1.
Steve Case
–
Stephen McConnell Steve Case is an American entrepreneur, investor, and businessman best known as the co-founder and former chief executive officer and chairman of America Online. Since his retirement as chairman of AOL Time Warner in 2003, he has gone on to invest in early and growth-stage startups through his Washington, Case is also author of the New York Times bestselling book The Third Wave, An Entrepreneurs Vision of the Future. He is an ardent supporter of inclusive entrepreneurship and innovation through the Rise of the Rest road trips, Case serves as a Presidential Ambassador for Global Entrepreneurship and was a member of Barack Obamas Council on Jobs and Competitiveness. He also serves on the National Advisory Council on Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Case was chairman of UP Global, a non-profit organization focused on fostering strong entrepreneurial communities, recently acquired by TechStars. Steve Case was born and grew up in Honolulu, Hawaii and he graduated from the private Punahou School and attended Central Union Church. Case graduated from Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts in 1980 with a degree in political science, for the next two years he worked as an assistant brand manager at Procter & Gamble in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1982 he joined Pizza Hut Inc. in Wichita, Kansas, in January 1983, his older brother Dan, an investment banker, introduced him to Bill von Meister, CEO of Control Video Corporation. The company was marketing a service called GameLine for the Atari 2600 video game console that allowed users to download games via a phone line, after that meeting, von Meister hired Case as a marketing consultant. Later that year, the company went bankrupt and one of its investors, Frank Caufield. Case later joined the company as a marketing employee. In 1985 Quantum Computer Services, a services company, was founded by Jim Kimsey from the remnants of Control Video. Kimsey became CEO of the newly renamed Quantum Computer Services and hired Case as vice president of marketing, in 1987 he promoted him again to executive vice president. Kimsey groomed Case to become chairman and CEO when Kimsey retired, as part of the changes that gave birth to Quantum, Case changed the companys strategy, creating an online service called Quantum Link for the Commodore 64 in 1985 with programmer Marc Seriff. In 1988, Quantum began offering the AppleLink online service for Apple, AOL pioneered the concept of social media, as its focus from day one was on communication features such as chatrooms, instant messaging and forums. Case believed that the app was community — people interacting with each other —. By contrast, competitive services of the such as Prodigy funded by IBM and Sears, focused on shopping. AOLs strategy was to make services available and accessible to the mass market by making them affordable, easy to use, useful. At a time when competing services like CompuServe were charging for each minute of access, within three years, AOLs userbase grew to 10 million, ultimately reaching 26.7 million subscribers at its peak in 2002
Steve Case
–
Steve Case
Steve Case
–
Record producer
Steven Greenberg (center) speaks at
Kinnernet on May 9, 2009.
AOL founder Steve Case (foreground) observes.
Steve Case
–
Laura Bush announces a $60 million partnership between the U.S. Government and the
Case Foundation at the
Clinton Global Initiative conference in New York on September 20, 2006. With her, from left, are: Raymond Chambers, Chairman, MCJ and Amelier Foundations; former President
Bill Clinton; and
Jean Case and Steve Case.
2.
770 Broadway
–
770 Broadway is a large mixed-use commercial office building in NoHo, Manhattan, in lower Manhattan, New York City. The building occupies a square block between 9th and 8th Streets from north to south, and between Broadway and Fourth Avenue, from west to east. It was originally home to the now-defunct Wanamakers department store,770 Broadway was built between 1903 and 1907 as an annex to the original Wanamakers department store in New York, which was located north across 9th Street. The two buildings were connected by a sky bridge, dubbed the Bridge of Progress, as well as a tunnel ran under 9th Street. In 1954, due to the migration of the shopping district. The northern lot was sold in 1955 and a fire in 1956 gutted the building, the annex at 770 Broadway survived, however, and was turned into office space that quickly filled with tenants, among them Chase Manhattan Bank
770 Broadway
–
770 Broadway, from
4th Avenue, with
the Astor Place subway station (
4 6 <6> trains) visible below
3.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
New York City
–
Clockwise, from top:
Midtown Manhattan,
Times Square, the
Unisphere in
Queens, the
Brooklyn Bridge,
Lower Manhattan with
One World Trade Center,
Central Park, the
headquarters of the United Nations, and the
Statue of Liberty
New York City
–
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual
Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year
England took control and renamed it "New York".
New York City
–
The
Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the
American Revolution, took place in
Brooklyn in 1776.
New York City
–
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.
4.
Tim Armstrong (executive)
–
Timothy M. Tim Armstrong is an American business executive, who has been the CEO of AOL Inc since 2009. A Connecticut College graduate in economics and sociology, Armstrong began a career in journalism, before capitalizing on the potential of the Internet. He replaced the outgoing Randy Falco as CEO of AOL on March 12,2009, Armstrong is one of cofounders of the local news website Patch Media, which now belongs to AOL. Armstrongs efforts to downsize the company and control costs and turn the company around has been dubbed as Project Everest by economic commentators. In the 2010s, Armstrong has overseen a number of purchases of platforms for AOL, including the news portal TechCrunch, Gravity, Adapt. tv. In May 2015, when Verizon Communications acquired AOL for $4.4 billion, on behalf of NYC Mayor Michael Bloomberg, he chaired Media. NYC.2020, which reviewed the future of the global media industry and prospects for the government of New York City. He is an investor in New York-based Tequila Avion and Betaworks. Between 1989 and 1993, Armstrong studied for a major in Economics. During his studies he resided in Hamilton House the North Complex for three years, a keen sportsman, he played lacrosse, was on the rowing team, and coached the women’s ice hockey team for four years. He also studied at the Lawrence Academy, and became a trustee of both the Academy and Connecticut College, after graduating from Connecticut College in 1993, Armstrong was responsible for teaching high school students in summer classes at Wellesley College, for a program called Exploration. He joined a company, but quit after six months in frustration. To finance the newspaper, Armstrong and friend Michael Dressler sold their mountain bikes, in the fall of 1994, Armstrong and Dressler closed down BIB to run a larger, rival newspaper, Square Deal at Harvard Square, following the death of its chief editor. Fascinated with the phenomenon of the Internet, Armstrong saw considerable potential for publishing online. He sold Square Deal and commenced working as a director for I-Way. It was run by the Boston-based International Data Group, Armstrong demonstrated his talent for sales early on and was promoted, which led to him being appointed at Seattle-based online entertainment-and-news portal Starwave in 1995. The firm was acquired by Disney in 1998, Armstrong served as the Director of Integrated Sales and Marketing for Starwaves and Disneys ABC and ESPN Internet ventures. While at Starwave he made his first $1 million online-advertising deal with Columbia/HCA, in the summer of 2000, Armstrong was appointed Vice-President of Sales at New York-based news-and-gaming company Snowball. While there he became interested in Google ads and arranged to meet its sales and operations chief, Kordestani invited him to California to meet Sergey Brin and Larry Page, who subsequently appointed him as U. S. sales chief for Google
Tim Armstrong (executive)
–
Armstrong in 2009
5.
