1.
Eurocopter EC145
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The Eurocopter EC145, now known as the Airbus Helicopters H145, is a twin-engine light utility helicopter developed and manufactured by Eurocopter, which was rebranded as Airbus Helicopters in 2014. The EC145 is an aircraft and can carry up to nine passengers along with two crew, depending on customer configuration. The helicopter is marketed for passenger transport, corporate transport, emergency services, search and rescue, parapublic. In 2014, the EC145 was rebranded as the H145 by Airbus Helicopters, the EC145 was a joint development between Eurocopter and Kawasaki Heavy Industries on the basis of their successful prior jointly produced BK117 C1. The noise signature of the EC145 is reportedly 60% lower than that of the BK117 C1, Eurocopter and Kawasaki have an agreement under which both firms independently manufacture and market the rotorcraft, while working collaboratively on development and upgrades. Kawasaki uses the designation BK117 C2 for the type and sells/produces the aircraft in the Asian market, in November 2004, with the termination of production of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries MH2000, the BK117 C2 became the only civil helicopter in production in Japan. In August 2010, it was announced that the partnership between Eurocopter and Kawasaki on the development and production of the EC145 had been extended until at least 2025. In 2011, Eurocopter officially launched an upgraded EC145 model, designated EC145 T2, in April 2014, airworthiness certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency for the EC145 T2 was received, FAA certification followed in October 2014. The primary manufacturing facility for the EC145 is located at Donauwörth in Germany, in 2014, Airbus Helicopters announced that 50 EC145 T2s would be manufactured in 2015, the production is expected to eventually rise to 70 helicopters per year. Since 2011, Eurocopter has been developing an optionally piloted vehicle variant of the EC145, test flights of the EC145 OPV, including unmanned flights, began in 2013. The technology, which is reported to be compatible with a number of Eurocopters range of helicopters, is intended for civil and military applications. In an emergency situation, such as failure, the EC145 OPV is programmed to enter into an automated hover-to-land procedure to safely land the aircraft. In July 2014, Airbus Helicopter launched the EC145e, a lightened and lower cost version of the standard EC145, intended as a basic model for tasks such as aerial firefighting and utility work, it has been also viewed as a replacement for aging MBB Bo 105 rotorcraft. In April 2015, the EASA issued its certification for the EC145e, in 2015, Metro Aviation entered into an arrangement with Airbus Helicopters to offer various mission-specific customisations for the EC145e and operate as a reseller for the variant. The EC145 features a cabin space than the older BK117 C1 helicopter with internal space increased by 46 cm in length and 13 cm in width. A number of systems are redundant, including the autopilot system, hydraulic boost, transmission lubrication. The EC145 is also the first civil helicopter to be fitted with night vision-compatible cockpit instrumentation, in an EMS/casualty evacuation arrangement, the EC145 can carry up to two stretchered patients with three accompanying medical staff. The helicopter can be fitted with floats, rescue hoist, search light, load hook
2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
3.
Fairchild Dornier 328JET
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The Fairchild-Dornier 328JET is a commuter airliner based upon the turboprop-powered Dornier 328. A proposed stretched variant was the 428JET, due to public perception of noise and reliability issues with turboprops, Fairchild-Dornier developed the turbofan-based 328-300 or 328JET, of which 83 were sold. The 328JET prototype rolled out on 6 December 1997 at Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, the 328JET utilized the same cabin arrangement as the 328. Fairchild-Dornier also began development of the stretched 428JET, a 44-seat version of the 328JET, the declining commercial success of the 328JET meant that Fairchild-Dornier was unable to finance the development of further models. The 328JET was therefore the last commercial aircraft to be produced by the former Dornier business before it became insolvent in 2002, after the successful sale of these airplanes, AvCraft negotiated arrangements with suppliers to resume production. The first newly built 328JET was delivered in 2004, AvCraft also took on the production of these aircraft, due to low profit expectations for its other projects, until it filed for bankruptcy itself in 2005. The resulting firm was acquired by private equity investors and reformed as M7 Aerospace,328 Support Services GmbH has held the type certificate for the 328JET since June 2006. Ş. The TRJ-328 will be a base for a larger TRJ-628 which is intended to be designed, developed. TAI is in charge of the production with Turkish companies ASELSAN, TEI, HAVELSAN, Turkish Technic, Alp Aviation, 328JET Turbofan-powered variant, formerly the 328-300. 428JET A 44-seat derivative that was under development at the time of the collapse of Fairchild-Dornier, advanced Composite Cargo Aircraft a Dornier 328J with its mid/aft fuselage and empennage replaced with advanced composite materials. The ACCA is a Lockheed Martin demonstrator to advance composite usage on next-generation tactical air mobility transports for the US Air Force Research Laboratory, in August 2010 a total of 54 Dornier 328JET aircraft remain in airline service. The only operators with a fleet of more than five are Ultimate Air Shuttle with 8, Tianjin Airlines with 11, past airline operators in the U. S. include Skyway Airlines, a feeder airline for Midwest Airlines, which flew 12 328JET aircraft and Great Plains Airlines. Skyway and Midwest, as well as Great Plains are no longer in existence, none of the eight passengers and crew were injured in the incident but the damage to the aircraft was substantial. TRJet-Turkish regional aircraft project official page 328 Support Services GmbH official page
4.
