1.
Raytheon
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The Raytheon Company is a major U. S. defense contractor and industrial corporation with core manufacturing concentrations in weapons and military and commercial electronics. It was previously involved in corporate and special-mission aircraft until early 2007, Raytheon is the worlds largest producer of guided missiles. Established in 1922, the company reincorporated in 1928 and adopted its present name in 1959, the company has around 63,000 employees worldwide and annual revenues of approximately US$25 billion. More than 90% of Raytheons revenues were obtained from military contracts and, as of 2012, as of 2015, it is the third largest defense contractor in the United States by defense revenue. Raytheons headquarters moved from Lexington, Massachusetts, to Waltham, Massachusetts and its focus, which was originally on new refrigeration technology, soon shifted to electronics. The companys first product was a rectifier that was based on Charles Smiths earlier astronomical research of the star Zeta Puppis. The electron tube was christened with the name Raytheon and was used in a battery eliminator and this made it possible to convert household alternating current to direct current for radios and thus eliminate the need for expensive, short-lived batteries. In 1925, the changed its name to Raytheon Manufacturing Company and began marketing its rectifier, under the Raytheon brand name. In 1928 Raytheon merged with Q. R. S, Company, an American manufacturer of electron tubes and switches, to form the successor of the same name, Raytheon Manufacturing Company. In 1933 it diversified by acquiring Acme-Delta Company, a producer of transformers, power equipment, by the 1930s, it had already grown to become one of the worlds largest vacuum tube manufacturing companies. Within a few months of being awarded the contract, Raytheon had already begun to mass manufacture magnetron tubes for use in radar sets, at wars end in 1945 the company was responsible for about 80 percent of all magnetrons manufactured. During the war Raytheon also pioneered the production of radar systems. Raytheon ranked 71st among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, Raytheons research on the magnetron tube revealed the potential of microwaves to cook food. In 1945, Raytheons Percy Spencer invented the microwave oven by discovering that the magnetron could rapidly heat food, in 1947, the company demonstrated the Radarange microwave oven for commercial use. In 1945, the company expanded its electronics capability through acquisitions that included the Submarine Signal Company, with its broadened capabilities, Raytheon developed the first guidance system for a missile that could intercept a flying target. In 1948, Raytheon began to manufacture guided missiles, in 1950, its Lark missile became the first such weapon to destroy a target aircraft in flight. Raytheon then received military contracts to develop the air-to-air Sparrow and ground-to-air Hawk missiles—projects that received impetus from the Korean War, in later decades, it remained a major producer of missiles, among them the Patriot antimissile missile and the air-to-air Phoenix missile. In the same year, it changed its name to Raytheon Company, in the 1950s, Raytheon began manufacturing transistors, including the CK722, priced and marketed to hobbyists
2.
Ford Aerospace
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Ford Aerospace was the aerospace and defense division of Ford Motor Company. It was based in Newport Beach, Orange County, California, the company was established in 1956. It was renamed to Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation in 1976, the 99 acres Engineering and Research Center campus was located on Jamboree Road at Ford Road, overlooking the Santa Catalina Strait of the Pacific Ocean in Newport Beach. The facilitys master plan and main buildings were designed by Modernist architect William Pereira in 1958, the company included, Space Systems Division and the Western Development Labs in Palo Alto, California with Aeronutronic at the Newport Beach site. A partial company timeline includes,1956 Aeronutronic becomes a Ford Motor Company division,1961 Ford Motor Company acquires Philco Corporation, later named Philco-Ford Corporation. 1963 Ford Motor Company folds Aeronutronic into Philco, strengthening Ford Motor Companys overall participation in space,1975 Philco-Ford becomes Aeronutronic Ford Corporation 1976 Aeronutronic Ford Corporation becomes Ford Aerospace & Communications Corporation. 1981 FACC starts new sister division to Aeroneutronics in Southern California named DIVAD for the production of the M247 Sgt, York armor tracked vehicle which incorporated F-15 search-and-track radar directed twin 40 mm Bofors gun systems in Newport Beach and Lake Forest, CA. Divad division dissolved in 1984 when Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger canceled the production contract and all existing Sgt. York units were dismantled for scrap
3.
Continuous-rod warhead
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A continuous-rod warhead is a specialized munition that exhibits an annular blast fragmentation pattern, so that when it explodes it spreads into a large circle that cuts the target. It is used in anti-aircraft and anti-missile missiles, rifle and machine-gun bullets were used against early military aircraft during World War I. Artillery was used when aircraft flew above the range of rifle, similar anti-aircraft weaponry with larger calibers, higher rates of fire, and improved fuzes continued to be used through World War II. These bullets and small fragments often made small holes in the airframe, unless the bullet struck the pilot, the engine fuel or cooling system, or a wire or hydraulic line actuating control surfaces, the aircraft remained operational. Some anti-aircraft artillery projectiles were designed to fragment into long, thin pieces in an attempt to damage on the airframe. The problem became more significant as anti-aircraft missiles were developed to replace guns after World War II, some early AA missiles had nuclear warheads to increase the probability of aircraft destruction. The concept of a folded continuous rod warhead was suggested in 1952, an even number of individual steel rods are arranged in parallel to form a cylinder. The ends of the rods are welded together—the first rod and the rod are welded together at the top, the second and third at the bottom. When detonated, the high explosive imparts momentum to the rods, at some intermediate point the ring will have a zig-zag appearance within a cylindrical envelope. Upon ultimate expansion the ring is circular and contained within a plane, the ring will then break and ultimately tend to form one or more straight rods. Since the net momentum of the rod relative to the missile is roughly zero its effectiveness will rapidly diminish as the ring expands. This rapidly expanding ring, when hitting the aircraft, can be effective than an equivalent fragmentation warhead. This may cause a failure, or, if not. The effect is pronounced as long as the ring is unbroken
4.
Solid-propellant rocket
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A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants. The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder, they were used in warfare by the Chinese, Indians, Mongols and Persians, all rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are used today in model rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability. Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for periods, and then reliably launch on short notice. Solids are, however, frequently used as boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as launch vehicles for low Earth orbit payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500 kilograms. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain, the grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can not only be throttled but also be extinguished, also, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments and that can be ignited upon command are available. Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel/oxidizer mass, grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics. The following are chosen or solved simultaneously, the results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries, The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure. The chamber pressure is determined by the orifice diameter and grain burn rate. Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design, the length of burn time is determined by the grain web thickness. The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing, case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible. Common modes of failure in rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding. All of these produce an increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure. Another failure mode is casing seal failure, seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and this was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
5.
Mile
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The mile is an English unit of length of linear measure equal to 5,280 feet, or 1,760 yards, and standardised as exactly 1,609.344 metres by international agreement in 1959. The Romans divided their mile into 5,000 feet but the importance of furlongs in pre-modern England meant that the statute mile was made equivalent to 8 furlongs or 5,280 feet in 1593. This form of the mile then spread to the British-colonized nations who continue to employ the mile, the US Geological Survey now employs the metre for official purposes but legacy data from its 1927 geodetic datum has meant that a separate US survey mile continues to see some use. Derived units such as miles per hour and miles per gallon, however, continue to be abbreviated as mph, mpg. The modern English word mile derives from Middle English myl and Old English mīl, the present international mile is usually what is understood by the unqualified term mile. When this distance needs to be distinguished from the nautical mile, in British English, the statute mile may refer to the present international miles or to any other form of English mile since the 1593 Act of Parliament which set it as a distance of 1,760 yards. Under American law, however, the statute mile refers to the US survey mile, the mile has been variously abbreviated—with and without a trailing period—as m, M, ml, and mi. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology now uses and recommends mi in order to avoid confusion with the SI metre and millilitre. Derived units such as miles per hour and miles per gallon, however, continue to be abbreviated in the United States, United Kingdom, the BBC style holds that There is no acceptable abbreviation for ‘miles’ and so it should be spelt out when used in describing areas. The Roman mile consisted of a thousand paces as measured by every other step—as in the distance of the left foot hitting the ground 1,000 times. The ancient Romans, marching their armies through uncharted territory, would push a carved stick in the ground after each 1000 paces. Well-fed and harshly driven Roman legionaries in good weather thus created longer miles, the distance was indirectly standardised by Agrippas establishment of a standard Roman foot in 29 BC, and the definition of a pace as 5 feet. An Imperial Roman mile thus denoted 5,000 Roman feet, surveyors and specialized equipment such as the decempeda and dioptra then spread its use. In modern times, Agrippas Imperial Roman mile was empirically estimated to have been about 1,481 metres in length, in Hellenic areas of the Empire, the Roman mile was used beside the native Greek units as equivalent to 8 stadia of 600 Greek feet. The mílion continued to be used as a Byzantine unit and was used as the name of the zero mile marker for the Byzantine Empire. The Roman mile also spread throughout Europe, with its local variations giving rise to the different units below, also arising from the Roman mile is the milestone. All roads radiated out from the Roman Forum throughout the Empire –50,000 miles of stone-paved roads, at every mile was placed a shaped stone, on which was carved a Roman numeral, indicating the number of miles from the center of Rome – the Forum. Hence, one knew how far one was from Rome
6.