Verizon
–
The company is based at 1095 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, but is incorporated in Delaware. Bell Atlantic came into existence in 1984 with a footprint from New Jersey to Virginia, as part of the rebranding that the Baby Bells took in the mid-1990s, all of the operating companies assumed the Bell Atlantic name. In 1997, Bell Atlantic expanded into New York and the New England states by merging with fellow Baby Bell NYNEX, although Bell Atlantic was the surviving company, the merged company moved its headquarters from Philadelphia to NYNEXs old headquarters in New York City. In 2000, Bell Atlantic merged with GTE, which operated telecommunications companies across most of the rest of the country that was not already in Bell Atlantics footprint, Bell Atlantic, the surviving company, changed its name to Verizon, a portmanteau of veritas and horizon. As of 2016, Verizon is one of three companies that had their roots in the former Baby Bells, the other two, like Verizon, exist as a result of mergers among fellow former Baby Bell members. One, SBC Communications, bought out its former parent AT&T Corporation, the other, CenturyLink, was formed initially in 2011 by the acquisition of Qwest. Bell Atlantic Corporation was created as one of the original Regional Bell Operating Companies in 1984, in 1994, Bell Atlantic became the first RBOC to entirely drop the original names of its original operating companies. In 1996, CEO and Chairman Raymond W. Smith orchestrated Bell Atlantics merger with NYNEX, when it merged, it moved its corporate headquarters from Philadelphia to New York City. NYNEX was consolidated into this name by 1997, the approval came with 25 stipulations to preserve competition between local phone carriers, including investing in new markets and broadband technologies. The new venture was headed by co-CEOs Charles Lee, formerly the CEO of GTE, upon its inception, Verizon became the largest local telephone company in the United States, operating 63 million telephone lines in 40 states. The company also inherited 25 million mobile phone customers, additionally, Verizon offered internet services and long-distance calling in New York, before expanding long-distance operations to other states. The name Verizon derives from the combination of the words veritas, Latin for truth, the name was chosen from 8,500 candidates and the company spent $300 million on marketing the new brand. The companies established Verizon Wireless as its own business operated by Bell Atlantic, Vodafone retained 45% of the company. The deal was valued at approximately $70 billion and created a mobile carrier with 23 million customers, Verizon Wireless merged Bell Atlantics wireless network, Vodafones AirTouch and PrimeCo holdings, and the wireless division of GTE. Due to its size, Verizon Wireless was able to offer national coverage at competitive rates, in another partnership with MSN in 2002, Verizon Wireless launched the mobile content service VZW with MSN and a phone that utilized the Microsoft Windows operating system. In August 2000, approximately 85,000 Verizon workers went on an 18-day labor strike after their contracts expired. The strike affected quarterly revenues, resulting in Verizon Wireless postponement of the companys IPO, Verizon launched 3G service in 2002, which doubled the Internet speeds of the time to 144kb a second. In August 2002, Verizon began offering local, long-distance, and mobile calling, as well as Internet service and it was initially only available to customers in New York and Massachusetts
Verizon
–
Verizon service van
Verizon
–
Verizon logo as of September 1, 2015
Verizon
–
Verizon Wireless outlet at the Bangor Mall in
Bangor,
Maine
Verizon
–
Directors
6.
Time Warner
–
Time Warner Inc. is an American multinational media and entertainment conglomerate headquartered in New York City. It is currently the third largest entertainment company in terms of revenue, after Comcast. It was also once the worlds largest media conglomerate, Time Warner was first founded in 1990 with the merger of Time Inc. and Warner Communications. The current company consists largely of the assets of the former Warner Communications, Time Warner currently has major operations in film and television, with a limited amount in publishing operations. Among its most popular assets are HBO, Turner Broadcasting System, The CW Television Network, CNN, DC Comics, and as of August 2016, Hulu, owning 10%. In the past, other divisions of Time Warner included Time Inc. AOL, Time Warner Cable, Warner Books and Warner Music Group, all of these operations were either sold to other investors or spun off as independent companies from 2004 to 2014. On October 22,2016, AT&T announced its intent to acquire Time Warner for $108.7 billion. A strike by the Writers Guild of America and the Alliance of Motion Picture, Time Warner consists of three divisions, Home Box Office Inc. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. and Warner Bros. Home Box Office Inc. operates the namesake HBO premium television service as well as sister service Cinemax, hBO- and Cinemax-branded channels are currently available in over 70 countries around the world, and HBO programming is licensed to other television networks in over 150 countries. In 2012, HBO was the #1 premium pay television service in primetime television, in 2013, the network received five Golden Globes and 23 primetime Emmy Awards. HBO’s programming includes the airing of feature films, HBO Documentary Films, HBO original films, the network has developed content distribution platforms, like HBO GO and Max GO to help support and deliver programming to users via online and mobile devices. In 2011, Cinemax launched its first original series, Strike Back. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. operates international news, entertainment, animation, young adult, Turner brands include CNN, HLN, TNT, TBS, Cartoon Network, Turner Classic Movies, truTV, Turner Sports, and more. Turners brands and sub brands reach broad domestic and international audiences, in addition to television network programming, Turner manages digital sports entities, including bleacherreport. com NBA. com, PGA. com and NCAA. com. Turner Sports produces sports programming and content for the Turner Networks, Turner Sports’ television line-up includes NBA and MLB games, the NCAA Tournament Games, and the PGA Championship. Turner operates PGA. com and related properties of the PGA under agreements with the PGA. Pictures Group grossed 4.3 billion dollars at the box office
Time Warner
–
View of the
Time Warner Center taken from Central Park West
7.