German Grand Prix
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The German Grand Prix is a biennial automobile race that has been held most years since 1926, with 75 races having been held. The race continued to be known as the German Grand Prix, because West Germany was prevented from taking part in international events in the immediate post-war period, the German Grand Prix only became part of the Formula One World Championship in 1951. It was designated the European Grand Prix four times between 1954 and 1974, when title was an honorary designation given each year to one grand prix race in Europe. It has been organized by AvD since 1926, the well-known ADAC hosts many other races, including a second German F1 race at the Nürburgring from 1995 until 2006 under the title of the European Grand Prix. In 1907, Germany staged the first of the Kaiserpreis races at the 73-mile Taunus public road circuit, entries were limited to touring cars with engines of less than eight litres. The race itself was a tragedy, a driver and his co-driver were killed 19 miles into the lap, göbel died of his injuries in hospital later on. Italys Felice Nazzaro won the race in a Fiat, like the Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt, which was held from 1908 to 1911, it was a precursor to the German Grand Prix. The first national event in German Grand Prix motor racing was held at the AVUS race circuit in southwestern Berlin in 1926 as a car race. The AVUS circuit was made up of two 6-mile straights combined with two left-hand hairpins at each end, the first race at AVUS, in heavy rain, was won by Germanys native son, Rudolf Caracciola in a Mercedes-Benz. The event was marred by Adolf Rosenbergers crash into one of the marshals huts, the AVUS circuit was considered extremely dangerous even back then- so the event was moved. The German Grand Prix became an event in 1929. The Grand Prix moved to the new,28.3 km Nürburgring, located in the Eifel Mountain region in western Germany about 70 miles from Frankfurt and it was inaugurated on 18 June 1927 with the annual race, the ADAC Eifelrennen. There were two races on the Gesamtstrecke combined course, which were both sportscar races, where German pre-war great Rudolf Caracciola would win his second of six German Grands Prix. The 1930 and 1933 races were cancelled due to economic reasons, in 1931, the event began to use only the 14.2 mile Nordschleife, and this would continue onwards throughout the century. Caracciola would win the 1931 and 1932 events in a Mercedes, starting in 1934, there were often several races each year with the so-called Silver Arrows Grand Prix cars in Germany, e. g. the Eifelrennen, the AVUS race and several hillclimbs. Yet it was only the Grand Prix at the Nürburgring that was the national Grande Epreuve, the 1935 event was considered to be one of the greatest motorsports victories of all time. Italian legend Tazio Nuvolari, driving a hopelessly outdated and underpowered Alfa Romeo against state-of-the-art Mercedes, after a dreadful start, he was able to pass a number of cars, particularly while some of the German cars pitted. The small 42-year-old Italian ended up finishing in front of eight running Silver Arrows, second placed Hans Stuck was two minutes behind Nuvolari
5.
European Grand Prix
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The European Grand Prix was a Formula One event that was introduced during the mid-1980s and was held regularly from 1999 until 2012. A recent host venue for this event was the Valencia Street Circuit in Valencia, Spain, the race was removed from the calendar in 2013. In 2016, the race returned, being run on a circuit in Baku, Azerbaijan. In earlier years, the European Grand Prix was not a race in its own right but just an honorific title, one of the national Grands Prix was also designated as the European Grand Prix. The first race to be so named was the 1923 Italian Grand Prix, held at Monza and won by Carlo Salamano in a Fiat and the last one was the 1977 British Grand Prix. Since its reintroduction, the European Grand Prix has usually held in a country in Europe that also holds a national Grand Prix in that same year. The European Grand Prix was created as a title by the AIACR. The first race to receive the title was the Italian Grand Prix, in 1923, after a hiatus in 1929, Spa received the last honorific title of the pre-WWII years, in 1930. All post-war honorific European Grands Prix were Formula One races except for the 1952 event, the Italian Grand Prix was named the European Grand Prix seven times, which was more than any other race. It received the three times in the 1920s. The event was created as a stop-gap. In 1983, the Formula One schedule originally featured a race near Flushing Meadows Park in New York City, when the race was cancelled three months before the event, track organizers at Brands Hatch were able to create a European Grand Prix at the track in its place. The success of the event, buoyed by a battle for the World Championship. Brands Hatch returned to host the European Grand Prix in 1985, in 1990, a wealthy Japanese businessman, Tomonori Tsurumaki, built the Nippon Autopolis with the idea of hosting a Formula One race. In 1992, plans were made to have an Asian Grand Prix in 1993 to replace the Mexican Grand Prix on the schedule, however, these plans failed to materialise. Instead, Bernie Ecclestone added a race at Donington Park to the schedule, the race was the brainchild of Tom Wheatcroft, who had been trying to bring F1 to the track since an abortive attempt to host the British Grand Prix in 1988. The first and so far only Formula One Grand Prix at Donington Park resulted in Ayrton Sennas victory in mixed wet, the European race would go the following season to Jerez in Spain. Brands Hatch was unable to host the European Grand Prix in 1984, so the European GP went to a redesigned and it was a far cry from the 14-mile Nürburgring that most were used to seeing, and was initially unpopular during Formula Ones return
6.
Van
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A van is a type of road vehicle used for transporting goods or people. Depending on the type of van it can be bigger or smaller than a truck and SUV, there is some varying in the scope of the word across the different English-speaking countries. The smallest vans, microvans, are used for transporting goods or people in tiny quantities. Mini MPVs, Compact MPVs, and MPVs are all small vans usually used for transporting people in small quantities, larger vans with passenger seats are used for institutional purposes, such as transporting students. Larger vans with only front seats are used for business purposes, to carry goods. Specially-equipped vans are used by television stations as mobile studios, Postal services and courier companies use large step vans to deliver packages. Van meaning a type of vehicle arose as a contraction of the word caravan, the early records of van as a vehicle in English are in the mid 19th century meaning a covered wagon for transporting goods. Caravan with the meaning has records since the 1670s. A caravan, meaning one wagon, had arisen as an extension or corruption of caravan meaning a convoy of multiple wagons, the word van has slightly different, but overlapping, meanings in different forms of English. While the word now applies to boxy cargo vans, other applications are found to a greater or lesser extent in the different English-speaking countries. In Australian English, the van is commonly used to describe a minivan. A full-size van used for commercial purposes is known as a van, however. Finally, the van can sometimes be used interchangeably with caravan. The British term people mover is used in Australian English to describe a passenger van. The American usage of van to mean a cargo box trailer or semi-trailer is used rarely, if ever, early Japanese vans include the Kurogane Baby, Mazda Bongo and the Toyota LiteAce van. Microvans, vans that fulfill kei car regulations, are popular for small business. The term is used to describe full-fledged station wagons and even hatchbacks with a basic trim package intended for commercial use. These are sometimes referred to as Light Vans, in British English, the word van refers to vehicles that carry goods only, on both roads and rails
7.
Automobile repair shop
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An automobile repair shop is a repair shop where automobiles are repaired by auto mechanics and technicians. Automotive garages and repair shops can be divided into following categories and this is not common in the United Kingdom but more common in the US. Automobile repair workshops that are owned and operated businesses. These may also include regional or national chains and franchises including OEM car dealership sites, in the United States, these sites are commonly certified by their respective manufacturer to perform warranty and recall repairs by that manufacturer or distributor. Independent automobile repair shops in the US may also achieve certification through manufacturer sponsored programs, in the European Union a recent law allows motorists more flexibility in selecting where they can get their car serviced. Also, some repair shops provide additional towning services. There are also automotive repair shops that specialize in vehicle modifications, oftentimes, various specialized auto repair shops will have varied infrastructure and facilities, as well as technicians and mechanics with different qualifications. Such kind of organizations are predominant in US with wide acceptance, automotive repair shops also offer paintwork repairs to scratches, scuffs and dents to vehicle damage as well as damage caused by collisions and major accidents. Many body shops now offer paintless dent repair, which is done by pushing the dents out from inside, OEM Certified Collision Centers have the highest standards. Automotive Service Excellence Breakdown Preventive maintenance Reliability centered maintenance
8.