Kilometre
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The kilometre or kilometer is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one thousand metres. K is occasionally used in some English-speaking countries as an alternative for the kilometre in colloquial writing. A slang term for the kilometre in the US military is klick, there are two common pronunciations for the word. It is generally preferred by the British Broadcasting Corporation and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, many scientists and other users, particularly in countries where the metric system is not widely used, use the pronunciation with stress on the second syllable. The latter pronunciation follows the pattern used for the names of measuring instruments. The problem with this reasoning, however, is that the meter in those usages refers to a measuring device. The contrast is more obvious in countries using the British rather than American spelling of the word metre. When Australia introduced the system in 1975, the first pronunciation was declared official by the governments Metric Conversion Board. However, the Australian prime minister at the time, Gough Whitlam, by the 8 May 1790 decree, the Constituent assembly ordered the French Academy of Sciences to develop a new measurement system. In August 1793, the French National Convention decreed the metre as the length measurement system in the French Republic. The first name of the kilometre was Millaire, although the metre was formally defined in 1799, the myriametre was preferred to the kilometre for everyday use. The term myriamètre appeared a number of times in the text of Develeys book Physique dEmile, ou, Principes de la de la nature. French maps published in 1835 had scales showing myriametres and lieues de Poste, the Dutch, on the other hand, adopted the kilometre in 1817 but gave it the local name of the mijl. It was only in 1867 that the term became the only official unit of measure in the Netherlands to represent 1000 metres. In the US, the National Highway System Designation Act of 1995 prohibits the use of highway funds to convert existing signs or purchase new signs with metric units. Although the State DOTs had the option of using metric measurements or dual units, all of them abandoned metric measurements, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices since 2000 is published in both metric and American Customary Units. Some sporting disciplines feature 1000 m races in major events, but in other disciplines, even though records are catalogued
7.
Mach number
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In fluid dynamics, the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound. M = u c, where, M is the Mach number, u is the flow velocity with respect to the boundaries. By definition, Mach 1 is equal to the speed of sound, Mach 0.65 is 65% of the speed of sound, and Mach 1.35 is 35% faster than the speed of sound. The local speed of sound, and thereby the Mach number, depends on the condition of the surrounding medium, the Mach number is primarily used to determine the approximation with which a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. The medium can be a gas or a liquid, the boundary can be the boundary of an object immersed in the medium, or of a channel such as a nozzle, diffusers or wind tunnels channeling the medium. As the Mach number is defined as the ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number, if M <0. 2–0.3 and the flow is quasi-steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and simplified incompressible flow equations can be used. The Mach number is named after Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, as the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with Mach, the number comes after the unit, the second Mach number is Mach 2 instead of 2 Mach. This is somewhat reminiscent of the modern ocean sounding unit mark, which was also unit-first. In the decade preceding faster-than-sound human flight, aeronautical engineers referred to the speed of sound as Machs number, never Mach 1, Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar manner at a given Mach number, regardless of other variables. As modeled in the International Standard Atmosphere, dry air at sea level, standard temperature of 15 °C. For example, the atmosphere model lapses temperature to −56.5 °C at 11,000 meters altitude. In the following table, the regimes or ranges of Mach values are referred to, generally, NASA defines high hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, and re-entry speeds as anything greater than Mach 25. Aircraft operating in this include the Space Shuttle and various space planes in development. Flight can be classified in six categories, For comparison. At transonic speeds, the field around the object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M >1 flow appear around the object, in case of an airfoil, this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to only in a normal shock. As the speed increases, the zone of M >1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges
8.
Infrared homing
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Infrared homing is a passive weapon guidance system which uses the infrared light emission from a target to track and follow it. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to as heat-seekers, many objects such as people, vehicle engines and aircraft generate and emit heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background. Infrared seekers are passive devices, which, unlike radar, provide no indication that they are tracking a target and this makes them suitable for sneak attacks during visual encounters, or over longer ranges when used with a forward looking infrared system or similar cuing system. This makes heat-seekers extremely deadly, 90% of all United States air combat losses over the past 25 years have been due to infrared-homing missiles and they are, however, subject to a number of simple countermeasures, most notably dropping flares behind the target to provide false heat sources. This only works if the pilot is aware of the missile, the first IR devices were experimented with in the pre-World War II era. During the war, German engineers were working on heat seeking missiles and proximity fuses, truly practical designs did not become possible until the introduction of conical scanning and miniaturized vacuum tubes during the war. These early examples had significant limitations and achieved very low rates in combat during the 1960s. A new generation developed in the 1970s and 80s made great strides, the latest examples from the 1990s and on have the ability to attack targets out of their field of view, behind them, and even pick out vehicles on the ground. The infrared sensor package on the tip or head of a missile is known as the seeker head. The NATO brevity code for an air-to-air infrared-guided missile launch is Fox Two, there was little application at the time, and he allowed his 1904 patent to lapse. Nevertheless, it was used for time by the US Navy as a secure communications system. In 1930 the introduction of the Ag-O-Cs photomultiplier provided the first practical solution to the detection of IR, amplifying the signal emitted by the galena, the photomultiplier produced a useful output that could be used for detection of hot objects at long ranges. This sparked developments in a number of nations, notably the UK, eventually they dissolved the Committee and reformed, leaving Lindemann off the roster, and filling his position with well known radio expert Edward Victor Appleton. In Germany, radar research was not given nearly the same level of support as in the UK, IR research was led primarily by Edgar Kutzscher at the University of Berlin working in concert with AEG. This provided enough light to see the target at short range and these proved largely useless in practice and the pilots complained that the target often only became visible at 200 metres, at which point they would have seen it anyway. Only 15 were built and were removed as German airborne radar systems improved though 1942, AEG had been working with the same systems for use on tanks, and deployed a number of models through the war, with limited production of the FG1250 beginning in 1943. This work culminated in the Zielgerät 1229 Vampir riflescope which was used with the StG44 assault rifle for night use, the devices mentioned previously were all detectors, not seekers. They produce either a signal indicating the direction of the target, or in the case of later devices
9.
Semi-active radar homing
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Semi-active radar homing is a common type of missile guidance system, perhaps the most common type for longer-range air-to-air and surface-to-air missile systems. The name refers to the fact that the missile itself is only a passive detector of a radar signal – provided by an external source — as it reflects off the target, semi-active missile systems use bistatic continuous-wave radar. The NATO brevity code for a semi-active radar homing missile launch is Fox One, the basic concept of SARH is that since almost all detection and tracking systems consist of a radar system, duplicating this hardware on the missile itself is redundant. The weight of a transmitter reduces the range of any flying object, additionally, the missile will listen rearward to the launch platforms transmitted signal as a reference, enabling it to avoid some kinds of radar jamming distractions offered by the target. The SARH system determines the closing velocity using the flight path geometry shown in Figure 1, the closing velocity is used to set the frequency location for the CW receive signal shown at the bottom of the diagram. Antenna offset angle of the antenna is set after the target is acquired by the missile seeker using the spectrum location set using closing speed. The missile seeker antenna is a radar receiver that produces angle error measurements using that fixed position. Flight path is controlled by producing navigation input to the system using angle errors produced by the antenna. This steers the body of the missile to hold the target near the centerline of the antenna while the antenna is held in a fixed position, the offset angle geometry is determined by flight dynamics using missile speed, target speed, and separation distance. Techniques are nearly identical using jamming signals, optical guidance video, maximum range is increased in SARH systems using navigation data in the homing vehicle to increase the travel distance before antenna tracking is needed for terminal guidance. Navigation relies on data, gyroscopic data, and global positioning data. This maximizes distance by minimizing corrective maneuvers that waste flight energy, in the SARH system the missile listens for the reflected signal at the nose, and is still responsible for providing some sort of “lead” guidance. The disadvantages of beam riding are twofold, One is that a signal is “fan shaped”, growing larger. Reduced accuracy means the missile must use a large warhead to be effective. Another requirement is that a beam riding system must accurately track the target at speeds, typically requiring one radar for tracking. The SARH system needs only one set to a wider pattern. Modern SARH systems use continuous-wave radar for guidance, even though most modern fighter radars are pulse Doppler sets, most have a CW function to guide radar missiles. A few Soviet aircraft, such as versions of the MiG-23 and MiG-27
10.