Verizon Communications
–
The company is based at 1095 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, but is incorporated in Delaware. Bell Atlantic came into existence in 1984 with a footprint from New Jersey to Virginia, as part of the rebranding that the Baby Bells took in the mid-1990s, all of the operating companies assumed the Bell Atlantic name. In 1997, Bell Atlantic expanded into New York and the New England states by merging with fellow Baby Bell NYNEX, although Bell Atlantic was the surviving company, the merged company moved its headquarters from Philadelphia to NYNEXs old headquarters in New York City. In 2000, Bell Atlantic merged with GTE, which operated telecommunications companies across most of the rest of the country that was not already in Bell Atlantics footprint, Bell Atlantic, the surviving company, changed its name to Verizon, a portmanteau of veritas and horizon. As of 2016, Verizon is one of three companies that had their roots in the former Baby Bells, the other two, like Verizon, exist as a result of mergers among fellow former Baby Bell members. One, SBC Communications, bought out its former parent AT&T Corporation, the other, CenturyLink, was formed initially in 2011 by the acquisition of Qwest. Bell Atlantic Corporation was created as one of the original Regional Bell Operating Companies in 1984, in 1994, Bell Atlantic became the first RBOC to entirely drop the original names of its original operating companies. In 1996, CEO and Chairman Raymond W. Smith orchestrated Bell Atlantics merger with NYNEX, when it merged, it moved its corporate headquarters from Philadelphia to New York City. NYNEX was consolidated into this name by 1997, the approval came with 25 stipulations to preserve competition between local phone carriers, including investing in new markets and broadband technologies. The new venture was headed by co-CEOs Charles Lee, formerly the CEO of GTE, upon its inception, Verizon became the largest local telephone company in the United States, operating 63 million telephone lines in 40 states. The company also inherited 25 million mobile phone customers, additionally, Verizon offered internet services and long-distance calling in New York, before expanding long-distance operations to other states. The name Verizon derives from the combination of the words veritas, Latin for truth, the name was chosen from 8,500 candidates and the company spent $300 million on marketing the new brand. The companies established Verizon Wireless as its own business operated by Bell Atlantic, Vodafone retained 45% of the company. The deal was valued at approximately $70 billion and created a mobile carrier with 23 million customers, Verizon Wireless merged Bell Atlantics wireless network, Vodafones AirTouch and PrimeCo holdings, and the wireless division of GTE. Due to its size, Verizon Wireless was able to offer national coverage at competitive rates, in another partnership with MSN in 2002, Verizon Wireless launched the mobile content service VZW with MSN and a phone that utilized the Microsoft Windows operating system. In August 2000, approximately 85,000 Verizon workers went on an 18-day labor strike after their contracts expired. The strike affected quarterly revenues, resulting in Verizon Wireless postponement of the companys IPO, Verizon launched 3G service in 2002, which doubled the Internet speeds of the time to 144kb a second. In August 2002, Verizon began offering local, long-distance, and mobile calling, as well as Internet service and it was initially only available to customers in New York and Massachusetts
Verizon Communications
–
Verizon service van
Verizon Communications
Verizon Communications
–
Verizon Wireless outlet at the Bangor Mall in
Bangor,
Maine
Verizon Communications
–
Directors
8.
Brand
–
A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that distinguishes one seller’s product from those of others. Brands are used in business, marketing, and advertising, however, the term has been extended to mean a strategic personality for a product or company, so that ‘brand’ now suggests the values and promises that a consumer may perceive and buy into. Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company from competitors, the key components that form a brands toolbox include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies. Brand equity is the totality of a brands worth and is validated by assessing the effectiveness of these branding components. To reach such an invaluable brand prestige requires a commitment to a way of doing business. A corporation who exhibits a strong brand culture is dedicated on producing intangible outputs such as customer satisfaction, reduced price sensitivity and customer loyalty. A brand is in essence a promise to its customers that they can expect long-term security, when a customer is familiar with a brand or favours it incomparably to its competitors, this is when a corporation has reached a high level of brand equity. Many companies are beginning to understand there is often little to differentiate between products in the 21st century. Branding remains the last bastion for differentiation, in accounting, a brand defined as an intangible asset is often the most valuable asset on a corporation’s balance sheet. The word ‘brand’ is often used as a referring to the company that is strongly identified with a brand. Marque or make are often used to denote a brand of motor vehicle, a concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer awareness or environmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A commodity brand is a associated with a commodity. The word, brand, derives from Dutch brand meaning to burn and this product was developed at Dhosi Hill, an extinct volcano in northern India. Roman glassmakers branded their works, with Ennion being the most prominent, the Italians used brands in the form of watermarks on paper in the 13th century. Blind Stamps, hallmarks, and silver-makers marks are all types of brand, industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or insignia on the barrels used, Bass & Company, the British brewery, claims their red-triangle brand as the worlds first trademark. Another example comes from Antiche Fornaci Giorgi in Italy, which has stamped or carved its bricks with the same proto-logo since 1731, cattle-branding has been used since Ancient Egypt. The term, maverick, originally meaning an un-branded calf, came from a Texas pioneer rancher, Sam Maverick, use of the word maverick spread among cowboys and came to apply to unbranded calves found wandering alone
Brand
–
Ferrari is the world's most powerful brand according to
Brand Finance.
