1.
Anti-aircraft warfare
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Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent
2.
Battery nomenclature
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Standard battery nomenclature describes portable dry cell batteries that have physical dimensions and electrical characteristics interchangeable between manufacturers. The long history of dry cells means that many different manufacturer-specific and national standards were used to designate sizes. Technical standards for battery sizes and types are set by organizations such as International Electrotechnical Commission. Popular sizes are referred to by old standard or manufacturer designations. The complete nomenclature for the battery will fully specify the size, chemistry, terminal arrangements, the same physically interchangeable cell size may have widely different characteristics, physical interchangeability is not the sole factor in substitution of batteries. National standards for dry cell batteries have been developed by ANSI, JIS, British national standards, civilian, commercial, government and military standards all exist. Two of the most prevalent standards currently in use are the IEC60086 series, both standards give dimensions, standard performance characteristics, and safety information. Modern standards contain both systematic names for types that give information on the composition and approximate size of the cells. The International Electrotechnical Commission was established in France in 1906 and co-ordinates development of standards for a range of electrical products. The IEC maintains two committees, TC21 established in 1933 for rechargeable batteries, and TC35 established in 1948 for primary batteries, the current designation system was adopted in 1992. Battery types are designated with a sequence indicating number of cells, cell chemistry, cell shape, dimensions. Certain cell designations from earlier revisions of the standard have been retained, the first IEC standards for battery sizes were issued in 1957. Since 1992, International standard IEC60086 defines an alphanumeric coding system for batteries, British standard 397 for primary batteries was withdrawn and replaced by the IEC standard in 1996. Standardization of batteries in the United States started in 1919, when the US National Bureau of Standards published recommended test procedures, the first American Standards Association standard C18 appeared in 1928. It listed cell sizes using a code, roughly in order of size from smallest to larger types. The only numerical designation was the 6-inch tall No.6 cell, the 1934 edition of the C18 standard expanded the nomenclature system to include series and parallel arrays of cells. In 1954, mercury batteries were included in the standard, the 1959 edition identified types suitable for use with transistor radios. In 1967, NEMA took over responsibility for development from the National Bureau of Standards, the 12th edition of C18 began to be harmonized with the IEC standard
3.
Lithium battery
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Lithium batteries are batteries that have lithium as an anode. These types of batteries are also referred to as lithium-metal batteries and they stand apart from other batteries in their high charge density and high cost per unit. The term lithium battery refers to a family of different lithium-metal chemistries, comprising many types of cathodes and electrolytes, the battery requires from 0.15 to 0.3 kg of lithium per kWh. The most common type of lithium cell used in consumer applications uses metallic lithium as anode and manganese dioxide as cathode, another type of lithium cell having a large energy density is the lithium-thionyl chloride cell. The cell contains a mixture of thionyl chloride and lithium tetrachloroaluminate. A porous carbon material serves as a current collector which receives electrons from the external circuit. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are well suited to extremely low-current applications where long life is necessary, the liquid organic electrolyte is a solution of an ion-forming inorganic lithium compound in a mixture of a high-permittivity solvent and a low-viscosity solvent. Lithium batteries find application in many long-life, critical devices, such as pacemakers and these devices use specialized lithium-iodide batteries designed to last 15 or more years. But for other, less critical applications such as in toys, in such cases, an expensive lithium battery may not be cost-effective. Lithium batteries can be used in place of ordinary alkaline cells in many devices, such as clocks, although they are more costly, lithium cells will provide much longer life, thereby minimizing battery replacement. However, attention must be given to the voltage developed by the lithium cells before using them as a drop-in replacement in devices that normally use ordinary zinc cells. Lithium batteries also prove valuable in oceanographic applications, while lithium battery packs are considerably more expensive than standard oceanographic packs, they hold up to three times the capacity of alkaline packs. The high cost of servicing remote oceanographic instrumentation often justifies this higher cost and they are available in many shapes and sizes, with a common variety being the 3 volt coin type manganese variety, typically 20 mm in diameter and 1. 6–4 mm thick. The heavy electrical demands of many of these devices make lithium batteries a particularly attractive option, in particular, lithium batteries can easily support the brief, heavy current demands of devices such as digital cameras, and they maintain a higher voltage for a longer period than alkaline cells. Lithium primary batteries account for 28% of all battery sales in Japan. In the EU only 0. 5% of all battery sales including secondary types are lithium primaries, the computer industrys drive to increase battery capacity can test the limits of sensitive components such as the membrane separator, a polyethylene or polypropylene film that is only 20-25 µm thick. The energy density of lithium batteries has more than doubled since they were introduced in 1991, when the battery is made to contain more material, the separator can undergo stress. Lithium batteries can provide extremely high currents and can discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, although this is useful in applications where high currents are required, a too-rapid discharge of a lithium battery can result in overheating of the battery, rupture, and even explosion
4.