Air-to-air missile
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An air-to-air missile is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft. AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocket motors, usually solid fueled, ramjet engines, as used on the Meteor are emerging as propulsion that will enable future medium-range missiles to maintain higher average speed across their engagement envelope. Air-to-air missiles are broadly put in two groups, most use infrared guidance and are called heat-seeking missiles. In contrast, medium- or long-range missiles, which fall under the category of beyond visual range missiles, tend to rely upon radar guidance. Some modern ones use inertial guidance and/or mid-course updates to get the missile close enough to use an active homing sensor, the air-to-air missile grew out of the unguided air-to-air rockets used during the First World War. Le Prieur rockets were attached to the struts of biplanes and fired electrically, usually against observation balloons, by such early pilots as Albert Ball. Post-war research led the Royal Air Force to introduce Fairey Fireflash into service in 1955, the US Navy and US Air Force began equipping guided missiles in 1956, deploying the USAFs AIM-4 Falcon and the USNs AIM-7 Sparrow and AIM-9 Sidewinder. The Soviet Air Force introduced its K-5 into service in 1957, as missile systems have continued to advance, modern air warfare consists almost entirely of missile firing. The use of Beyond Visual Range combat became so pervasive in the US that early F-4 variants were armed only with missiles in the 1960s. High casualty rates during the Vietnam War caused the US to reintroduce autocannons and traditional dogfighting tactics, in the Falklands War British Harriers, using AIM-9L missiles were able to defeat faster Argentinian opponents. Since the late 20th century all-aspect heat-seeking designs can lock-on to a target from angles, not just from behind. Other types rely on radar guidance, a conventional explosive blast warhead, fragmentation warhead, or continuous rod warhead is typically used in the attempt to disable or destroy the target aircraft. Warheads are typically detonated by a proximity fuze or by an impact if it scores a direct hit. Less commonly, nuclear warheads have been mounted on a number of air-to-air missile types although these are not known to have ever been used in combat. Guided missiles operate by detecting their target, and then homing in on the target on a collision course, although the missile may use radar or infra-red guidance to home on the target, the launching aircraft may detect and track the target before launch by other means. Radar guidance is used for medium- or long-range missiles, where the infra-red signature of the target would be too faint for an infra-red detector to track. There are three types of radar-guided missile – active, semi-active, and passive. Radar-guided missiles can be countered by rapid maneuvering, deploying chaff or using electronic counter-measures, active radar -guided missiles carry their own radar system to detect and track their target
11.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
12.
Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake
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Occupying three counties – Kern, San Bernardino and Inyo – the installation’s closest neighbors are the cities of Ridgecrest, Inyokern, Trona and Darwin. The main gate of the installation is located at the intersection of Inyokern Road, in total, its two ranges and main site cover more than 1,100,000 acres, an area larger than the state of Rhode Island. As of 2010, at least 95% of that land has been left undeveloped, the roughly $3 billion infrastructure of the installation consists of 2,132 buildings and facilities,329 miles of paved roads, and 1,801 miles of unpaved roads. The 19,600 square miles of restricted and controlled airspace at China Lake makes up 12% of California’s total airspace, jointly-controlled by NAWS China Lake, Edwards Air Force Base and Fort Irwin, this airspace is known as the R-2508 Special Use Airspace Complex. NAWS China Lakes mission is to support the Navys research, testing, All aircraft operations at NAWS China Lake are conducted at Armitage Field, which has three runways with more than 26,000 feet of taxiway. More than 20,000 manned and un-manned military sorties are conducted out of Armitage by U. S, foreign military personnel also use the airfield and range to conduct more than 1,000 test and evaluation operations each year. Nearly 900 military and civilians passed through Armitage Field in 2007, at the same time, the Navy needed a new proving ground for aviation ordnance. Lauritsen and then Commander Sherman E. Burroughs met and formed a pact to find a site that would meet both their needs, the Navy established China Lake as the Naval Ordnance Test Station in November 1943. Its mission was defined in a letter by the Secretary of the Navy, a station having for its primary function the research, development and testing of weapons, and having additional function of furnishing primary training in the use of such weapons. Testing began within a month of the Stations formal establishment, thompson was the first civilian head at the unit. In 1950, NOTS scientists and engineers developed the air-intercept missile 9 Sidewinder, other rockets and missiles developed or tested at China Lake include the Mighty Mouse, Zuni, Sidewinder, Shrike, Joint Stand-Off Weapon and Joint Direct Attack Munition. In June 1963, President John F. Kennedy visited NAWS China Lake for an air show, in July 1967, NOTS China Lake and the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in Corona, California, became the Naval Weapons Center. The Corona facilities were closed and their functions transferred to the desert in 1971, in July 1979, the mission and functions of the National Parachute Test Range at Naval Air Facility El Centro were transferred to China Lake. At the same time, the plant at China Lake was designated as a Naval Air Weapons Station and became host of the NAVAIR Weapons Division. The bases role in the community evolved from that of primary landlord, the NAWS housing area, much smaller than that of the 1960s, is sufficient to support the bases military. In 1982 the community area of China Lake, including most of housing, was annexed by the City of Ridgecrest. In 2013, Congress reserved China Lakes acreage for military use for an additional 25 years, China Lake allowed both civilians and military to live side-by-side in government housing. China Lake residents could attend a church at All Faith Chapel, the China Lake Way, more formally known as Principles of Operation, were established in 1946 through the leadership of Vannevar Bush
13.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
14.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
15.
K-13 (missile)
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The K-13 is a short-range, infrared homing air-to-air missile developed by the Soviet Union. It is similar in appearance and function to the American AIM-9 Sidewinder from which it was reverse-engineered, although it since has been replaced by more modern missiles in front line service, it saw widespread service in many nations. During the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1958, the Republic of Chinas F-86 Sabres faced the much higher performance, the MiGs had speed, maneuverability and altitude advantages over the Sabres, allowing them to engage only when they desired, normally at advantageous times. In response, the US Navy rushed to modify 100 of the ROCs Sabres to carry the newly introduced AIM-9 Sidewinder missile, the latest model being the B version. These were introduced into combat for the first time on 24 September 1958 and this was the first instance of guided missiles being used in air-to-air combat. On 28 September 1958, a similar engagement resulted in one of the missiles becoming lodged in a MiG-17 without exploding, allowing it to be removed after landing. The Soviets later became aware that the Chinese had at least one Sidewinder, although Wennerström did leak information of the Sidewinder after negotiating its purchase for Sweden, none of the known Soviet sources mention this, while all explicitly mention the Chinese example. The Sidewinder was quickly reverse engineered as the K-13 and entered limited service two years later in 1960. This was followed by the improved K-13A, which entered service in 1962, the R-3S was the first version to enter widespread production, in spite of a very long seeker settling time on the order of 22 seconds. The R-3S was seen by the West in 1961 and given the NATO reporting name AA-2A Atoll, minimum engagement range for the R-3S is about one kilometre. All K-13 variants are similar to Sidewinder, sharing the 5 inch diameter. Subsequent examination of AA-2 missiles captured by NATO forces showed that parts from an AIM-9 could be interfaced with parts from an AA-2 and either combination would still work. While the R-3S was being introduced in 1961, work started on a semi-active radar homing version for high-altitude use and this took longer to develop, and did not enter service until 1966. This version was designated AA-2B by NATO, three training versions were also developed. The R-3U was an empty missile body with a homing set, the R-3P was a complete missile without an explosive warhead. The RM-3V served as an aerial target, the Vympel team started working on a more ambitious upgrade in the late 1960s, emerging as the K-13M for the IRH and K-13R for the SARH variant, were developed in the late 1960s. These were dubbed Advanced Atoll in the west, the same electronics upgrades were also applied to the Kaliningrad K-5 to arm fighters that did not carry the K-13. The K-13 in different versions was widely exported to the Warsaw Pact and other air forces, a license-built version called A-91 was built in Romania, and the Peoples Republic of China copied the K-13 as the PL-2
16.
Zuni (rocket)
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The Zuni 5-inch Folding-Fin Aircraft Rocket, or simply Zuni, is a 5.0 in unguided rocket deployed by the United States armed forces. The rocket was developed for both air-to-air and air-to-ground operations and it can be used to carry various types of warheads, including chaff for countermeasures. It is usually fired from the LAU-10 rocket pod holding four rockets, in the early 1950s, U. S. Navy engineers Naval Ordnance Test Station China Lake began to develop a new 12.7 cm unguided rocket to replace the High Velocity Aircraft Rocket. The Zuni was designed as a system, to allow the use of different types of warheads. One type of warhead was a proximity fuze, as the rocket was intended to be used as an air-to-air rocket. This led to its selection as the basis for the AIM-9 Sidewinder airframe in the early 1950s, the Zuni was approved for production in 1957. A number of different launchers were tested for the Zuni, e. g. single launchers fitted to the Sidewinder launching rails of the Vought F-8 Crusader, however, four-tube LAU-10/A series pods became the most commonly used launcher. The Zuni was widely used in the role during the Vietnam War. However, on 1 May 1967 during a sortie against Kép Air Base, North Vietnam, LCDR Theodore R. Swartz of Squadron VA-76, flying from USS Bon Homme Richard and this was the only MiG aircraft to be downed by a Douglas A-4 Skyhawk during the Vietnam War. Lieutenant Commander Swartz received the Silver Star for his action, in 1967, a Mk 32 Zuni rocket was responsible for a serious fire aboard the USS Forrestal aircraft carrier, which led to the loss of 134 lives. A Mk 32 was also responsible for a 1969 fire on the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise, leading to the loss of 27 lives and saw 314 more injured. The Australian Government has donated its Zuni rockets to the Australian Space Research Institute, every year a few Zunis are launched there. ASRI has also designed and constructed custom nosecones and payload recovery mechanisms for the Zuni. With a payload of 20 kg, the Zuni has a range of 5.9 km. The 5 Laser Guided Zuni Rocket is a weapon and an upgrade to the unguided 5 Zuni rocket. The North American division of MBDA is the manufacturer of the Laser Guided Zuni Rocket similar to the Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System upgrade to the Hydra 70 system. The Laser Guided Zuni Rocket is composed of the new WGU-58/B Guidance and Control Section that is attached to the front end of an unguided Zuni rocket, the weapon requires semi-active laser energy to guide to a precise target. The Laser Guided Zuni Rocket is on the U. S, the precision weapon fits in the same launcher as unguided Zunis and requires only a 28V firing pulse and a semi active laser designator
17.