Air ambulance helicopter
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Air medical services is a comprehensive term covering the use of air transportation, airplane or helicopter, to move patients to and from healthcare facilities and accident scenes. The use of air transport of patients dates to World War I, helicopters are used to transport patients between hospitals and from trauma scenes, fixed-wing aircraft are used for long-distance transport. The advantages of medical transport by helicopter may include providing a level of care at the scene of trauma. Helicopter-based emergency medical service also provides critical care capabilities during interfacility transport from community hospitals to trauma centers, effective use of helicopter services for trauma depends on the ground responders ability to determine whether the patients condition warrants air medical transport. Protocols and training must be developed to ensure appropriate triage criteria are applied, Crew and patient safety is the single most important factor to be considered when deciding whether to transport a patient by helicopter. Weather, air traffic patterns, and distances must also be considered, another reason for cancelling a flight is based on Flight Crew comfort with the flight. The general rule of safety is upon the crew, when there is one pilot, if one Flight Member is not comfortable with the flight for whatever reason, the flight is cancelled. Some have questioned the safety of air medical services While the number of crashes may be increasing, factors associated with fatal crashes of medical transport helicopters include flying at night and during bad weather, and postcrash fires. Fixed wing aircraft are more often used to move patients over long distances. These and related operations are called aeromedical, in some circumstances, the same aircraft may be used to search for missing or wanted people. Like ground ambulances, air ambulances are equipped with medical equipment vital to monitoring and treating injured or ill patients, common equipment for air ambulances includes medications, ventilators, ECGs and monitoring units, CPR equipment, and stretchers. A medically staffed and equipped air ambulance provides medical care in flight—while a non-medically equipped and staffed aircraft simply transports patients without care in flight, Military organizations and NATO refer to the former as medical evacuation and to the latter as casualty evacuation. Air Traffic Control grants special treatment to air operations, much like a ground ambulance using lights. When this happens, air ambulance aircraft take the call sign MEDEVAC and receive priority handling in the air, as with many Emergency Medical Service innovations, treating patients in flight originated in the military. The concept of using aircraft as ambulances is almost as old as powered flight itself, although balloons were not used to evacuate wounded soldiers at the Siege of Paris in 1870, air evacuation was experimented with during the First World War. The first true Air Ambulance flight was made when a Serbian officer was flown from the battlefield to hospital by a plane of the French Air Service. French records at the time indicated that the mortality rate of the injured was reduced from 60% to just under 10% if they were evacuated by air. The first recorded British ambulance flight took place in 1917 in Turkey when a soldier in the Camel Corps who had shot in the ankle was flown to hospital in a de Havilland DH9 in 45 minutes
9.
Max Mosley
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Max Rufus Mosley is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile, a non-profit association that represents the interests of motoring organisations and car users worldwide. The FIA is also the body for Formula One and other international motorsports. A barrister and former racing driver, Mosley was a founder and co-owner of March Engineering. Together with Bernie Ecclestone, he represented FOCA at the FIA, in 1978, Mosley became the official legal adviser to FOCA. Mosley was elected president of FISA in 1991 and became president of the FIA, FISAs parent body, Mosley identified his major achievement as FIA President as the promotion of the European New Car Assessment Programme. He has also promoted increased safety and the use of technologies in motor racing. In 2008, stories about his sex life appeared in the British press, Mosley successfully sued the newspaper that published the allegations and maintained his position as FIA president. He stood down at the end of his term in 2009 and was replaced by his preferred successor, Mosley is the youngest son of Sir Oswald Mosley, former leader of the British Union of Fascists, and Diana Mitford. He was educated in France, Germany, and Britain before going on to university at Christ Church, Oxford. He then changed to law and was called to the bar in 1964, in his teens and early twenties, Mosley was involved with his fathers post-war political party, the Union Movement. He has said that the association of his surname with fascism stopped him from developing his interest in politics further and his father, Sir Oswald Mosley was a Labour minister, and a Member of Parliament for both the Conservative and Labour parties in the 1920s. By the 1930s, he had left politics and become the leader of the British Union of Fascists. His first wife died in 1933, and in 1936 Sir Oswald married Diana Mitford, in a ceremony in Germany attended by Joseph Goebbels, Max was born in London in April 1940 during the early days of the Second World War to Diana and Oswald. In May, Sir Oswald, who had campaigned for a peace with Nazi Germany, was interned by the British Authorities under Defence Regulation 18B. Lady Mosley was imprisoned a month later, Max and his brother Alexander were not included in their internment and as a result were separated from their parents for the first few years of their lives. In December 1940, then-prime minister Winston Churchill, asked Home Secretary Herbert Morrison to ensure Lady Mosley was able to see Max regularly, Sir Oswald and Lady Mosley were released from detention at HMP Holloway on 16 November 1943, provoking widespread public protests. Max’s elder brother was unhappy at his private school, as a result, both children were tutored at home until the age of 13. The family moved to a succession of houses in England
10.
The Automobile Association
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AA plc is a British motoring association founded in 1905, which currently provides car insurance, driving lessons, breakdown cover, loans, motoring advice, road maps and other services. The association demutualised in 1999 to become a limited company and in 2002 the AA Motoring Trust was created to continue its public interest. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index, the act also required drivers to hold a driving licence and to display a registration plate on their vehicle. By 1906 the AA had erected thousands of roadside danger and warning signs, by 1926 the organisation had installed 6,500 direction signs and 15,000 village signs, most of which were removed during the Second World War. In 1908 the organisation published its first AA Members Special Handbook containing a list of nationwide agents, AA patrols on bicycles warned motorists of police speed traps ahead. In 1920, members were issued with keys to roadside wooden telephone boxes which could be used to call the organisation for assistance, there were almost 1,000 boxes in their heyday, and they remained in use until the 1960s. 1949 saw the launch of a breakdown and recovery service, initially in London only. The AA Insurance brokerage service was started in 1967, after the war the AA led protests against petrol rationing, which was repealed in 1950. The organisation campaigned for the wearing of seat belts. Seat belt legislation became law in the UK in 1983 as required by the Transport Act 1981 and they have lobbied successive governments over what they describe as unfair motoring taxes. In February 1972 the AA relocated from its central London offices to Basingstoke and it began broadcasting AA Roadwatch traffic reports on UK commercial radio stations the following year. AA Relay was also introduced in 1973, a service that will deliver a broken-down vehicle, its driver and passengers, luggage, the association demutualised in 1999 to become a private limited company, which was bought later the same year by Centrica. In 2002, the AA Motoring Trust charity was created to continue its public interest, Centrica sold the AA in 2004 to two private equity firms, CVC and Permira, who in 2007 merged the AA with Saga under Acromas Holdings. In July 2013, the company launched AA Cars, linking buyers of used cars with sellers, the service is a partnership with Vcars, rebranding its partners existing online service and providing a check of the cars history. At the time of rebranding over 110,000 cars were available for purchase via 2,000 registered dealers, the AA became listed on the London Stock Exchange as AA plc in June 2014, through an initial public offering in which Acromas sold all its shares. In 2015, the AA acquired the garage booking service Motoriety, the AA awards ratings according to a system based on quality standards agreed by the AA and the various UK tourist authorities. Properties are awards a rating, from one to five stars. In addition, each receives a Merit % Score to enable comparison of hotels with similar star ratings
11.
