cells enclosed in a wrapper and these cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can be used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter. Carbon-zinc types are made with six cells in a stack. Primary lithium types are made with 3 cells in series, in 2007, 9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the US. In Switzerland in 2008, 9-volt batteries totalled 2% of primary battery sales, other nine-volt batteries of different sizes exist, such as the British Ever Ready PP series and certain lantern batteries. The battery has both terminals in a connector on one end. The smaller circular terminal is positive, and the hexagonal or octagonal terminal is the negative contact. The connectors on the battery are the same as on the connector itself, the same snap-style connector is used on other battery types in the Power Pack series. Battery polarization is normally obvious since mechanical connection is only possible in one configuration. A problem with this style of connector is that it is easy to connect two batteries together in a short circuit, which quickly discharges both batteries, generating heat and possibly a fire. Because of this hazard, 9-volt batteries should be kept in the original packaging until they are going to be used, an advantage is that several nine-volt batteries can be connected to each other in series to provide higher voltages. Early transistorized radios and other equipment needed a suitable miniature battery. Early transistor radios required a 22 1⁄2 volt battery, fortunately a suitable miniature battery was already marketed for hearing aids. The PP3 appeared when portable transistorised radio receivers became common, and is called a transistor battery by some manufacturers
27.
Lantern battery
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A lantern battery is a rectangular battery, typically an alkaline or zinc-carbon primary battery, used primarily in flashlights or lanterns. Lantern batteries are physically larger and consequently offer higher capacity than the more common torch batteries, lantern batteries comprise multiple cells inside a housing. The most common variant in the US is the 6 volt square-base battery with spring terminals, in Europe the most common is the 4.5 volt flat-pack types. The 6-volt variety typically has spring or screw terminals, different types have different internal construction, the same package size may be made up with D size or F size cells, giving different capacity. A rechargeable version, comprising a three-cell sealed lead-acid battery with a lower capacity than primary versions, has also been marketed and they are also used in the construction industry for powering flashing lights at roadworks. More common in Europe and Russian Federation, this is a smaller and it uses two metal strips as terminals. The shorter strip is the + terminal, the 7. 5-volt version has screw terminals and rectangular base. A carrying handle is connected between the terminals. The 12-volt version has screw terminals and a rectangular base, since it is 12-volt, this type can be used to power car accessories outside of an automobile, using extra wiring or an adapter
28.
A23 battery
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An A23 battery is cylindrical, smaller than a AAA battery, measuring 28.5 mm long and 10.3 mm in diameter, with a typical weight of 8 grams. An A23 battery is an 8-cell device with a voltage of 12 V. The higher voltage is necessary for the radio frequency-transmitting and receiving devices which A23 batteries often power and it has a capacity of around 55 mAh. A23 batteries are constructed of 8 individual LR932 alkaline button cells enclosed in a wrapper, the A23 battery is close in size to the N battery, which has a voltage of 1.25 V to 1.5 V. List of battery sizes Battery Energizer A23 datasheet MN21 datasheet from Duracell Brand neutral drawing of A23 battery
29.
CR-V3 battery
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A CR-V3 battery is a type of disposable high-capacity 3-Volt battery used in various electronic appliances, including some digital cameras. It has the shape and size of two side-by-side AA batteries and this allows CR-V3 batteries to function in many devices originally designed for only AA batteries. An RCR-V3 battery is a rechargeable 3.7 V lithium-ion battery, often, a CR-V3 battery is a single cell based on a non-rechargeable lithium battery chemistry, with a nominal voltage of 3 V. Some more recent CR-V3 batteries are composed of 2 lithium AA batteries, rechargeable lithium-ion RCR-V3 batteries, with a nominal voltage of 3.7 V, are also available. Some have a smaller terminal used for charging and may not be compatible with chargers from different manufacturers
30.
Button cell
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A watch battery or button cell is a small single cell battery shaped as a squat cylinder typically 5 to 25 mm in diameter and 1 to 6 mm high—like a button on a garment, hence the name. A metal can forms the body and positive terminal of the cell. The insulated top cap is the negative terminal, wider variants are usually called coin cells. Devices using button cells are designed to use a cell giving a long service life. Most button cells have low self-discharge and hold their charge for a time if not used. Button cells are cells, usually disposable primary cells. Common anode materials are zinc or lithium, common cathode materials are manganese dioxide, silver oxide, carbon monofluoride, cupric oxide or oxygen from the air. Mercuric oxide button cells were formerly common, but are no longer due to the toxicity. Cells of different chemical composition made in the size are mechanically interchangeable. However, the composition can affect life and voltage stability. Using the wrong cell may lead to life or improper operation. Button cells are very dangerous for small children, Button cells that are swallowed can cause severe internal burns and significant injury or death. Alkaline batteries are made in the same sizes as the other types. They are often sold as cheap watch batteries, and by people who do not know the difference, silver cells may have very stable output voltage until it suddenly drops very rapidly at end of life. Mercury batteries also supply a stable voltage, but are now banned in countries due to their toxicity. Zinc-air batteries use air as the depolarizer and have higher capacity than other types. Cell have seals against air which must be removed before use, cells will then self-discharge in a few weeks, regardless of use. If some device seems to eat up batteries after the original supplied by the manufacturer is replaced, it may be useful to check the devices requirements, discussions on web forums suggest that they can be very poor