AGM-122 Sidearm
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The AGM-122 Sidearm was an American air-to-surface anti-radiation missile produced between 1986 and 1990. Not as capable as newer anti-radiation missiles, they were cheaper and lighter in weight allowing more versatile deployment, the AGM-122 Sidearm was produced by the re-manufacture of AIM-9C missiles that had been taken out of service. The AIM-9C was a semi-active radar homing variant of the Sidewinder, developed for the US Navys Vought F-8 Crusader, conceived and developed at China Lake NAWC, the Sidearm was first tested in 1981. In 1984, Motorola was issued a contract to convert and upgrade AIM-9Cs to AGM-122A standard, a total of about 700 units were produced between 1986 and 1990. Existing stocks of Sidearm have been depleted, and the missile is no longer in service, proposals for new-build missiles, under the designation AGM-122B, have not been proceeded with to date. Air-to-ground missile AIM-9 Sidewinder AGM-87 Focus Notes Bibliography FAS Designation Systems
18.
Anti-radar missile
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An anti-radiation missile is a missile designed to detect and home in on an enemy radio emission source. Typically, these are designed for use against a radar, although jammers. Most ARM designs to date have been intended for use against ground-based radars and they can also be used to quickly shut down unexpected surface-to-air missile sites during an air raid. Early ARMs, such as the AGM-45 Shrike, were not particularly intelligent, they would simply home in on the source of radiation and explode when they got near it. SAM operators learned to turn their radar off when an ARM was fired at them, then turn it back on later and this led to the development of more advanced ARMs like the AGM-78 Standard ARM and AGM-88 HARM missiles, which have inertial guidance systems built-in. This allows them to remember the direction if it is turned off. ARMs are less likely to hit the radar if the radar is turned off shortly after the missile is launched, as the longer the radar is off, the more error is introduced into the missiles course. The ALARM even has an added loiter mode, with a built in parachute, enabling it to descend slowly until the lights up. Even a temporary shut down of the missile guidance radar can be of a great advantage to friendly aircraft during battle. This makes these missiles significantly harder to defeat with ECM and distraction countermeasures and this was achieved by the SAM sites radar receiver locking on to radio noise emissions generated by an aircrafts jamming pod. Recently, the Peoples Republic of China developed the FT-2000 system to counter AEW and this system is based on the HQ-9, which is in turn based on the S-300PMU. These anti-radiation missile systems have been marketed to Pakistan and various other countries, more recently, air-to-air ARM designs have begun to appear, notably the Russian Vympel R-27EP. Such missiles have several advantages over other missile guidance techniques, they do not trigger radar warning receivers, in the 1970s, Hughes Aerospace had a project called BRAZO. Based on a Raytheon AIM-7 Sparrow, it was meant to offer an air-to-air capability against proposed Soviet AWACS types and also other types with extremely powerful radar sets. Improved Russian radar may level playing field, archived from the original on 2006-06-14. Russian site on the S-75 from Said Aminov Vestnik PVO Google translation
19.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
20.
Falklands War
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It began on Friday,2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands in an attempt to establish the sovereignty it had claimed over them. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval force to engage the Argentine Navy. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, in total,649 Argentine military personnel,255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities. The conflict was an episode in the protracted confrontation over the territories sovereignty. Argentina asserted that the islands are Argentine territory, and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory, the British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are descendants of British settlers. The conflict has had an effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the outcome prompted large protests against the military government. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative Party government, bolstered by the outcome, was re-elected the following year. The cultural and political weight of the conflict has had less effect in Britain than in Argentina, diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, Spain, at which the two governments issued a joint statement. No change in either countrys position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit, in 1994, Argentinas claim to the territories was added to its constitution. In December 1981 there was a change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a new junta headed by General Leopoldo Galtieri, Brigadier Basilio Lami Dozo. Anaya was the architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands. Such action would also bolster its dwindling legitimacy, the newspaper La Prensa speculated in a step-by-step plan beginning with cutting off supplies to the islands, ending in direct actions late in 1982, if the UN talks were fruitless. The Royal Navy ice patrol vessel HMS Endurance was dispatched from Stanley to South Georgia in response, the Argentine military junta, suspecting that the UK would reinforce its South Atlantic Forces, ordered the invasion of the Falkland Islands to be brought forward to 2 April. Britain was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, despite repeated warnings by Royal Navy captain Nicholas Barker, on 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings off the Falkland Islands. The invasion was met with a defence organised by the Falkland Islands Governor Sir Rex Hunt. Word of the invasion first reached Britain from Argentine sources, a Ministry of Defence operative in London had a short telex conversation with Governor Hunts telex operator, who confirmed that Argentines were on the island and in control
21.
Operation Mole Cricket 19
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Operation Mole Cricket 19 was a suppression of enemy air defenses campaign launched by the Israeli Air Force against Syrian targets on June 9,1982, at the outset of the 1982 Lebanon War. The operation was the first time in history that a Western-equipped air force destroyed a Soviet-built surface-to-air missile network. It also became one of the biggest air battles since World War II, the result was a decisive Israeli victory, leading to the colloquial name the Bekaa Valley Turkey Shoot. The IAF began working on a SAM suppression operation since the end of the Yom Kippur War, rising tensions between Israel and Syria over Lebanon escalated in the early 1980s and culminated in Syria deploying the SAM batteries in the Beqaa Valley. On June 6,1982, Israel invaded Lebanon, and on the day of the war. The battle lasted two hours, and involved innovative tactics and technology. By the end of the day, the IAF had destroyed seventeen of the nineteen SAM batteries deployed in the Beqaa Valley, the battle led the United States to impose a ceasefire on Israel and Syria. In the Yom Kippur War of 1973, Egypt had 20 mobile SA-6 SAM systems, backed up by 70 SA-2s,65 SA-3s, Syria deployed another 34 SAM batteries. In the first three days, the IAF lost 50 aircraft in about 1,220 sorties, a rate of four percent. The SA-6s, SA-7s, and ZSU-23-4 guns hit 53 of Israels prewar total of 170 A-4 Skyhawks and 33 of its 177 F-4 Phantoms, as a result, the IAF found it difficult to provide air support to the ground troops. When Egypt tried to push beyond the range of its SAM batteries on October 14, ezer Weizman, a former IAF commander, said that the wing of the fighter plane was broken by the SAM. Between 1973 and 1978, the IAF undertook a project to try to find an answer to the SAM threat. The losses suffered by Israel in the 1973 war were so high that it spawned the United States stealth aircraft program. The U. S. estimated that without a solution to the SAM problem, the Israelis had lost 109 aircraft in 18 days. On May 28,1980, IAF guided missiles destroyed two armored cars carrying SA-9 batteries, manned by Libyan troops, near Sidon, the Prime Minister, Menachem Begin, then also Minister of Defense, announced that the IAF could destroy the SAM batteries in two hours. Ivry told the media that the IAF could do nothing of the kind, on April 28,1981 the IAF shot down two Syrian helicopters over Lebanon. Syria responded by deploying its first SAM brigades to the Beqaa Valley, the SAM batteries were not a direct strategic threat to Israel, and there were already several Syrian SAM batteries in east Lebanon, across the border. Begin faced a dilemma, on one hand, the new deployment damaged Israels deterrence credibility and, on the other hand, eventually, he decided on an attack, to be launched on April 30, but the operation was called off due to weather conditions
22.