American Automobile Association
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The American Automobile Association is a federation of motor clubs throughout North America. AAA is a member service organization, with 55.6 million members in the United States. AAA provides services to its members, including roadside assistance and others and its national headquarters are in Heathrow, Florida. Those individual motor clubs included the Chicago Automobile Club, Automobile Club of America, Automobile Club of New Jersey, the Automobile Club of Buffalo joined in 1903. In 1904, the AAA merged with the very first American automobile organization, the first AAA road maps were published in 1905. AAA began printing hotel guides in 1917, the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, which conducts studies on motorist safety, was established as a separate entity in 1947. AAA created an organization called the Racing Board, and later known as the Contest Board, in 1902 to officiate the Vanderbilt Cup international automobile race in Long Island, New York. The Racing Board sanctioned the Indianapolis 500 and awarded national racing championships in 1905,1916, 1920–1941, after the 1955 Le Mans disaster, AAA decided that auto racing distracted from its primary goals, and the United States Automobile Club was formed to take over the race sanctioning/officiating. In 2005, AAA re-entered racing as a sponsor of ISC-owned tracks, in 2006, AAAs foray into racing expanded when it made a three-year commitment to sponsor Roush Racings number 6 car on the NASCAR Nextel Circuit. In 1935, AAA published Sportsmanlike Driving, the first course outline for high school teachers, in 1936, AAA published the first driver education curriculum for use in high schools. AAA has updated its driver training courses throughout the years and many clubs currently offer their own driving schools, knowing that vehicles pose a hazard to pedestrians, in 1936 AAA began a pedestrian safety program with a grant from the Automotive Safety Foundation. AAA went on to commission and publish a study of pedestrian safety for the purpose of reducing pedestrian fatalities and injuries. The AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety was established as an entity in 1947. AAA has also provided services to the U. S. government in times of war, during the 1940s, AAA offered its services to the Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense in anticipation of becoming involved in World War II. Reductions in manufacturing because of the war increased the need for conservation in automobiles, in 1944, AAA’s Keep em Rolling campaign sponsored a cross-country tour featuring cars equipped with synthetic tires. The tour demonstrated the reliability of tires made with synthetic rubber, AAA also assisted in the development of a manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices and their operation during wartime. In 1946, AAA launched a campaign called Take It Easy, subsequently, fatalities dropped 20 percent below the pre-war figure. In the 1960s, AAA helped draft the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966, setting safety standards for automobiles, tires, and equipment
12.
Stuttgart
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Stuttgart is the capital and largest city of the German state of Baden-Württemberg. It is located on the Neckar river in a fertile valley known as the Stuttgart Cauldron an hour from the Swabian Jura. Stuttgarts urban area has a population of 623,738, making it the sixth largest city in Germany. 2.7 million people live in the administrative region and another 5.3 million people in its metropolitan area. Since the 6th millennium BC, the Stuttgart area has been an important agricultural area and has been host to a number of cultures seeking to utilize the rich soil of the Neckar valley. The Roman Empire conquered the area in 83 AD and built a massive Castrum near Bad Cannstatt, Stuttgarts roots were truly laid in the 10th century with its founding by Liudolf, Duke of Swabia as a stud farm for his warhorses. Overshadowed by nearby Cannstatt, the town grew steadily and was granted a charter in 1320, the fortunes of Stuttgart turned with those of the House of Württemberg, and they made it the capital of their County, Duchy, and Kingdom from the 15th Century to 1918. Stuttgart prospered despite setbacks in the forms of the Thirty Years War and devastating air raids by the Allies on the city, however, by 1952, the city had bounced back and became the major economic, industrial, tourism and publishing center it is today. Stuttgart is also an important transport junction, and possesses the sixth largest airport in Germany. Such companies as Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, Daimler AG, Dinkelacker, Stuttgart is unusual in the scheme of German cities. It is spread across a variety of hills, valleys and parks and this is often a source of surprise to visitors who associate the city with its reputation as the Cradle of the Automobile. The citys tourism slogan is Stuttgart offers more, under current plans to improve transport links to the international infrastructure, the city unveiled a new logo and slogan in March 2008 describing itself as Das neue Herz Europas. For business, it describes itself as Where business meets the future, in July 2010, Stuttgart unveiled a new city logo, designed to entice more business people to stay in the city and enjoy breaks in the area. Stuttgart is a city of mostly immigrants, according to Dorling Kindersley Publishings Eyewitness Travel Guide to Germany, In the city of Stuttgart, every third inhabitant is a foreigner. 40% of Stuttgarts residents, and 64% of the population below the age of five are of immigrant background, the reason for this being that the city was founded in 950 AD by Duke Liudolf of Swabia to breed warhorses. Originally, the most important location in the Neckar river valley as the rim of the Stuttgart basin at what is today Bad Cannstatt. As with many military installations, a settlement sprang up nearby, when they did, the town was left in the capable hands of a local brickworks that produced sophisticated architectural ceramics and pottery. When the Romans were driven back past the Rhine and Danube rivers in the 3rd Century by the Alamanni, in 700, Duke Gotfrid mentions a Chan Stada in a document regarding property
13.