Digital camera
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A digital camera or digicam is a camera that produces digital images that can be stored in a computer, displayed on a screen and printed. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs, Digital and movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, however, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound, some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing. The history of the camera began with Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. His 1961 idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts position, unfortunately, as with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcocks filmless camera in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept. Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975, earlier ones used a camera tube, later ones digitized the signal. Early uses were military and scientific, followed by medical. In the mid to late 1990s digital cameras became common among consumers, by the mid-2000s digital cameras had largely replaced film cameras, and higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had a digital camera. The two major types of image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier, compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS sensor, overall final image quality is more dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type. The resolution of a camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into that discrete signals. The brighter the image at a point on the sensor. Depending on the structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the cameras pixel count, in a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000 pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, final quality of an image depends on all optical transformations in the chain of producing the image
5.
Eneloop
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Eneloop is a brand of 1.2 Volt low self-discharge nickel–metal hydride rechargeable batteries and accessories developed by Sanyo, and introduced in 2005. Eneloop cells lose their charge much slower than the 0. 5% to 4% per day lost by older technology NiMH batteries and this allows them to be sold precharged and ready for use, unlike older types. Because they can replace a number of alkaline batteries over their life cycle. Sanyo was acquired by Panasonic in 2009, as part of that deal, the Japanese Eneloop factories were sold off to Fujitsu, which since then produces 2nd-generation eneloops under its brand. Panasonic eneloops, starting with the 3rd generation, are made in China for some markets, as of November 2015, Eneloop Pro remains made in Japan. The original Eneloop batteries were introduced in AA and AAA size and they could be recharged 1,000 times, and held up to 75% of their charge after one year. The part number for this generation of Eneloop is HR-3UTG and HR-4UTG, the second generation of Eneloop AA and AAA batteries was introduced in 2010. It endured 1,500 recharge cycles and held 85% of the charge after one year, Sanyo introduced C- and D-sized Eneloop batteries with a minimum capacity of 2,700 mAh and 3,000 mAh respectively in 2009, along with a new universal charger. As these sizes were available in Japan and Singapore, Sanyo offered adapter sleeves to fit AA batteries in devices that take C or D batteries. In October 2011 the batteries were again improved to retain up to 90% of their capacity after one year, the batteries can be recharged up to 1,800 times, rather than the 1,500 times of the previous revision. The product numbers for these batteries are HR-3UTGB and HR-4UTGB, at the same time, the C- and D-sized Eneloop batteries stated minimum capacities were increased to 3,000 mAh and 5,700 mAh respectively. They were available in Japan from November 2011, european models went on sale from the beginning of October 2012. Following the acquisition of Sanyo by Panasonic, a generation was introduced in April 2013. The number of charges per cell was increased from 1800 to 2100 cycles for both AA and AAA models, in some countries the batteries are branded as Panasonic. The Eneloop Lite line was released in Japan in June 2010 and they addressed two downsides of alkaline and other NiMH batteries, the initial cost and the long charging time—both achieved by reducing the capacity of the battery. The batteries find suitable applications in devices such as remote control devices and alarms. The AAs have 1,000 mAh of capacity, while the AAAs have 600 mAh, due to reduction of the capacity compared to the regular Eneloop cells, the charging time is halved for the AA and reduced by 25% for the AAA. On the other hand, they can be recharged 3,000 times, the reduction in capacity also reduced the production cost, which decreased the initial investment for rechargeable batteries and they weigh 30% less
6.