AIM-95 Agile
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The AIM-95 Agile was an air-to-air missile developed by the United States of America. It was developed by the US Navy to equip the F-14 Tomcat, around the same time, the US Air Force was designing the AIM-82 to equip their F-15 Eagle, and later dropped their efforts to join the Agile program. In the end, newer versions of Sidewinder would close the gap so much that the Agile program was cancelled. The AIM-95 was developed at the China Lake Naval Weapons Center as a replacement for the AIM-9 Sidewinder short range air-to-air missile. The Agile was equipped with an infrared seeker for fire and forget operation, the solid-propellant rocket used thrust vectoring for control giving it superior turning capability over the Sidewinder. The US Air Force was developing the AIM-82 missile to equip the F-15 Eagle at the same time, since both missiles were more or less identical in their role, it was decided to abandon the AIM-82 in favour of the Agile. As a result of escalating costs, the project was cancelled in 1975, instead an improved version of the Sidewinder was developed for use by both the Air Force and Navy. Although this was intended to be a solution, in fact the AIM-9 continues in service today. The Soviet Union did embark on development of an advanced high off-boresight SRM with thrust vectoring, NATO learned about their performance due to the German reunification and efforts began to match or exceed the R-73s performance with the IRIS-T, AIM-9X and MICA IR programs. AIM-82 Hawker Siddeley SRAAM List of missiles http, //www. designation-systems. net/dusrm/m-95. html
23.
SRAAM
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The Short Range Air-to-Air Missile, or SRAAM, was an experimental British infrared homing air-to-air missile, developed between 1968 and 1980 by Hawker Siddeley Dynamics. It was designed to be very manoevrable for use at short range in a dogfight situation, SRAAM was unusual in that it was launched from a launch tube instead of being attached to a launch rail, allowing two to be carried on single mounting point. Although initially intended to replace the AIM-9 Sidewinder, it was downgraded to a technology program in 1974. Between 1974 and 1977, several SRAAM missiles were launched in tests, in 1980, the knowledge gained from the SRAAM project became the British contribution to the multinational ASRAAM missile project. Early infrared homing missiles had two limitations that made difficult to use in combat situations. The first was that the seeker was insensitive and required large. In practice, this meant the engine of the aircraft had to remain visible to the missile though the shot. The other was that the seeker had a field of view. This meant it was possible for the target to escape by flying at right angles to the missile and these limitations were made clear during the Vietnam War, when early missiles like the AIM-4 Falcon and AIM-9 Sidewinder had success rates on the order of 9 and 14%, respectively. This would maximize the chance that the target would still be visible to the missile after it was launched, to provide some capability in these situations, autocannons were hastily added to those fighters that lacked them. They began designing a missile that would track successfully in every situation where the missile indicated lock-on. In order for this to happen, it would have to have a very wide FOV, or off-boresight capability and it would also have to have extremely high maneuverability so it could successfully track down an aircraft in these situations. The company began development of such a weapon as a private venture under the name Taildog in 1968. This goal was a short-range, low-cost missile that would fill the gap between guns and then-current missiles like Firestreak and Red Top, Hawker described it as a gun that fires around corners. The initial design was 2.0 m long, had a diameter of 16.5 cm and it was capable of engaging targets between 250 m and 2 km, as compared to perhaps 12 km under the best case for Red Top. The first photographs of mock-ups were shown in early 1970, and were displayed at a show in Hannover later that year. Taildog was highly manoeuvrable through the use of thrust vectoring for all flight control, vectoring was accomplished by rotating small vanes into the rocket exhaust. Six of these vanes were arranged as segments of a circle at the end of the missile body
24.
Bell AH-1Z Viper
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The Bell AH-1Z Viper is an American twin-engine attack helicopter, based on the AH-1W SuperCobra, that was developed for the United States Marine Corps as part of the H-1 upgrade program. The AH-1Z features a four-blade, bearingless, composite rotor system, uprated transmission. The AH-1Z, one of the latest members of the prolific Huey family, is also called Zulu Cobra, aspects of the AH-1Z date back to the Bell 249 in 1979, which was basically an AH-1S equipped with the four-blade main rotor system from the Bell 412. This helicopter demonstrated Bells Cobra II design at the Farnborough Airshow in 1980, the Cobra II was to be equipped with Hellfire missiles, a new targeting system and improved engines. Later came the Cobra 2000 proposal which included General Electric T700 engines and this design drew interest from the US Marine Corps, but funding was not available. In 1993, Bell proposed an AH-1W-based version for the UKs new attack helicopter program, the derivative design, named CobraVenom, featured a modern digital cockpit and could carry TOWs, Hellfire or Brimstone missiles. The CobraVenom design was altered in 1995 by changing to a rotor system. The design lost to the AH-64D later that year however, in 1996, the USMC launched the H-1 upgrade program by signing a contract with Bell Helicopter for upgrading 180 AH-1Ws into AH-1Zs and upgrading 100 UH-1Ns into UH-1Ys. The H-1 program created completely modernized attack and utility helicopters with considerable design commonality to reduce operating costs, the AH-1Z and UH-1Y share a common tailboom, engines, rotor system, drivetrain, avionics architecture, software, controls and displays for over 84% identical components. Bell participated in a joint Bell-Government integrated test team during the engineering manufacturing development phase of the H-1 program, the AH-1Z program progressed slowly from 1996 to 2003 largely as a research and development operation. The existing two-blade semi-rigid, teetering rotor system is being replaced with a four-blade, the four-blade configuration provides improvements in flight characteristics including increased flight envelope, maximum speed, vertical rate of climb, payload and reduced rotor vibration level. The AH-1Z first flew on 8 December 2000, Bell delivered three prototype aircraft to the United States Navys Naval Air Systems Command at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in July 2002, for the flight test phase of the program. Low-rate initial production began in October 2003, with deliveries to run through 2018, in late 2006 NAVAIR awarded a contract to Meggitt Defense Systems to develop a new linkless 20 mm ammunition handling system to improve on the gun feed reliability of the existing linked feed system. These systems are now being retrofitted into the AH-1W and AH-1Z fleets with good results during combat in Afghanistan, in February 2008, the U. S. Navy adjusted the contract so the last 40 AH-1Zs are built as new airframes instead of the previously planned rebuild of AH-1Ws. In September 2008, the Navy requested an additional 46 airframes for the Marine Corps, in 2010, the Marine Corps planned to order 189 AH-1Zs with 58 of them being new airframes, with deliveries to continue until 2019. On 10 December 2010, the Department of the Navy approved the AH-1Z for full-rate production, the AH-1Z incorporates new rotor technology with upgraded military avionics, weapons systems, and electro-optical sensors in an integrated weapons platform. It has improved survivability and can find targets at longer ranges, the AH-1Zs new bearingless, hingeless rotor system has 75% fewer parts than that of four-bladed articulated systems. The blades are made of composites, which have an increased ballistic survivability and its two redesigned wing stubs are longer, with each adding a wingtip station for a missile such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder
25.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
26.
Aerojet
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In 2013, Aerojet was merged by GenCorp with the former Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne to form Aerojet Rocketdyne. Aerojet developed from a 1936 meeting hosted by Theodore von Kármán at his home, the group continued to meet from time to time, but its activities were limited to discussions as opposed to experimentation. Their first design was tested on August 16,1941, consisting of a small cylindrical solid-fuel motor attached to the bottom of a plane, takeoff distance was shortened by half, and the USAAF placed an order for experimental production versions. I was President, Malina was Treasurer, and Haley was Secretary and we had three vice-presidents, Parsons, Summerfield, and Forman. We issued stock to ourselves, and for a brief time Haley seemed to own the entire corporation because, being the man in the group with cash. We opened offices on East Colorado Street in Pasadena, the world’s largest manufacturer of rockets and propellants. Kármán soon relinquished the presidency, Haley became Aerojet’s second president on August 26,1942 and he proved to be an incredible administrator. The company expanded and required new facilities, In October, fifteen employees were drawing paychecks, by December we had expanded to about one hundred and fifty employees and in January 1943 we moved to Azusa, California. In 1943 the Army Air Forces finally placed a full order, in the spring of 1944 the officers instructed Haley to seek out new sources of assistance. General Tire was one of his clients and that showed an interest in Aerojet. In January 1945 General Tire acquired half the stock for $75,000, Parsons and Forman also sold their shares, so that, by October, General Tire had control of the majority of Aerojet. Kármán resisted the offers presented to him, until in 1953 when a sizable scholarship fund was offered to be set up as a memorial to his sister Josephine de Karman. The company also invested in pure research, developing both a liquid-fueled design and a new solid-fueled design based on a rubber binding agent in partnership with General Tire. In the immediate post-war era, Aerojet downsized dramatically, but their JATO units continued to sell for commercial aircraft operating in hot-and-high conditions, by 1950, their research into the rubber binder had led to much larger engines and then to the development of the Aerobee sounding rocket. Aerobee was the first US-designed rocket to space and completed over 1,000 flights before it was retired in 1985. The newly formed US Air Force used Aerojet as the primary supplier on a number of their ICBM projects and they also delivered propulsion systems for the US Navys submarine-launched Polaris missile. A new plant was set up in Sacramento that took over most rocket construction, one of Azusas major projects was the development of the infra-red detectors for the Defense Support Program satellites, used to detect ICBM launches from space. The new research arm was formed as Aerojet Electro-Systems Corp. and after purchasing a number of ordnance companies, a new umbrella organization oversaw the three major divisions, Aerojet General
27.