Reichsmark
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The Reichsmark was subdivided into 100 Reichspfennig. The Mark is an ancient Germanic weight measure, traditionally a half pound, from 1871 to 1918 Germany was called the Kaiserreich, or the Deutsches Reich. Although Germany became a republic in 1919, the term Reich remained part of the official name. The Reichsmark was introduced in 1924 as a permanent replacement for the Papiermark and this was necessary due to the 1920s German inflation which had reached its peak in 1923. The exchange rate between the old Papiermark and the Reichsmark was 1 ℛℳ =1012 Papiermark, the Reichsmark was put on the gold standard at the rate previously used by the Goldmark, with the U. S. dollar worth 4.2 ℛℳ. As the market crash of 1929 expanded into the Great Depression and it retained a gold peg at that time. Hyper inflation ensued to the point it was cheaper to burn reichsmark paper notes than to buy fire wood, a number of companies were created with inadequate capital for their operations and authorized to issue bonds exchangeable at a 1,1 rate for Reichsmarks and sold at a discount. The Reichsbank rediscounted the bills of these companies creating a monetary expansion without formally renouncing the link to gold, Deutsche Gesellschaft für öffentliche Arbeiten AG, founded 1 August 1930, ended up issuing 1.26 billion Reichsmarks of Öffa bills to finance public construction. It formed the model for further fraudulent issues of bills. MEFO was a company that was formed with relatively small amounts of capital that was used to finance German rearmament off the books. It issued bills without backing by its own resources but which were guaranteed redeemable at 1,1 for Reichsmarks for five years by the government, the MEFO bills amounts were considered a state secret and were an important element in the impression that Hitlerian economics was a success. This company essentially created an amount of Reichsmarks off the books. With the unification of Germany and Austria in 1938, the Reichsmark replaced the Schilling in Austria. The rates were as follows, After the Second World War, the Reichsmark continued to circulate in Germany, in practice, massive inflation dating back to the latter stages of the war had rendered the Reichsmark nearly worthless. For all intents and purposes, it was supplanted by a barter economy, the Reichsmark was replaced in June 1948 by the Deutsche Mark in the Trizone and later in the same year by the East German Mark in East Germany. Tenenbaum of the US military government, and was executed abruptly on 21 June 1948, three days later, the new currency also replaced the Reichsmark in the three Western sectors of Berlin. In November 1945, the Reichsmark was superseded by the Allied Military Schilling in Austria, in 1947 a local currency was introduced in the Saar. In 1924, coins were introduced in denominations of 1,2,5,10, and 50 Reichspfennig, the 1 and 2 Reichspfennig were struck in bronze, and depicting a wheat sheaf
14.
Eagle (heraldry)
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The eagle is used in heraldry as a charge, as a supporter, and as a crest. The eagle with its keen eyes symbolized perspicacity, courage, strength and immortality, with these attributed qualities the eagle became a symbol of power and strength in Ancient Rome. The eagle as a symbol has a much longer than that of heraldry itself. In Ancient Egypt, the falcon was the symbol of Horus, an eagle appears on the battle standard of Cyrus the Great in Persia, around 540 BC. The eagle as an animal of the Roman Republic was introduced in 102 BC by consul Gaius Marius. According to Islamic tradition, the Black Standard of Muhammad was known as راية العُقاب rāyat al-uqāb banner of the eagle), in Christian symbolism the four living creatures of scripture have traditionally been associated with the Four Evangelists. The eagle is the symbol of Saint John the Evangelist, in medieval and modern heraldry eagles are often said to indicate that the armiger was courageous, a man of action and judicious. Where an eagles wings were spread it was said to indicate the role as a protector. In the same way that a lion is considered the king of beasts and it has been more widely used and more highly regarded in Continental European heraldry than in English heraldry. For instance, in the roll of Henry III of England there are only three eagles, media related to examples of heraldic eagles at Wikimedia Commons The depiction of the heraldic eagle is subject to a great range of variation in style. The eagle was far more common in continental European—particularly German—than English heraldry and it is often depicted membered / armed and langued gules, that is, with red claws / talons and tongue. In its relatively few instances in Gallo-British heraldry, the outermost feathers are typically longer, an eagle can appear either single- or double-headed. On at least one occasion a three-headed eagle is seen, recursant describes an eagle with his head turned to the sinister. In full aspect describes an eagle with his head facing the onlooker, in trian aspect describes when the eagles head is facing at a three-quarter view to give the appearance of depth – with the head cocked at an angle somewhere between profile and straight-on. Overture or close is when the wings are shown at the sides and close to the body, addorsed is when the eagle is shown statant and ready to fly, with the wings shown open behind the eagle so that they almost touch. Espanie or épandre is when the eagle is shown affronté and the wings are shown with the tips upward, abaisé is when the eagle is shown affronté and the wings are shown with the tips downward. A good example is the eagle on the side of the US quarter dollar coin. Klee-Stengeln are the pair of long-stemmed trefoil-type charges on the wings of 13th-century German depictions of the heraldic eagle and they represent the upper edge of the wings and are normally Or, like the beak and claws
15.
Wilhelm II, German Emperor
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Wilhelm II or William II was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. He was the eldest grandchild of the British Queen Victoria and related to many monarchs and his leading generals, Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, dictated policy during the First World War with little regard for the civilian government. An ineffective war-time leader, he lost the support of the army, abdicated in November 1918, and fled to exile in the Netherlands. Wilhelm was born on 27 January 1859 at the Crown Princes Palace, Berlin to Prince Frederick William of Prussia and his wife, Victoria, Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of Britains Queen Victoria. At the time of his birth, his great-uncle Frederick William IV was king of Prussia, a traumatic breech birth left him with a withered left arm due to Erbs palsy, which he tried with some success to conceal. His left arm was about 6 inches shorter than his right arm, historians have suggested that this disability affected his emotional development. In 1863, Wilhelm was taken to England to be present at the wedding of his Uncle Bertie, William attended the ceremony in a Highland costume, complete with a small toy dirk. During the ceremony the four-year-old became restless and his eighteen-year-old uncle Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, charged with keeping an eye on him, told him to be quiet, but Wilhelm drew his dirk and threatened Alfred. When Alfred attempted to subdue him by force, Wilhelm bit him on the leg and his grandmother, Queen Victoria, missed seeing the fracas, to her Wilhelm remained a clever, dear, good little child, the great favourite of my beloved Vicky. His mother, Vicky, was obsessed with his damaged arm and she blamed herself for the childs handicap and insisted that he become a good rider. The thought that he, as heir to the throne, should not be able to ride was intolerable to her, riding lessons began when Wilhelm was eight and were a matter of endurance for Wilhelm. Over and over, the prince was set on his horse. He fell off time after time but despite his tears was set on its back again, after weeks of this he finally got it right and was able to maintain his balance. Wilhelm, from six years of age, was tutored and heavily influenced by the 39-year-old teacher Georg Hinzpeter, Hinzpeter, he later wrote, was really a good fellow. Whether he was the tutor for me, I dare not decide. The torments inflicted on me, in this riding, must be attributed to my mother. As a teenager he was educated at Kassel at the Friedrichsgymnasium, in January 1877, Wilhelm finished high school and on his eighteenth birthday received as a present from his grandmother, Queen Victoria, the Order of the Garter. After Kassel he spent four terms at the University of Bonn, studying law and he became a member of the exclusive Corps Borussia Bonn
16.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
17.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
18.