Brand
–
The color, letter font and style of the
Coca-Cola and
Diet Coca-Cola logos in
English were copied into matching
Hebrew logos to maintain brand identity in Israel.
9.
Internet
–
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
Internet
–
The Internet Messenger by
Buky Schwartz in
Holon.
Internet
–
An
Opte Project visualization of
routing paths through a portion of the Internet
Internet
–
ICANN headquarters in the
Playa Vista neighborhood of
Los Angeles, California, United States.
Internet
–
This
NeXT Computer was used by
Tim Berners-Lee at
CERN and became the world's first
Web server.
10.
Internet service provider
–
An Internet service provider is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation. The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities, by the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995,4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US and its first customer was served in November 1989. On 23 April 2014, the U. S, a possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, the FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times. On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to free speech. They both stand for the same concept, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the rule on its new Net Neutrality regulations. ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network, available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable, wireless Ethernet, and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line, using fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access, a mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services, other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation
Internet service provider
–
Local ISP in Manhattan installing fiber for provisioning Internet access
11.
E-mail
–
Electronic mail, or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages between people using digital devices such as computers and mobile phones. Email first entered use in the 1960s and by the mid-1970s had taken the form now recognized as email. Email operates across computer networks, which today is primarily the Internet, some early email systems required the author and the recipient to both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Todays email systems are based on a store-and-forward model, Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Originally an ASCII text-only communications medium, Internet email was extended by Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions to carry text in character sets. International email, with internationalized email addresses using UTF-8, has been standardized, the history of modern Internet email services reaches back to the early ARPANET, with standards for encoding email messages published as early as 1973. An email message sent in the early 1970s looks very similar to an email sent today. Email played an important part in creating the Internet, and the conversion from ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current services, historically, the term electronic mail was used generically for any electronic document transmission. For example, several writers in the early 1970s used the term to describe fax document transmission, as a result, it is difficult to find the first citation for the use of the term with the more specific meaning it has today. This spelling also appears in most dictionaries, Mail was the form used in the original protocol standard, RFC524. The service is referred to as mail, and a piece of electronic mail is called a message. EMail is a form that has been used in RFCs for the Authors Address and is expressly required for historical reasons. E-mail is sometimes used, capitalizing the initial E as in similar abbreviations like E-piano, E-guitar, A-bomb, by 1968, AUTODIN linked more than 300 sites in several countries. With the introduction of MITs Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, multiple users could log in to a system from remote dial-up terminals. Informal methods of using this to pass messages were developed and expanded,1965 – MITs CTSS MAIL and it used the Unix mail client to send messages between system users. The concept was extended to communicate remotely over the Berkeley Network,1979 – EMAIL, an application written by Shiva Ayyadurai for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. 1979 – MH Message Handling System developed at RAND provided several tools for managing electronic mail on Unix, most of them only allowed communication between users logged into the same host or mainframe, although there might be hundreds or thousands of users within an organization. In the early 1980s, networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important, server-based systems similar to the earlier mainframe systems were developed
E-mail
–
The
at sign, a part of every SMTP
email address.
12.
Instant messaging
–
Instant messaging is a type of online chat that offers real-time text transmission over the Internet. A LAN messenger operates in a way over a local area network. Short messages are typically transmitted bi-directionally between two parties, when each user chooses to complete a thought and select send, some IM applications can use push technology to provide real-time text, which transmits messages character by character, as they are composed. More advanced instant messaging can add file transfer, clickable hyperlinks, Voice over IP, non-IM types of chat include multicast transmission, usually referred to as chat rooms, where participants might be anonymous or might be previously known to each other. Instant messaging systems tend to facilitate connections between specified known users, depending on the IM protocol, the technical architecture can be peer-to-peer or client-server. Instant messaging is a set of technologies used for text-based communication between two or more participants over the Internet or other types of networks. Of importance is that online chat and instant messaging differ from other such as email due to the perceived quasi-synchrony of the communications by the users. Some systems permit messages to be sent to users not then logged on, IM allows effective and efficient communication, allowing immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply. However IM is basically not necessarily supported by transaction control, in many cases, instant messaging includes added features which can make it even more popular. For example, users may see each other via webcams, or talk directly for free over the Internet using a microphone, many applications allow file transfers, although they are usually limited in the permissible file-size. It is usually possible to save a text conversation for later reference, Instant messages are often logged in a local message history, making it similar to the persistent nature of emails. Initially, some of these systems were used as notification systems for services like printing, as networks developed, the protocols spread with the networks. Some of these used a peer-to-peer protocol, while others required peers to connect to a server, the Zephyr Notification Service was invented at MITs Project Athena in the 1980s to allow service providers to locate and send messages to users. Parallel to instant messaging were early online chat facilities, the earliest of which was Talkomatic on the PLATO system, during the bulletin board system phenomenon that peaked during the 1980s, some systems incorporated chat features which were similar to instant messaging, Freelancin Roundtable was one prime example. The first such general-availability commercial online service was the CompuServe CB Simulator in 1980, created by CompuServe executive Alexander Sandy Trevor in Columbus. Early instant messaging programs were primarily real-time text, where appeared as they were typed. This includes the Unix talk command line program, which was popular in the 1980s, some BBS chat programs also used a similar interface. Modern implementations of real-time text also exist in instant messengers, such as AOLs Real-Time IM as an optional feature, (Quantum Link later became America Online and made AOL Instant Messenger
Instant messaging
–
A
buddy list in
Pidgin 2.0
13.