Warhead
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The term warhead refers to the explosive or toxic material that is delivered by a missile, rocket, or torpedo. Types of warheads include, Explosive, An explosive charge is used to disintegrate the target, conventional, Chemicals such as gunpowder and high explosives store significant energy within their molecular bonds. This energy can be released quickly by a trigger, such as an electric spark, thermobaric weapons enhance the blast effect by utilizing the surrounding atmosphere in their explosive reactions. Blast, A strong shock wave is provided by the detonation of the explosive, fragmentation, Metal fragments are projected at high velocity to cause damage or injury. Continuous rod, Metal bars welded on their ends form a cylinder of interconnected rods. The rapidly expanding ring produces a planar cutting effect that is devastating against military aircraft, shaped charge, The effect of the explosive charge is focused onto a specially shaped metal liner to project a hypervelocity jet of metal, to perforate heavy armour. Nuclear, A runaway nuclear fission or nuclear fusion reaction causes immense energy release, chemical, A toxic chemical, such as poison gas or nerve gas, is dispersed, which is designed to injure or kill human beings. Biological, An infectious agent, such as spores, is dispersed. Often, a biological or chemical warhead will use a charge for rapid dispersal. Type of detonators include Guidance system List of aircraft weapons List of missiles Nuclear weapon yield Missile The Nuclear Weapon Archive, the B61 Bomb - Intermediate yield strategic and tactical thermonuclear bomb. Atomic Audit - The Costs and Consequences of U. S, ogden Air Logistics Center at Hill AFB, Utah. NNSA Achieves Significant Milestone for B61 Bomb, Nuclear Weapons, The Secret History, pp. 162–164
28.
Infrared
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It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers, to 1000000 nm. Most of the radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon, slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an effect on Earths climate. Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements and it excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range, Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected, Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatuses. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes, military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm, Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sunlight, at a temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level, of this energy,527 watts is infrared radiation,445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers. On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wiens displacement law. Therefore, the band is often subdivided into smaller sections. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical hot objects, such as exhaust pipes, the three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space
29.
Photoresistor
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A photoresistor is a light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity, in other words, a photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching circuits. A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor, in the dark, a photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megohms, while in the light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band, the resulting free electrons conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices, moreover, unique photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands. A photoelectric device can be intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, in intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms and this is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor. The photoresistivity of any photoresistor may vary depending on ambient temperature. Photoresistors also exhibit a degree of latency between exposure to light and the subsequent decrease in resistance, usually around 10 milliseconds. The lag time when going from lit to dark environments is even greater and this property makes them unsuitable for sensing rapidly flashing lights, but is sometimes used to smooth the response of audio signal compression. Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the light is on, ambient light falling on the photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is saved by ensuring the light is only on during hours of darkness and they are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent or neon lamp, or light-emitting diode to control gain reduction. The use of CdS and CdSe photoresistors is severely restricted in Europe due to the RoHS ban on cadmium, lead sulphide and indium antimonide LDRs are used for the mid-infrared spectral region. Ge, Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available, cH3NH3I3 a magnetic photoresistor developed in 2016. Optoelectronics Using a photoresistor to track light Connecting a photoresistor to a circuit Photoresistor overview - detailing operation, structure and circuit information
30.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
31.
Pounds per square inch
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The pound per square inch or, more accurately, pound-force per square inch is a unit of pressure or of stress based on avoirdupois units. Now converting the psi to standard atmospheres,1 atm =101325 Pa =101325 Pa 6894.757293168 Pa / psi ≈14.70 psi Therefore,1 atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. Pounds per square inch absolute is used to make it clear that the pressure is relative to a rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is around 14.7 psi, the converse is pounds per square inch gauge or pounds per square inch gage, indicating that the pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure. For example, a bicycle tire pumped up to 65 psi above atmospheric pressure. When gauge pressure is referenced to something other than ambient atmospheric pressure, the kilopound per square inch is a scaled unit derived from psi, equivalent to a thousand psi. Ksi are not widely used for gas pressures and they are mostly used in materials science, where the tensile strength of a material is measured as a large number of psi. The conversion in SI Units is 1 ksi =6.895 MPa, the megapound per square inch is another multiple equal to a million psi. It is used in mechanics for the modulus of the materials. The conversion in SI Units is 1 Mpsi =6.895 GPa, inch of water,0.036 psid Blood pressure – clinically normal human blood pressure,2.32 psig/1.55 psig Natural gas residential piped in for consumer appliance, 4–6 psig. Boost pressure provided by a turbocharger, 6–15 psig NFL football,12. 5–13.5 psig Atmospheric pressure at sea level,14
32.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
33.
Argon
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Argon is a chemical element with symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third-most abundant gas in the Earths atmosphere, at 0. 934% and it is more than twice as abundant as water vapor,23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide, and more than 500 times as abundant as neon. Argon is the most abundant noble gas in Earths crust, comprising 0. 00015% of the crust, nearly all of the argon in Earths atmosphere is radiogenic argon-40, derived from the decay of potassium-40 in the Earths crust. In the universe, argon-36 is by far the most common argon isotope, the name argon is derived from the Greek word ἀργόν, neuter singular form of ἀργός meaning lazy or inactive, as a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions. The complete octet in the atomic shell makes argon stable. Its triple point temperature of 83.8058 K is a fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990. Argon is produced industrially by the distillation of liquid air. Argon is also used in incandescent, fluorescent lighting, and other gas-discharge tubes, Argon makes a distinctive blue-green gas laser. Argon is also used in fluorescent glow starters, Argon has approximately the same solubility in water as oxygen and is 2.5 times more soluble in water than nitrogen. Argon is colorless, odorless, nonflammable and nontoxic as a solid, liquid or gas, Argon is chemically inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature. Although argon is a gas, it can form some compounds under extreme conditions. Argon fluorohydride, a compound of argon with fluorine and hydrogen that is stable below 17 K, has been demonstrated. Although the neutral ground-state chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to HArF, ions, such as ArH+, and excited-state complexes, such as ArF, have been demonstrated. Theoretical calculation predicts several more argon compounds that should be stable but have not yet been synthesized, Argon was suspected to be a component of air by Henry Cavendish in 1785. Argon was first isolated from air in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay at University College London by removing oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and they had determined that nitrogen produced from chemical compounds was 0. 5% lighter than nitrogen from the atmosphere. The difference was slight, but it was important enough to attract their attention for many months and they concluded that there was another gas in the air mixed in with the nitrogen. Argon was also encountered in 1882 through independent research of H. F. Newall, each observed new lines in the color spectrum of air that did not match known elements
34.
Applications of the Stirling engine
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Applications of the Stirling engine range from mechanical propulsion to heating and cooling to electrical generation systems. The Stirling cycle heat engine can also be driven in reverse, a free-piston variant of the Stirling engine can be built, which can be completely hermetically sealed, reducing friction losses and completely eliminating refrigerant leakage. For example, a Free Piston Stirling Cooler can convert an electrical input into a practical heat pump effect. Conversely, an electrical generator could be built, converting a heat flow into mechanical energy. In both cases, energy is usually converted from/to electrical energy using magnetic fields in a way that avoids compromising the hermetic seal. It is often claimed that the Stirling engine has too low a power/weight ratio, too high a cost and they also have complex and expensive heat exchangers. A Stirling cooler must reject twice as much heat as an Otto engine or Diesel engine radiator, the NASA vehicle test projects were designed by contractors and designated MOD I and MOD II. The United Stirling ABs P-40 powered AMC Spirit was tested extensively for over 50,000 miles and achieved average fuel efficiency up to 28.5 mpg‑US. A1980 4-door liftback VAM Lerma was also converted to United Stirling P-40 power to demonstrate the Stirling engine to the public, the process of auto manufacturers converting their existing facilities and tooling for the mass production of a completely new design and type of powerplant was also questioned. The MOD II project in 1986 produced one of the most efficient automotive engines ever made, the engine reached a peak thermal efficiency of 38. 5%, compared to a modern spark-ignition gasoline engine, which has a peak efficiency of 20-25%. The Mod II project replaced the normal spark-ignition engine in a 1985 4-door Chevrolet Celebrity notchback. In the 1986 MOD II Design Report the results showed that highway gas mileage was increased from 40 to 58 mpg‑US and achieved an urban range of 26 to 33 mpg‑US with no change in vehicle gross weight. Startup time in the NASA vehicle was a maximum of 30 seconds, while Fords research vehicle used an electric heater to quickly start the engine. This resulted in increased efficiencies being mentioned in the test results, in a petro-hydraulic hybrid the Stirling would perform a similar function as in a petro-electric series-hybrid turning a pump charging a hydraulic buffer tank. Stirling engines as part of an electric drive system may be able to bypass the design challenges or disadvantages of a non-hybrid Stirling automobile. In November 2007, a hybrid car using solid biofuel. The New Hampshire Union Leader reports that Dean Kamen has developed a series plug-in hybrid car using a Ford Think. DEKA, Kamens technology company in the Manchester Millyard, has demonstrated an electric car, the DEKA Revolt, Stirling engines may hold theoretical promise as aircraft engines, if high power density and low cost can be achieved
35.