National Socialist Motor Corps
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The National Socialist Motor Corps was a paramilitary organization of the Nazi Party that officially existed from May 1931 to 1945. The group was an organization to the older National Socialist Automobile Corps. The NSKK served as an organization, mainly instructing members in the operation. The NSKK was further used to transport NSDAP and SA officials/members, the NSKK also served as a roadside assistance group in the mid-1930s, comparable to the modern-day American Automobile Association or the British Automobile Association. With the outbreak of World War II NSKK ranks were recruited to serve in the corps of various German military branches. There was also a French section of the NSKK which was organized after the German occupation of France began in 1940, the NSKK was the smallest of the Nazi Party organizations. The National Socialist Motor Corps was an organization to the older National Socialist Automobile Corps. Martin Bormann founded the NSAK, which itself was the successor to the SA Motor Squadrons, Hitler made the NSAK an official Nazi organization on 1 April 1930. The NSAK was responsible for co-ordinating the donated use of vehicles belonging to party members. Adolf Hühnlein was appointed the leader of the NSAK which was to primarily as a motorized corps of the Sturmabteilung. The organizations name was changed to the National Socialist Motor Corps and it was essentially a paramilitary organization with its own system of paramilitary ranks and the smallest of the NSDAP organizations. Despite its relatively smaller size, when the Nazis celebrated Braunschweiger SA-day on 18 October 1931, the primary aim of the Corps was to educate its members in motoring skills or what the NSKK called fitness in motoring skills, but it also transported NSDAP and SA officials. In the mid-1930s, the NSKK also served as a roadside assistance group, membership in the NSKK did not require any prior knowledge of automobiles. It was thought that training in the NSKK would make up for any lack of knowledge. The NSKK did, however, adhere to Nazi racial doctrine, under the guidance of the police, numerous NSKK men were stationed at traffic junctions and trained in traffic control. On 20 July 1934, three weeks after the major purge the SA suffered during the Night of the Long Knives, from 1935 onward, the NSKK also provided training for Panzer crews and drivers of the German Army. The NSKK had two branches within the organization known as the Motor-Hitler Youth and Naval NSKK. The Motor-HJ branch was formed by Youth Leader Baldur von Schirach after he became a member of the NSKK and it operated 350 of its own vehicles for educational and training purposes
19.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
20.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
21.
Allied-occupied Germany
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The four powers divided Germany into four occupation zones for administrative purposes, into what is collectively known now as Allied-occupied Germany. This division was ratified at the Potsdam Conference, in Autumn 1944 the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had agreed on the zones by the London Protocol. The Final German Peace Treaty would result in the westward of Polands borders back to approximately as they were before 1722. In the closing weeks of fighting in Europe, United States forces had pushed beyond the boundaries for the future zones of occupation. The so-called line of contact between Soviet and American forces at the end of hostilities, mostly lying eastward of the July 1945-established inner German border was temporary. After two months in which they had areas that had been assigned to the Soviet zone. All territories annexed by Germany before the war from Austria and Czechoslovakia were returned to these countries, the Memel Territory, annexed by Germany from Lithuania before the war, was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1945 and transferred to the Lithuanian SSR. All territories annexed by Germany during the war from Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Poland, the American zone consisted of Bavaria and Hesse in Southern Germany, and the northern portions of the present-day German state of Baden-Württemberg. The ports of Bremen and Bremerhaven were also placed under American control because of the American request to have certain toeholds in Northern Germany, the headquarters of the American military government was the former IG Farben Building in Frankfurt am Main. Beginning in May 1945, many of the American combat troops and airmen in, Army, the Army Air Forces, and the U. S. Navy upon their return home. The Canadian Army was tied down in surrounding the Netherlands until the Germans there surrendered on 5 May 1945 – just two days before the surrender of the Wehrmacht in Western Europe to U. S. Then in July 1945, the British Army withdrew from small slices of Germany that had previously agreed to be occupied by the Soviet Army. Within the British Zone of Occupation, the CCG/BE re-established the German state of Hamburg, also in 1947, the German state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen became an exclave of the American Zone of Occupation located within the British Zone. In 1946, the Norwegian Brigade Group in Germany had 4,000 soldiers in Hanover, despite its being one of the Allied Powers, the French Republic was at first not granted an occupation zone in Germany. This created a French zone of occupation in the westernmost part of Germany and it consisted of two barely contiguous areas of Germany along the French border that met at just a single point along the Rhine River. It included the Saargebiet, which was disentangled from it on 16 February 1946, by 18 December 1946 customs controls were established between the Saar area and allied occupied Germany. The French zone ceded further adjacent municipalities to the Saar, included in the French zone was the town of Büsingen am Hochrhein, a German exclave separated from the rest of the country by a narrow strip of neutral Swiss territory. The Swiss government agreed to limited numbers of French troops to pass through its territory in order to maintain law
22.
West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany
23.
NSU Motorenwerke
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NSU Motorenwerke AG, or NSU, was a German manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles and pedal cycles, founded in 1873. Acquired by Volkswagen Group in 1969, VW merged NSU with Auto Union, creating Audi NSU Auto Union AG, the name NSU originated as an abbreviation of Neckarsulm, the city where NSU was located. The business relocated in 1880 to Neckarsulm, there followed a period of rapid growth and in 1886, the company began to produce bicycles, the first of them a high wheeler or Penny-farthing branded as the Germania. By 1892, bicycle manufacturing had completely replaced knitting machine production, at about this time, the name NSU appeared as a brand name. The first NSU motorcycle appeared in 1901, followed by the first NSU car in 1905, from 1957, NSU-Fiat cars assumed the brand name Neckar. During World War II NSU produced the Kettenkrad, the NSU HK101 and they also made the 251 OSL motorcycle during the war. In December 1946, Das Auto reported the company had resumed the manufacture of bicycles and motor-bicycles at Neckarsulm, the first postwar model was the NSU Fox in 1949, available in 2-stroke and 4-stroke versions. In 1953, the NSU Max followed, a 250 cc motorbike with a unique overhead camdrive with connecting rods, all these new models had an innovative monocoque frame of pressed steel and a central rear suspension unit. Albert Roder, the engineer behind the success story, made it possible that in 1955. NSU also holds four world records for speed,1951,1953,1954, in August 1956, Wilhelm Herz at the Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah, became the first man to ride a motorcycle faster than 200 mph. In 1957, NSU re-entered the car market with the new Prinz, a car with a doubled NSU Max engine. NSUs last production motorcycle was the Quick 50, in 1964, NSU offered the worlds first Wankel engined car, the Wankelspider. In development of the project, NSU built the Sport Prinz, in the same year Prinz 1000 and derivatives like the TT and TT/S followed. The Typ 110 was launched in 1965 as a car with a more spacious body design. The last NSU cars with a conventional four-stroke engine had the air-cooled OHC four-cylinder engine in common, the car was marketed in the U. K. In 1967, the four-door NSU Ro 80, with a 115 hp version of the same 2-rotor, was presented to the public. Weighing 1,200 kg, it had a Cd of 0.36, disc brakes, independent suspension and it soon gained several design awards such as car of the year 1967, while drivers liked its performance. Virtually all the major motor manufacturers purchased licenses from NSU to develop and produce the rotary engine
24.