Web browser
–
A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier that may be a web page, image, hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, the most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari, Opera and Firefox. The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the Webs continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus, the first commonly available web browser with a graphical user interface was Erwise. The development of Erwise was initiated by Robert Cailliau, andreesens browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use, Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industrys first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market, Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996, it has never achieved widespread use and it is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendos Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model, as of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apples Safari had its first beta release in January 2003, as of April 2011, the most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chromes take-up has increased year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, in December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chromes user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chromes usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined, by April 2014, Chromes usage had hit 45%. Internet Explorer was deprecated in Windows 10, with Microsoft Edge replacing it as the web browser. The ways that web browser makers fund their development costs has changed over time, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, was a research project. In addition to being freeware, Netscape Navigator and Opera were also sold commercially, Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system, and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac, in this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through lock-in to Microsofts browser
Web browser
–
Marc Andreessen, inventor of Netscape
Web browser
–
Usage share of web browsers according to
StatCounter
Web browser
–
Some home media devices now include web browsers, like this
LG Smart TV. The browser is controlled using an on-screen keyboard and LG's "Magic Motion" remote.
14.
Netscape
–
When it was an independent company, its headquarters were in Mountain View, California. Netscapes web browser was dominant in terms of usage share. The usage share of Netscape had fallen from over ninety percent in the mid-1990s to less than one percent by the end of 2006, Netscape stock traded from 1995 until 1999 when it was acquired by AOL in a pooling-of-interests transaction ultimately worth US $10 billion. Shortly before its acquisition by AOL, Netscape released the code for its browser. The Mozilla Organization rewrote the entire source code based on the Gecko rendering engine. The Gecko engine would later be used to power the Mozilla Foundations Firefox browser, under AOL, Netscapes browser development continued until December 2007 when AOL announced that the company would stop supporting the Netscape browser as of early 2008. As of 2011, AOL has continued to use the Netscape brand to market a discount Internet service provider, Netscape was the first company to attempt to capitalize on the nascent World Wide Web. The first meeting between Clark and Andreessen was never truly about a software or service like Netscape, but more about a product that was similar to Nintendo, Clark recruited other early team members from SGI and NCSA Mosaic. Jim Barksdale came on board as CEO in January 1995, jim Clark and Marc Andreessen originally created a 20-page concept pitch for an online gaming network to Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 console, but a deal was never reached. Marc Andreessen explains, If they had shipped a year earlier, the companys first product was the web browser, called Mosaic Netscape 0.9, released on October 13,1994. Within four months of its release, it had already taken three-quarters of the browser market and it became the main browser for Internet users in such a short time due to its superiority over other competition, like Mosaic. The Mosaic Netscape web browser did not use any NCSA Mosaic code, the internal codename for the companys browser was Mozilla, which stood for Mosaic killer, as the companys goal was to displace NCSA Mosaic as the worlds number one web browser. A cartoon Godzilla-like lizard mascot was drawn by artist-employee Dave Titus, the Mozilla mascot featured prominently on Netscapes web site in the companys early years. However, the need to project a professional image led to this being removed. On August 9,1995, Netscape made an extremely successful IPO, the stock was set to be offered at US$14 per share, but a last-minute decision doubled the initial offering to US$28 per share. The stocks value soared to US$75 during the first day of trading, the stock closed at US$58.25, which gave Netscape a market value of US$2.9 billion. While it was unusual for a company to go public prior to becoming profitable, Netscapes revenues had, in fact, the success of this IPO subsequently inspired the use of the term Netscape moment to describe a high-visibility IPO that signals the dawn of a new industry. During this period, Netscape also pursued a publicity strategy packaging Andreessen as the rock star
Netscape
–
Netscape Communications
Netscape
–
Original green and purple
Mozilla mascot, a
Godzilla -like lizard which represented the company's goal of producing the browser that would be the "Mosaic killer".
15.
Spin-off (corporate)
–
A corporate spin-off, also known as a spin-out, or starburst, is a type of corporate action where a company splits off a section as a separate business. Shareholders of the parent company receive equivalent shares in the new company in order to compensate for the loss of equity in the original stocks. In contrast, divestment can also sever one business from another, many times the management team of the new company are from the same parent organization. Spin-offs also allow high-growth divisions, once separated from other low-growth divisions, the United States Securities and Exchange Commissions definition of spin-off is more precise. Spin-offs occur when the equity owners of the parent company receive equity stakes in the spun off company. For example, when Agilent Technologies was spun off from Hewlett-Packard in 1999, a company not considered a spin-off in the SECs definition may also be called a spin-off in common usage. A second definition of a spin-out is a firm formed when an employee or group of leaves a existing entity to form an independent start-up firm. The prior employer can be a firm, a university, or another organization, spin-outs typically operate at arms length from the previous organizations and have independent sources of financing, products, services, customers, and other assets. In some cases, the spin-out may license technology from the parent or supply the parent with products or services, conversely, such spin-outs are important sources of technological diffusion in high-tech industries. For example, Fosters Group, an Australian beverage company, was prepared to sell its wine business, but due to the lack of a decent offer, it decided to spin off the wine business, which is now called Treasury Wine Estates. Some examples of spin-offs, Guidant was spun off from Eli Lilly and Company in 1994, formed from Lillys Medical Devices, Agilent Technologies spun off from Hewlett-Packard in 1999, formed from HPs former test-and-measurement equipment division. Cenovus Energy was spun off from Encana Corporation in 2009, ocean Rig UDW Inc was spun off from Dryships Inc in September 2011. AOL was a Time Warner spin-off, this effectively was a demerger, DreamWorks Animation was spun off from DreamWorks Studios in 2004. Nuage Networks was spun off from Alcatel Lucent in 2012 News Corporations publishing operations were spun off as News Corp in 2013, the previous News Corporations remaining media properties were retained under the name 21st Century Fox. Over £266 million in external investment has been raised by Isis spin-out companies since 2000, mirror company formation is a specialized form of spin-off used to create a new public company. It simplifies the process of listing the shares on a stock exchange. It works by a public company issuing a bonus share at a 1-for-1 rate in the new company. This new company is sold to another company that does not want to go through the complex
Spin-off (corporate)
–
Capital structure
16.