Molten-salt battery
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Molten salt batteries are a class of battery that uses molten salts as an electrolyte and offers both a high energy density and a high power density. Traditional use once thermal batteries can be stored in their state at room-temperature for long periods of time before being activated by heating. For comparison, LiFePO4 lithium iron phosphate batteries store 90–110 Wh/kg, a nano lithium-titanate battery stores 72 Wh/kg and can provide a power of 760 W/kg. Thermal batteries originated during World War II when German scientist Georg Otto Erb developed the first practical cells, Erb developed batteries for military applications, including the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket, and artillery fuzing systems. None of these batteries entered field use during the war, afterwards, Erb was interrogated by British intelligence. His work was reported in The Theory and Practice of Thermal Cells and this information was subsequently passed on to the United States Ordnance Development Division of the National Bureau of Standards. When the technology reached the United States in 1946 it was applied to replacing the troublesome liquid-based systems that had previously been used to power artillery proximity fuzes. They were used for ordnance applications since WWII and later in nuclear weapons, the same technology was studied by Argonne National Laboratories in the 1980s for use in electric vehicles. Thermal batteries use an electrolyte that is solid and inactive at ambient temperatures and they can be stored indefinitely yet provide full power in an instant when required. Once activated, they provide a burst of power for a short period to 60 minutes or more. The high power is due to the ionic conductivity of the molten salt. One design uses a strip along the edge of the heat pellets to initiate burning. The fuze strip is typically fired by an electrical igniter or squib by application of electric current, another design uses a center hole in the middle of the battery stack into which the high-energy electrical igniter fires a mixture of hot gases and incandescent particles. This allows much faster activation times vs. hundreds of milliseconds for the edge-strip design, Battery activation can be accomplished by a percussion primer, similar to a shotgun shell. The heat source should be gasless, the standard heat source typically consist of mixtures of iron powder and potassium perchlorate in weight ratios of 88/12, 86/14, or 84/16. The higher the potassium perchlorate level, the higher the heat output, in the 1980s lithium-alloy anodes replaced calcium or magnesium anodes, with cathodes of calcium chromate, vanadium or tungsten oxides. Lithium-silicon alloys are favored over the earlier lithium-aluminium alloys, the corresponding cathode for use with the lithium-alloy anodes is mainly iron disulfide replaced by cobalt disulfide for high-power applications. The electrolyte is normally a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride
36.
Helmet-mounted display
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A helmet-mounted display is a device used in some modern aircraft, especially combat aircraft. Applications which allow cuing of weapon systems are referred to as helmet-mounted sight and these devices were created first by South Africa, then the Soviet Union and followed by the United States. In close combat prior to HMDs, the pilot had to align the aircraft to shoot at a target, HMDs allow the pilot to simply point his head at a target, designate it to weapon and shoot. Displaying targeting and aircraft performance information to the pilot while heads-up, HMD systems, combined with High Off-Boresight weapons, results in the ability for aircrew to attack and destroy nearly any target seen by the pilot. In 1962, Hughes Aircraft Company revealed the Electrocular, a compact CRT, the first aircraft with simple HMD devices appeared for experimental purpose in the mid-1970s to aid in targeting heat seeking missiles. These rudimentary devices were described as Helmet-Mounted Sights. Mirage F1AZ of the SAAF used a locally developed helmet-mounted sight and this enables the pilot to make bore attacks, without having to maneuver to the optimum firing position. South Africa subsequently emerged as one of the pioneers and leaders in helmet-mounted sight technology, the SAAF was also the first air force to fly the helmet sight operationally. S. HMDs were also introduced in helicopters during this time, were fielded by the South African Air Force. After the South African system had proven in combat, playing a role in downing Soviet aircraft over Angola. As a result, the MiG-29 was fielded in 1985 with an HMD, one successful HMD was the Israeli Air Force Elbit DASH series, fielded in conjunction with the Python 4, in the early 1990s. The U. S. UK, and Germany pursued a HMD combined with ASRAAM systems, technical difficulties led to the U. S. abandoning ASRAAM, instead funding development of the AIM-9X and the Joint Helmet-Mounted Cueing System in 1990. American and European fighter HMDs became widely used in the late 1990s, while conceptually simple, implementation of aircraft HMDs is quite complex. There are many variables, precision – the angular error between the line-of-sight and the derived cue, the position of the helmet is what is used to point the missile, it thus must be calibrated and fit securely on the pilots head. The line between the eye and the reticle on the visor is known as the line of sight between the aircraft and the intended target. The users eye must stay aligned with the sight – in other words, current HMDs cannot sense where the eye is looking, but can place a pipper between the eye and the target. Latency or slew rate – how much lag there is between the helmet and the cue. field of regard – the angular range over which the sight can still produce an accurate measurement. Weight and balance – total helmet weight and its center of gravity, weight is the largest problem faced by fighter aircraft HMD designers
37.
Fuze
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In military munitions, a fuze or fuse is the part of the device that initiates function. In some applications, such as torpedoes, a fuze may be identified by function as the exploder, the relative complexity of even the earliest fuze designs can be seen in cutaway diagrams. A fuze is a device that detonates an explosive material under specified conditions. In addition, a fuze will have safety and arming mechanisms that protect users from premature or accidental detonation, for example, an artillery fuzes battery is activated by the high acceleration of cannon launch, and the fuze must be spinning rapidly before it will function. Complete bore safety can be achieved with mechanical shutters that isolate the detonator from the charge until the shell is fired. A fuze may contain only the electronic or mechanical elements necessary to signal or actuate the detonator, Fuzes for large explosive charges may include an explosive booster. Professional publications about explosives and munitions distinguish the fuse and fuze spelling, the UK Ministry of Defence states, FUSE, Cord or tube for the transmission of flame or explosion usually consisting of cord or rope with gunpowder or high explosive spun into it. FUZE, A device with explosive components designed to initiate a main charge, oliver Hogg states the following about fuze, The word fuze is often spelt fuse by those unaquainted with artillery usage. Fuse, derived from fusus, the past participle of fundo, means to melt, fuze, on the other hand, is the shortened or modern method of spelling fuzee, meaning a tube filled with combustible material. It is a derivation of fusus, a spindle and from the French fusee and it is well to make this point at the outset. Historically, it was spelled with s or z. In the United States and some forces, fuze is used to denote a sophisticated ignition device incorporating mechanical and/or electronic components as opposed to a simple burning fuse. The situation of usage and the characteristics of the munition it is intended to affect the fuze design e. g. its safety. Artillery fuzes may be initiated by a mechanism, impact or detection of proximity to the target. Requirements for a hand grenade fuze are defined by the small size. This necessitates manual arming before throwing as the grenade has insufficient initial acceleration for arming to be driven by setback and these are also referred to as pistols. The main design consideration is that the projectile is large and accelerating vertically downwards, the main design consideration is that the bomb the fuze is intended to actuate is stationary, and the target itself is moving in making contact. Time fuzes detonate after a set period of time by using one or more combinations of mechanical, depending on the technology used, the device may self-destruct some seconds, minutes, hours, days, or even months after being deployed
38.
Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star
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The Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star was the first jet fighter used operationally by the United States Army Air Forces. Designed and built by Lockheed in 1943 and delivered just 143 days from the start of the process, production models were flying. Designed with straight wings, the type saw combat in Korea with the United States Air Force as the F-80. The F-94 Starfire, an all-weather interceptor on the same airframe, the closely related T-33 Shooting Star trainer would remain in service with the U. S. Air Force and Navy well into the 1980s, with the last NT-33 variant not retired until April 1997. Many still serve in a role in foreign air arms or are in private hands. The XP-80 had a conventional airframe, with a slim low wing. Other early jets generally had two engines because of their power, these being mounted in external nacelles for easier maintenance. With the advent of more powerful British jet engines, fuselage mounting was more effective, Lockheeds team, consisting of 28 engineers, was led by the legendary Clarence L. Kelly Johnson. This teaming was a product of Lockheeds Skunk Works, which surfaced again in the next decade to produce a line of high-performance aircraft beginning with the F-104. With the Germans and British clearly far ahead in development, Lockheed was pressed to develop a jet in as short a time as possible. Kelly Johnson submitted a proposal in mid-June and promised that the prototype would be ready for testing in 180 days. The Skunk Works team, beginning 26 June 1943, produced the airframe in 143 days, the first prototype was nicknamed Lulu-Belle. Powered by the replacement Halford H1 taken from the prototype de Havilland Vampire jet fighter, it first flew on 8 January 1944, the donated British jet program data had no doubt proved invaluable. The second prototype, designated XP-80A, was designed for the larger General Electric I-40 engine, 44-83021 was nicknamed the Gray Ghost after its pearl gray paint scheme, while 83022, left unpainted for comparison of flight characteristics, became known as the Silver Ghost. The XP-80As first test flight was unimpressive, but most of the problems with the design were soon addressed and corrected in the test program. Initial opinions of the XP-80A were not positive, with Lockheed Chief Engineering Test Pilot Milo Burcham commenting that an aircraft he very much enjoyed had now become a dog. The XP-80As were primarily testbeds for larger, more engines and air intake design. The P-80 testing program proved very dangerous, Burcham was killed on 20 October 1944 while flying the third YP-80A produced, 44-83025
39.