Volkswagen Beetle
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Hitler contracted Ferdinand Porsche in 1934 to design and build it. Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design, the influence on Porsches design of other contemporary cars, such as the Tatra V570 and the work of Josef Ganz remains a subject of dispute. The result was one of the first rear-engined cars since the Brass Era, with 21,529,464 produced, the Beetle is the longest-running and most-manufactured car of a single platform ever made. Although designed in the 1930s, the Beetle was only produced in significant numbers from 1945 on when the model was designated the Volkswagen Type 1. Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200,1300,1500,1302 or 1303, the model became widely known in its home country as the Käfer and was later marketed as such in Germany, and as the Volkswagen in other countries. For example, in France it was known as the Coccinelle, the original 25 hp Beetle was designed for a top speed around 100 km/h, which would be a viable speed on the Reichsautobahn system. As Autobahn speeds increased in the years, its output was boosted to 36, then 40 hp. The Beetle ultimately gave rise to variants, including the Karmann Ghia, Type 2, the 1948 Citroën 2CV and other European models marked a later trend to front-wheel drive in the European small car market, a trend that would come to dominate that market. In 1974, Volkswagens own front-wheel drive Golf model succeeded the Beetle and it remained in production through 2010, being succeeded in 2011 by the more aggressively styled Beetle. In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the worlds most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS. In April 1934, Adolf Hitler gave the order to Ferdinand Porsche to develop a Volkswagen, the epithet Volks- literally, peoples- had been applied to other Nazi-sponsored consumer goods such as the Volksempfänger. The engine had to be powerful for sustained cruising on Germany’s new Autobahnen, everything had to be designed to ensure parts could be quickly and inexpensively exchanged. The engine had to be air-cooled because, as Hitler explained, the Peoples Car would be available to citizens of Nazi Germany through a savings scheme, or Sparkarte, at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle. Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or Auto für Jedermann for Zündapp in 1931, Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension, while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932, three prototypes were running, all of those cars were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945. The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for NSU Motorenwerke AG, the Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSUs exit from car manufacturing resulted in the Type 32 being abandoned at the prototype stage, initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included Erwin Komenda and Karl Rabe. In October 1935, the first two Type 60 prototypes, known as the V1 and V2, were ready, in 1936, testing began of three further V3 prototypes, built in Porsches Stuttgart shop
25.
German reunification
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The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October. Following German reunification, Berlin was once designated as the capital of united Germany. The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungarys border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain and it caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The united Germany is the continuation of the Federal Republic. For political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term reunification during the run-up to what Germans frequently refer to as die Wende, after 1990, the term die Wende became more common. The term generally refers to the events led up to the actual reunification, in its usual context. When referring to the events surrounding unification, however, it carries the connotation of the time. However, anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term Wende as it was introduced by SEDs Secretary General Egon Krenz, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupied sectors of control, under the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Germans lived under such imposed divisions throughout the ensuing Cold War, into the 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced a period of economic and political stagnation, and they correspondingly decreased intervention in Eastern Bloc politics. In 1987, US President Ronald Reagan gave a speech at Brandenburg Gate challenging Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down this wall that had separated Berlin. The wall had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that Churchill had referred to as the Iron Curtain. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of glasnost, perestroika and taken to more progressive levels by Gorbachev. Further inspired by images of brave defiance, a wave of revolutions swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence and thousands of East Germans escaped to the West, however, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the Party of Democratic Socialism—the former Socialist Unity Party of Germany—was heavily defeated in East Germanys first free elections. A grand coalition was formed under Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German wing of Kohls Christian Democratic Union, on a platform of speedy reunification, second, East Germanys economy and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. While East Germany had long been reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the East German mark had been practically worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–90 further magnified the problem. Discussions immediately began for a merger of the German economies
26.
Volkswagen Touran
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The Volkswagen Touran is a compact MPV based on a vertically stretched fifth generation Volkswagen Golf Mk5, and sold in Europe and other select markets. It was launched in 2003 to fill a gap in Volkswagens model lineup, the vehicle is delivered in five- or seven-seat versions. It can be considered a version of the Golf Plus, since their front ends are similar in size. In some regions, such as Japan, the car is called Golf Touran, the name Touran derives from the combination of Tour and Sharan, the bigger MPV by VW. Despite the similarity of their names, the Touran is not related to the North American-market Volkswagen Routan, the Touran, launched in 2003, is the first Volkswagen MPV based on a Golf platform. It joined Volkswagens existing MPV line-up that included the Sharan and Caravelle, the Touran introduced electro-mechanical steering, a first in its class and for Volkswagen. It is able to vary the weight of the steering depending on the road speed, due to the lack of energy consumption in idle it also improves the overall efficiency of the vehicle. The Touran was the first vehicle to use Volkswagens 2.0 TDI engine, the engines available at the launch included a 1.6 FSI and two diesel engines, the 1.9 TDI with 74 kW and the 2.0 TDI103 kW. The engines are EURO4 compliant, except the 1.9 TDi when paired with the DSG, the Touran launched with a six-speed manual gearbox as standard and a DSG for the 1.9 TDI Engines. The initial test of the Touran in 2003 resulted in a rating for adult protection. Volkswagen made slight changes to the Touran from November 2003, adding an intelligent reminder for the driver, the 2007 model year Touran was the first production vehicle in the Volkswagen Group to be released with the new Park Assist technology. Park Assist helps the driver parallel park the vehicle, firstly, after having activated the feature and whilst travelling up to 30 km/h Park Assist uses sensors to attempt to identify a suitable parking spot. At the December 2006 Bologna Motor Show, Volkswagen released the third Cross vehicle designed by Volkswagen Individual GmbH, all CrossTouran engines are EU4 compliant. The aerodynamics of the car were also improved, the Cw improved from 0, at the end of 2010 Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive released the new Touran in China. Though its front was updated to the German style, the keeps the design of the phase II model. The electronic systems of this domestically produced car were upgraded as its relative in Europe, a 1.4 TSI which can output 93 kW was added to the new model. New engines were available following the trend, a 1.2 with 77 kW. They replaced the 1.6 and 1.9 TDI from the previous model, the 1.2,77 kW and 1.6 TDI77 kW were also available as BlueMotion, Volkswagens low fuel consumption vehicle program