Microsoft
–
Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
Microsoft
–
Front lobby entrance of building 17, one of the largest buildings on Microsoft's main campus in Redmond
Microsoft
–
Paul Allen (l.) and
Bill Gates (r.) on October 19, 1981, in a sea of PCs after signing a pivotal contract. IBM called Microsoft in July 1980 inquiring about
programming languages for its upcoming PC line; after failed negotiations with another company, IBM gave Microsoft a contract to develop the OS for the new line of PCs.
Microsoft
–
Bill Gates giving his deposition in 1998 for the
United States v. Microsoft trial.
Microsoft
–
In 1996, Microsoft released Windows CE, a version of the operating system meant for personal digital assistants and other tiny computers.
17.
Millennial Media
–
Millennial Media is an advertising company that places display ads on mobile devices. On September 3,2015, AOL agreed to buy Millennial Media for US$238 million, on October 23,2015, AOL completed the acquisition. The company is based in Baltimore, with offices in Boston, London, Singapore, New York City, Millennial Media was founded in May 2006 by Paul Palmieri and Chris Brandenburg. On January 27,2014, Palmieri stepped down from his position and was replaced by Michael Barrett, Millennial Media has acquired several companies, including TapMetrics in 2010, Condaptive in 2011, Jumptap in 2013, and Nexage in 2014. Beginning in March 2009, Millennial Media has provided regular research reports, Millennial Media has won several awards. Millennial Media received $64. 8M in funding between 2007 and 2011, in January 2012, Millennial Media filed with the SEC for an initial public offering of its common stock, and the company was first listed in March 2012. When Millennial Media went public, it was noted that The company has never been profitable since its inception in 2006, in the second quarter of 2014, Millennial Medias stock lost more than one-fourth of its value, finishing the quarter in the bottom 2% of NYSE-listed stocks. In July,2014, several analysts downgraded their ratings of the companys stock, in 2014, former Yahoo and Google executive Michael Barrett was appointed Millennial Medias new CEO
Millennial Media
–
Millennial Media
18.
GameLine
–
GameLine was a dialup game distribution service for the Atari 2600, developed and operated by Control Video Corporation. Subscribers could install the proprietary modem and storage cartridge in their game console. GameLine is notable for its selection of games, and for its pioneering business model which eventually gave rise to America Online. Legal issues caused cable providers to step away from the service, leaving Von Meister with a delivery tool and he then converted his variable speed adaptive modem technology to download games from central servers to individual households. This allowed users to dial a system and, for a fee, the game would typically work for 5-10 plays, after which the user would have to connect to GameLine again and pay for another download. The Master Module physically resembles an oversized silver Atari cartridge and it has a phone jack on the side that was used to link the Master Module with the CVC computers. The module is able to transmit with pulse or tone dialing, allowing the unit to be versatile in the field, the games available on the GameLine service were all from third-party gamemakers, the largest of which was Imagic. CVC tried, but failed to obtain licensing agreements from the largest game makers, such as Atari, Activision, Coleco, Mattel, when a user registered with the service, they were given a PIN. This PIN was used to log in to the central CVC computer, one of the benefits of registering was that users were given free games on their birthday. GameLine provided players an opportunity to compete in contests with selected games, prizes would be awarded to regional champions. One such regional prize was a GameLine windbreaker, each subscriber to GameLine also received a professionally printed magazine titled GameLiner. GameLiner consists of information about new games added to the service, questions and answers, advice on better gameplay, GameLine ceased operations before any of these expanded services were offered, though StockLine and SportsLine were reportedly near complete implementation. Control Video Corporation was one of smaller companies that went bust in the video game crash of 1983. Even though the GameLine was discontinued, the investors and founding members of CVC went on to start a new company that would continue to use the infrastructure they had built. The company, named Quantum Computer Services, was created by Steve Case and this company created a service named Quantum Link which linked together Commodore 64 and Commodore 128 users offering many of the expanded services originally envisioned for GameLine. Though the company still exists, support for the GameLine does not. The game titled Save The Whales was exclusive to the GameLine and although it was never released on a cartridge, a description of the GameLine exclusive game Save the Whales
GameLine
–
Games
19.