Rechargeable battery
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It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term accumulator is used as it accumulates and stores energy through an electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, nickel cadmium, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the sizes and voltages as disposable types. Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable devices, light vehicles, tools, uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, Battery storage power stations use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling and for renewable energy uses. Load-leveling reduces the power which a plant must be able to generate, reducing capital cost. The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association estimated in 2006 that US demand for batteries was growing twice as fast as demand for disposables. Small rechargeable batteries can power portable devices, power tools, appliances. Heavy-duty batteries power electric vehicles, ranging from scooters to locomotives and they are used in distributed electricity generation and in stand-alone power systems. During charging, the active material is oxidized, producing electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit, the energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicles 12-volt DC power outlet. Regardless, to energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source. The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the terminal of the voltage source. Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery, slow dumb chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes, fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating, Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a C rate of current
7.
Eveready Battery Company
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Eveready Battery Company, Inc. is an American manufacturer of battery brands. Eveready and Energizer, owned by Energizer Holdings and its headquarters are in St. Louis, Missouri. On January 10,1899, American Electrical Novelty and Manufacturing Company obtained U. S, patent No.617,592 from David Misell, an inventor. This electric device designed by Misell was powered by D batteries laid front-to-back in a tube with the light bulb. Misell, the inventor of the tubular hand-held electric device, assigned his invention over to the American Electrical Novelty, in 1905, Hubert changed the name again to The American Ever Ready Company, selling flashlights and batteries under the trademark Ever Ready. In 1906 the British Ever Ready Electrical Company was formed for export of batteries, in 1914, The American Ever Ready Company became part of National Carbon Company. Hubert stayed on as the president, the trademark was shortened to Eveready. In 1917, National Carbon Company merged with Union Carbide to form The Union Carbide, from 1917 until 1921, Eveready used the trademark DAYLO for their flashlights and on their batteries. In 1957, employees Lewis Urry, Paul Marsal and Karl Kordesch invented a long-lasting alkaline battery using a zinc/manganese dioxide chemistry while working for Union Carbides Cleveland plant, the company did not aggressively market the invention, however, and instead continued to market the old Zinc-carbon battery. As a result, the company lost significant market share to Duracell, prior to March 1,1980, the companys alkaline battery had been called the Eveready Alkaline Battery, Eveready Alkaline Energizer and Eveready Alkaline Power Cell. On March 1,1980, it was rebadged under its current name, in 1986, Union Carbide sold its Battery Products Division to Ralston Purina Company for $US1.4 billion, becoming the Eveready Battery Company, Inc. a wholly owned subsidiary. At that time, the Eveready and Energizer batteries held 52 percent market share, the company under Ralston lost market share to rival Duracell. In 1992, it bought the British Ever Ready Electrical Company from Hanson Trust, in 1999, Eveready sold its rechargeable battery division, although it still markets them for retail sale. The majority of batteries are made in China, there are also numerous production facilities outside the US. In the 1920s, the company sponsored The Eveready Hour on radio, in 1941 after the United States entered World War II, the slogan changed to Change your batteries, get a nickel. to encourage economic growth. In the early 1980s, it utilized the slogan, Energized, showing people using Energizers in everyday situations. In 1986, the company highlighted an advertising campaign best known for Mary Lou Retton averring, in the late 1980s, there was an advertising campaign featuring Mark Jacko Jackson and his pitch line Energizer. Since 1988, the well-known Energizer Bunny has been featured in its television ads, the bunny was based on the similar Duracell Bunny used in the UK
8.