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Road Safety Foundation
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The Road Safety Foundation is a UK based charity which carries out and procures research into safe road design and road safety. The Foundation is responsible for the European Road Assessment Program in the UK, the Foundation began in 1986 as the AA Foundation for Road Safety Research by the AA while it was still a member owned institution. The charity became the Road Safety Foundation following the sale of The AA by Centrica to CVC, in January 2008 Lord Dubs spoke of his interest in Road Safety and the Foundation in a debate on Road Safety. The Foundation has a legacy of research going back to its inception in the mid-1980s, Research covers a wide range of road safety related subjects including the causes of accidents in young pedestrians, risk and safety in the older driver and a review of tyres and road surfaces. Since 2003 the work of the Foundation has focused on EuroRAP in the UK, the Foundation is the Active Member and licence holder for the European Road Assessment Programme in Britain and Ireland. The Foundation regularly issues the list of safest and most dangerous roads in Britain, in 2008 the Foundation released its latest results for Britain, naming the A537 Macclesfield to Buxton road as the most dangerous road in Britain. The results also featured in an edition of Police Camera Action, in May 2008 the Foundation also released the latest Risk Rating results for Ireland, reporting that the Ireland network no longer featured any roads in the highest risk banding. In the Republic of Ireland the N53 was identified as a priority for action to improve road safety, the Road Safety Foundation is the lead partner in the campaign. 5% of GDP. The Road Safety Foundation is the partner in the UK. Road Safety EuroRAP Campaign for Safe Road Design Alf Dubs European Campaign for Safe Road Design Official Website Charity Commission, Road Safety Foundation, registered charity no.295573. EuroRAP Campaign for Safe Road Design
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European Commission
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Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
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Breakdown (vehicle)
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Vehicle breakdowns can occur for a large number of reasons. Depending on the nature of the problem, the vehicle may or may not need to be towed to a repair shop. A breakdown is also referred to when a car stalls on the road, a vehicle stalls for a number of reasons ranging from a dead car battery, fuel pump, poor quality fuel, faulty electrical wiring, fuel pressure problems, overlooked leaks or missing caps. There are various levels of a vehicles disability, a total breakdown is when the vehicle becomes totally immobile and cannot be driven even a short distance to reach a repair shop, thereby necessitating a tow. This can occur for a variety of reasons, including engine failure, or a dead starter or battery. When a total breakdown occurs, the motorist may be able to have the service paid for by an assistance plan. Often, when this occurs, it may be possible to drive the vehicle to a garage, some common causes of a partial breakdown include overheating, brake failure, or frequent stalling. In 2014 The Royal Automobile Club attended almost 2 million breakdowns in the United Kingdom, Battery problems were the most common cause of a car breakdown, accounting for more than 450,000 call-outs. These include grinding brakes, rough idle, or poor shock absorption, vehicle recovery Battery Car insurance Car warranty Emergency road service Tow truck
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Roadside assistance
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Roadside assistance and breakdown coverage are services that assist motorists, or bicyclists, whose vehicles have suffered a mechanical failure that leaves the operator stranded. Early motorists were often capable of carrying out minor repairs themselves, but as automobiles became more complicated, some early local motoring clubs tried to support their members by encouraging them to help each other. A rota of members who would help other members was kept and in some cases, in the UK, the Royal Automobile Club and The Automobile Association offering repair services to their members on the spot, or a tow to a local garage or the drivers home if nearby. The Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club in Germany began to offer a service in 1927. The American Automobile Association was formed in 1902 and later merged with its Canadian company, many of these associations are membership-based clubs and provide services to assist members through the use of fleet assistance vehicles. In the case of the UK AA, these were traditionally motorcycle-mounted prior to the introduction of vans, when communication technology and availability made it practical, a network of emergency phone boxes, placed at intervals by the roadside, was introduced in some countries. In recent years, the ownership of mobile phones has, to a large degree. Some automobile manufacturers also offer assistance for their customers, sometimes for free for some period after the purchase of a new vehicle. Many of these patrols work directly with the State Police and Highway Operations departments of their state, breakdown Car safety Motor club Vehicle Recovery
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German National Library of Economics
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The ZBW is Germany’s central subject library and research infrastructure for economics in Germany. The ZBW is part of the system of national literature provision within the German Research Foundation, the ZBW holds almost 4.4 million items. The ZBW subscribes to more than 27,100 journals and enables access to 2.3 million electronic documents, the search portal EconBiz gives free access to 10 million datasets. More than 134,000 full-texts from German research institutes and universities are available online, the ZBW creates content-descriptive metadata not only for books, but also for articles in journals and working papers, i. e. they are indexed with keywords from the Standard Thesaurus for Economics. The ZBW maintains the search portal EconBiz containing more than 10 million datasets of bibliographic references for economics, the ZBW also offers an online reference service, Research Guide EconDesk, which provides guidance for literature and data searches in economics and business studies. The ZBW is a player in the Open Access movement which aims for free access to scholarly research output. It is the negotiator for national licences in economics in Germany. The repository EconStor serves as a platform for the publication of research output in economics. Authors and publishing institutions can publish without charges on EconStor, more than 400 institutions use EconStor for the digital dissemination of their publications in Open Access. It is a service for RePEc and one of its most frequently used archives. All titles in EconStor are indexed by search engines such as Google, Google Scholar and BASE, the ZBW Journal Data Archive is a service for the editors of scholarly journals in economics. Editors can deposit datasets and other relating to empirical articles. The ZBW publishes two journals of economic policy, Wirtschaftsdienst and Intereconomics, the ZBW also provides support for researchers dealing with the different aspects of the digitisation of the science system, such as publishing in Open Access or research data management. The ZBW participates in national and international projects to new services for its users. GeRDI – Generic Research Data Infrastructure, the project aims to develop a distributed and linked-up research data infrastructure. It aims to link existing and future research data centres all over Germany. This allows scientists to search for and re-use research data across disciplines, the ZBW coordinates the project which is funded by the German Research Foundation. It aims to show that extensive automation of metadata creation can produce relevant added value to scholarly information discovery, metrics, MEasuring The Reliability and perception of Indicators for interactions with sCientific productS
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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The dictionary definition of ADAC at Wiktionary