Atari 2600
–
The Atari 2600 is a home video game console by Atari, Inc. This format contrasts with the model of having non-microprocessor dedicated hardware. The console was sold as the Atari VCS, an abbreviation for Video Computer System. Following the release of the Atari 5200 in 1982, the VCS was renamed to the Atari 2600, after the units Atari part number, CX2600. The 2600 was typically bundled with two controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridge, initially Combat. Ted Dabney and Nolan Bushnell developed the Atari gaming system in the 1970s, originally operating under the name Syzygy, Bushnell and Dabney changed the name of their company to Atari in 1972. In 1973, Atari Inc. had purchased an engineering think tank called Cyan Engineering to research next-generation video game systems, and had been working on a prototype known as Stella for some time. Unlike prior generations of machines that use custom logic to play a number of games, its core is a complete CPU. It was combined with a RAM-and-I/O chip, the MOS Technology 6532, the first two versions of the machine contain a fourth chip, a standard CMOS logic buffer IC, making Stella cost-effective. Some later versions of the console eliminated the buffer chip, programs for small computers of the time were generally stored on cassette tapes, floppy disks, or paper tape. In 1976, Fairchild Semiconductor released their own CPU-based system, the Video Entertainment System. Stella was still not ready for production, but it was clear that it needed to be there were a number of me too products filling up the market. Atari Inc. didnt have the flow to complete the system quickly. Nolan Bushnell eventually turned to Warner Communications, and sold the company to them in 1976 for US$28 million on the promise that Stella would be produced as soon as possible. Key to the success of the machine was the hiring of Jay Miner. Once that was completed and debugged, the system was ready for shipping, the unit was originally priced at US$199, and shipped with two joysticks and a Combat cartridge. In a move to compete directly with the Channel F, Atari Inc. named the machine the Video Computer System, as the Channel F was at that point known as the VES, for Video Entertainment System. The VCS was also rebadged as the Sears Video Arcade and sold through Sears, Roebuck, another breakthrough for gaming systems was Ataris invention of a computer-controlled opponent, rather than the usual two-player or asymmetric challenges of the past
Atari 2600
–
Atari 2600 four-switch "wood veneer" version, dating from 1980–82
Atari 2600
–
The second 2600 model is the "Light Sixer" which has lighter plastic molding and shielding than the 1977 launch model.
Atari 2600
–
Later 2600 models only used four front switches.
Atari 2600
–
The all black "Darth Vader" 4-switch model from 1982-
20.
Video game console
–
A video game console is an electronic, digital or computer device that outputs a video signal or visual image to display a video game that one or more people can play. The term video game console is used to distinguish a console machine primarily designed for consumers to use for playing video games. An arcade machine consists of a video game computer, display, game controller, a home computer is a personal computer designed for home use for a variety of purposes, such as bookkeeping, accessing the Internet and playing video games. There are various types of game consoles, including home video game consoles, handheld game consoles, microconsoles. Although Ralph Baer had built working game consoles by 1966, it was nearly a decade before the Pong game made them commonplace in regular peoples living rooms. Through evolution over the 1990s and 2000s, game consoles have expanded to additional functions such as CD players, DVD players, Blu-ray disc players, web browsers, set-top boxes. The first video appeared in the 1960s. They were played on massive computers connected to vector displays, not analog televisions, Ralph H. Baer conceived the idea of a home video game in 1951. In the late 1960s, while working for Sanders Associates, Baer created a series of game console designs. In 1972, Magnavox released the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home game console which could be connected to a TV set. Magnavox replaced the switch design with separate cartridges for each game, by autumn 1975, Magnavox, bowing to the popularity of Pong, cancelled the Odyssey and released a scaled-down version that played only Pong and hockey, the Odyssey 100. A second, higher end console, the Odyssey 200, was released with the 100 and added on-screen scoring, up to four players, almost simultaneously released with Ataris own home Pong console through Sears, these consoles jump-started the consumer market. All three of the new consoles used simpler designs than the original Odyssey did with no board game pieces or extra cartridges, in the years that followed, the market saw many companies rushing similar consoles to market. Most of the consoles from this era were dedicated consoles playing only the games came with the console. These video game consoles were often just called video games, because there was reason to distinguish the two yet. While a few companies like Atari, Magnavox, and newcomer Coleco pushed the envelope, Fairchild released the Fairchild Video Entertainment System in 1976. The VES, however, contained a programmable microprocessor so its cartridges only needed a single ROM chip to store microprocessor instructions, RCA and Atari soon released their own cartridge-based consoles, the RCA Studio II and the Atari 2600, respectively. The first handheld console with interchangeable cartridges was the Microvision designed by Smith Engineering
Video game console
–
The
Magnavox Odyssey was the first video game console, released in 1972.
Video game console
–
The
Atari 2600 became the most popular game console of the second generation.
Video game console
–
The
NES made home console video games popular again in America after the 1983 crash.
21.
Warner Bros.
–
Entertainment Inc. – colloquially known as Warner Bros. or Warner Bros. It is one of the Big Six major American film studios, Warner Bros. is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America. The companys name originated from the four founding Warner brothers, Harry, Albert, Sam, Jack, the youngest, was born in London, Ontario. The three elder brothers began in the theater business, having acquired a movie projector with which they showed films in the mining towns of Pennsylvania. In the beginning, Sam and Albert Warner invested $150 to present Life of an American Fireman and they opened their first theater, the Cascade, in New Castle, Pennsylvania, in 1903. When the original building was in danger of being demolished, the modern Warner Bros. called the current building owners, the owners noted people across the country had asked them to protect it for its historical significance. In 1904, the Warners founded the Pittsburgh-based Duquesne Amusement & Supply Company, in 1912, Harry Warner hired an auditor named Paul Ashley Chase. By the time of World War I they had begun producing films, in 1918 they opened the first Warner Bros. studio on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood. Sam and Jack produced the pictures, while Harry and Albert, along with their auditor and now controller Chase, handled finance and distribution in New York City. During World War I their first nationally syndicated film, My Four Years in Germany, on April 4,1923, with help from money loaned to Harry by his banker Motley Flint, they formally incorporated as Warner Brothers Pictures, Incorporated. The first important deal was the acquisition of the rights to Avery Hopwoods 1919 Broadway play, The Gold Diggers, however, Rin Tin Tin, a dog brought from France after World War I by an American soldier, established their reputation. Rin Tin Tin debuted in the feature Where the North Begins, the movie was so successful that Jack signed the dog to star in more films for $1,000 per week. Rin Tin Tin became the top star. Jack nicknamed him The Mortgage Lifter and the success boosted Darryl F. Zanucks career, Zanuck eventually became a top producer and between 1928 and 1933 served as Jacks right-hand man and executive producer, with responsibilities including day-to-day film production. More success came after Ernst Lubitsch was hired as head director, lubitschs film The Marriage Circle was the studios most successful film of 1924, and was on The New York Times best list for that year. Despite the success of Rin Tin Tin and Lubitsch, Warners remained a lesser studio, Sam and Jack decided to offer Broadway actor John Barrymore the lead role in Beau Brummel. The film was so successful that Harry signed Barrymore to a contract, like The Marriage Circle. By the end of 1924, Warner Bros. was arguably Hollywoods most successful independent studio, as the studio prospered, it gained backing from Wall Street, and in 1924 Goldman Sachs arranged a major loan
Warner Bros.