G-force
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The g-force is a measurement of the type of acceleration that causes a perception of weight. Despite the name, it is incorrect to consider g-force a fundamental force, since g-force accelerations indirectly produce weight, any g-force can be described as a weight per unit mass. The types of forces involved are transmitted through objects by interior mechanical stresses, the g-force acceleration is the cause of an objects acceleration in relation to free-fall. The g-force acceleration experienced by an object is due to the sum of all non-gravitational. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects, such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive, gravitation acting alone does not produce a g-force, even though g-forces are expressed in multiples of the acceleration of a standard gravity. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at the Earths surface produces g-force only indirectly. These mechanical forces actually produce the g-force acceleration on a mass, for example, the 1 g force on an object sitting on the Earths surface is caused by mechanical force exerted in the upward direction by the ground, keeping the object from going into free-fall. The upward contact-force from the ground ensures that an object at rest on the Earths surface is accelerating relative to the free-fall condition, stress inside the object is ensured from the fact that the ground contact forces are transmitted only from the point of contact with the ground. Objects allowed to free-fall in an inertial trajectory under the influence of only, feel no g-force acceleration. This is demonstrated by the conditions inside a freely falling elevator falling toward the Earths center. These are examples of coordinate acceleration without a sensation of weight, the experience of no g-force, however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness. An example here is a rocket in space, in which simple changes in velocity are produced by the engines. The unit of measure of acceleration in the International System of Units is m/s2, however, to distinguish acceleration relative to free-fall from simple acceleration, the unit g is often used. One g is the due to gravity at the Earths surface and is the standard gravity, defined as 9.80665 metres per second squared. Note that the definition does not vary with location—the g-force when standing on the moon is about 0.181 g. The unit g is not one of the SI units, which uses g for gram, also g should not be confused with G, which is the standard symbol for the gravitational constant. For example, it is said an F-16 fighter jet is able to sustain up to 9 Gs for a limited time
40.
Rolleron
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A rolleron is a type of aileron used for rockets, placed at the trailing end of each fin, and used for passive stabilization against rotation. Inherent to the rolleron is a wheel with notches along the circumference. On one side, the notches protrude into the airflow, during flight, this will spin the wheels up to a substantial speed. The wheels then act as gyroscopes, any tendency of the rocket to rotate along its major axis will be counteracted by the rollerons, the gyroscopic precession acts to move the rolleron in the opposite direction to the rotation. Rollerons were first used in the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile, unusual mechanism, The rolleron, Make magazine Test of rolleron for an amateur built rocket
41.
Precession
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Precession is a change in the orientation of the rotational axis of a rotating body. In an appropriate reference frame it can be defined as a change in the first Euler angle, in other words, if the axis of rotation of a body is itself rotating about a second axis, that body is said to be precessing about the second axis. A motion in which the second Euler angle changes is called nutation, in physics, there are two types of precession, torque-free and torque-induced. In astronomy, precession refers to any of several changes in an astronomical bodys rotational or orbital parameters. An important example is the change in the orientation of the axis of rotation of the Earth. Torque-free precession implies that no moment is applied to the body. In torque-free precession, the momentum is a constant. What makes this possible is a moment of inertia, or more precisely. The inertia matrix is composed of the moments of inertia of a body calculated with respect to coordinate axes. If an object is asymmetric about its axis of rotation. The result is that the component of the velocities of the body about each axis will vary inversely with each axis moment of inertia. When an object is not perfectly solid, internal vortices will tend to damp torque-free precession, R new = exp R old for the skew-symmetric matrix ×. Torque-induced precession is the phenomenon in which the axis of a spinning object describes a cone in space when a torque is applied to it. The phenomenon is seen in a spinning toy top. If the speed of the rotation and the magnitude of the external torque are constant, the spin axis will move at right angles to the direction that would intuitively result from the external torque. In the case of a toy top, its weight is acting downwards from its center of mass and these two opposite forces produce a torque which causes the top to precess. The device depicted on the right is gimbal mounted, from inside to outside there are three axes of rotation, the hub of the wheel, the gimbal axis, and the vertical pivot. To distinguish between the two axes, rotation around the wheel hub will be called spinning, and rotation around the gimbal axis will be called pitching
42.
Thrust vectoring
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In rocketry and ballistic missiles that fly outside the atmosphere, aerodynamic control surfaces are ineffective, so thrust vectoring is the primary means of attitude control. For aircraft, the method was originally envisaged to provide vertical thrust as a means to give aircraft vertical or short takeoff. Subsequently, it was realized that using vectored thrust in combat situations enabled aircraft to perform various maneuvers not available to conventional-engined planes, in missile literature originating from Russian sources, thrust vectoring is often referred as gas-dynamic steering or gas-dynamic control. Thrust vector control is used when the system is creating thrust. At other stages of flight, separate mechanisms are required for attitude and it is possible to generate pitch and yaw moments by deflecting the main rocket thrust vector so that it does not pass through the mass center. Thrust vectoring for many liquid rockets is achieved by gimbaling the rocket engine, the Saturn V and the Space Shuttle used gimballed engines. If the liquid is injected on only one side of the missile, it modifies that side of the exhaust plume, resulting in different thrust on that side and this was the control system used on the Minuteman II and the early SLBMs of the United States Navy. A later method developed for solid propellant ballistic missiles achieves thrust vectoring by deflecting the rocket nozzle using electric servomechanisms or hydraulic cylinders, the Trident C4 and D5 systems are controlled via hydraulically actuated nozzle. The Apollo Lunar Module had an engine in the ascent stage. Attitude control was achieved by using 16 auxiliary reaction control system engines in 4 clusters mounted on the ascent stage, the descent stage engine gimbaled, but this was computer-controlled to keep the thrust vector aligned with the center of mass and attitude control was by the ascent stage RCS. The V-2 used exhaust vanes and aerodynamic vanes, as did the Redstone, some smaller sized atmospheric tactical missiles, such as the AIM-9X Sidewinder, eschew flight control surfaces and instead use mechanical vanes to deflect motor exhaust to one side. Thrust vectoring is a way to reduce a missiles minimum range, for example, anti-tank missiles such as the ERYX and the PARS3 LR use thrust vectoring for this reason. 9M96E uses a control system enables maneuver at altitudes of up to 35 km at forces of over 20g. 9K720 Iskander is controlled during the flight with gas-dynamic and aerodynamic control surfaces. Most currently operational vectored thrust aircraft use turbofans with rotating nozzles or vanes to deflect the exhaust stream and this method can successfully deflect thrust through as much as 90 degrees, relative to the aircraft centerline. However, the engine must be sized for vertical lift, rather than normal flight, afterburning is difficult to incorporate and is impractical for take-off and landing thrust vectoring, because the very hot exhaust can damage runway surfaces. Without afterburning it is hard to reach flight speeds. A PCB engine, the Bristol Siddeley BS100, was cancelled in 1965, tiltrotor aircraft vector thrust via rotating turboprop engine nacelles
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Argentina AIM-9L/M
Australia[40][41]
Portugal AIM-9B/J/P/L/M
Belgium[41]
Bahrain
Brazil
Canada
Chile
Czech Republic[42]
Denmark[41]
Egypt
Ethiopia
Finland[43][41]
Hungary
Greece
Indonesia
Iran[44]
Iraq
Israel[41]
Japan[41]
Jordan
Kuwait[41]
Malaysia[41]
Morocco
Netherlands[41]
Norway[41]
Oman[41]
Pakistan
Philippines[45]
Poland
Qatar
Romania[41]
Saudi Arabia[46][41]
Singapore[47][41]
South Korea[41]
Republic of China(Taiwan)
Switzerland[41]
Thailand
Turkey[48][41]
Tunisia
United Kingdom[citation needed]
United States[41]
United Arab Emirates[41]
Venezuela
Austria
Cameroon
France
Germany
Italy
Mexico
New Zealand
South Africa[49]
Spain
Sweden
South Vietnam
Zimbabwe
. PMID 16605303. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