Voltage
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Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension is the difference in electric potential energy between two points per unit electric charge. The voltage between two points is equal to the work done per unit of charge against an electric field to move the test charge between two points. This is measured in units of volts, voltage can be caused by static electric fields, by electric current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or some combination of these three. A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage between two points in a system, often a reference potential such as the ground of the system is used as one of the points. A voltage may represent either a source of energy or lost, used, given two points in space, x A and x B, voltage is the difference in electric potential between those two points. Electric potential must be distinguished from electric energy by noting that the potential is a per-unit-charge quantity. Like mechanical potential energy, the zero of electric potential can be chosen at any point, so the difference in potential, i. e. the voltage, is the quantity which is physically meaningful. The voltage between point A to point B is equal to the work which would have to be done, per unit charge, against or by the electric field to move the charge from A to B. The voltage between the two ends of a path is the energy required to move a small electric charge along that path. Mathematically this is expressed as the integral of the electric field. In the general case, both an electric field and a dynamic electromagnetic field must be included in determining the voltage between two points. Historically this quantity has also called tension and pressure. Pressure is now obsolete but tension is used, for example within the phrase high tension which is commonly used in thermionic valve based electronics. Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages, therefore, the conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage. Current can flow from lower voltage to higher voltage, but only when a source of energy is present to push it against the electric field. This is the case within any electric power source, for example, inside a battery, chemical reactions provide the energy needed for ion current to flow from the negative to the positive terminal. The electric field is not the only factor determining charge flow in a material, the electric potential of a material is not even a well defined quantity, since it varies on the subatomic scale. A more convenient definition of voltage can be found instead in the concept of Fermi level, in this case the voltage between two bodies is the thermodynamic work required to move a unit of charge between them
9.
Alkaline battery
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Alkaline batteries are a type of primary battery dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide. Another type of batteries are secondary rechargeable alkaline battery, which allows reuse of specially designed cells. Compared with zinc-carbon batteries of the Leclanché or zinc chloride types, alkaline batteries have an energy density and longer shelf-life. The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. Other battery systems also use alkaline electrolytes, but they use different active materials for the electrodes, Alkaline batteries account for 80% of manufactured batteries in the US and over 10 billion individual units produced worldwide. In Japan alkaline batteries account for 46% of all battery sales. In Switzerland alkaline batteries account for 68%, in the UK 60%, Alkaline batteries are used in many household items such as MP3 players, CD players, digital cameras, pagers, toys, lights, and radios, to name a few. Batteries with alkaline electrolyte were first developed by Waldemar Jungner in 1899, on October 9,1957, Urry, Karl Kordesch, and P. A. Marsal filed US patent for the alkaline battery and it was granted in 1960 and was assigned to the Union Carbide Corporation. When introduced in the late 1960s, alkaline batteries contained a small amount of mercury amalgam to control side reactions at the zinc anode. With mercury content reduced by law and improvements in the purity and consistency of materials, in an alkaline battery, the negative electrode is zinc and the positive electrode is manganese dioxide. The alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide is not part of the reaction, only the zinc, the alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide remains, as there are equal amounts of OH− consumed and produced. An alkaline cell can provide three and five times capacity. The capacity of a battery is strongly dependent on the load. An AA-sized alkaline battery might have a capacity of 3000 mAh at low drain, but at a load of 1 ampere, which is common for digital cameras. The voltage of the battery declines steadily during use, so the usable capacity depends on the cut-off voltage of the application. Unlike Leclanche cells, the alkaline cell delivers about as much capacity on intermittent or continuous light loads, on a heavy load, capacity is reduced on continuous discharge compared with intermittent discharge, but the reduction is less than for Leclanche cells. The nominal voltage of an alkaline cell as established by manufacturer standards is 1.5 V