Warner Bros.
–
Warner Bros.
Warner Bros.
–
Lobby card from Open Your Eyes (1919)
Warner Bros.
–
Lobby card from
The Beautiful and Damned (1922)
22.
Modem
–
The Democratic Movement is a centrist political party in France, which is characterised by a strong pro-European stance. MoDem was founded by François Bayrou to succeed the Union for French Democracy and contest the 2007 legislative election, initially named the Democratic Party, the party was renamed Democratic Movement, because there was already a small Democratic Party in France. The MoDem traces its roots in the Union for French Democracy, traditionally, the UDF had always supported centre-right governments since its creation by Valéry Giscard dEstaing. However, during the term of Jacques Chirac, the UDF became increasingly independent from the UMP. On the initiative of its leader François Bayrou, it supported a censure motion along with the Socialist Party. During the 2007 presidential campaign, François Bayrou advocated a national unity government and he presented himself as a centrist and a social-liberal, proclaiming that if elected, he would govern beyond the left-right divide. Although eliminated in the first round, a number of voters supported him. Following the election, he founded the Democratic Movement on the 29 May to reinforce his strategy of political independence, MoDem was also supported by the Union of Radical Republicans. Some members of the UDF did not agree with this new strategy because the weighted French balloting system would hinder the Democratic Movement from obtaining seats in the legislative elections and these members created the New Centre, continuing their support for the newly elected president Nicolas Sarkozy. The MoDem won 7. 6% of the votes in the first round of the June 2007 legislative election, candidates ran under the UDF-MoDem banner, since the party had not yet been created officially. The party gained three seats in the National Assembly of France, thierry Benoit, one of the four MPs, has been vocally critical of the party, but he actually sits for the MoDem and defends the movements policies. He stated that he had been elected jointly by centre-right and left-wing citizens, the MoDem became an official political party on 1 December 2007 following its founding assembly in Villepinte, Seine-Saint-Denis, in the suburbs of Paris. The assembly elected Bayrou, who ran uncontested, as the party president, on 30 November 2007, the UDF effectively ceased to exist, and was fully integrated within MoDem. At the 2012 presidential election Bayrou won 9. 3% of the vote, a half of what he had obtained five years before. In the subsequent legislative election the party was reduced to 1. 8%, in the city counting more than 10,000 inhabitants, the party scored an average of 15%, winning over 50 cities. In an alliance with the Union of Democrats and Independents, also a successor of the Union for French Democracy, in 2004, François Bayrou launched the European Democratic Party along with Francesco Rutellis Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy. In 2005 the EDP created, along with the New Democrat Coalition of the United States Democratic Party, the Alliance of Democrats, a worldwide network of centrist and social liberal parties
Modem
–
François Bayrou
Modem
23.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
United States dollar
–
Series of 1917
$1 United States bill
United States dollar
–
Federal Reserve Notes
United States dollar
–
Spanish silver real or
peso of 1768
United States dollar
–
Obverse of rare 1934 $500 Federal Reserve Note, featuring a portrait of President
William McKinley.
24.
Commodore 64
–
The Commodore 64, also known as the C64, C-64, C=64, or occasionally CBM64 or VIC-64 in Sweden, is an 8-bit home computer introduced in January 1982 by Commodore International. It is listed in the Guinness World Records as the single computer model of all time. Volume production started in early 1982, marketing in August for US$595, preceded by the Commodore VIC-20 and Commodore PET, the C64 took its name from its 64 kilobytes of RAM. It had superior sound and graphical specifications compared to earlier systems such as the Apple II and Atari 800, with multi-color sprites. The C64 dominated the low-end computer market for most of the 1980s. Sam Tramiel, a later Atari president and the son of Commodores founder, said in a 1989 interview, When I was at Commodore we were building 400,000 C64s a month for a couple of years. In the UK market, the C64 faced competition from the BBC Micro and the ZX Spectrum, part of the Commodore 64s success was its sale in regular retail stores instead of only electronics and/or computer hobbyist specialty stores. Commodore produced many of its parts in-house to control costs, including custom integrated circuit chips from MOS Technology and it has been compared to the Ford Model T automobile for its role in bringing a new technology to middle-class households via creative and affordable mass-production. Approximately 10,000 commercial software titles have made for the Commodore 64 including development tools, office productivity applications. C64 emulators allow anyone with a computer, or a compatible video game console. The C64 is also credited with popularizing the computer demoscene and is used today by some computer hobbyists. In 2008,17 years after it was taken off the market, in January 1981, MOS Technology, Inc. Commodores integrated circuit design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic, Design work for the chips, named MOS Technology VIC-II and MOS Technology SID, was completed in November 1981. Commodore then began a game console project that would use the new chips—called the Ultimax or the Commodore MAX Machine and this project was eventually cancelled after just a few machines were manufactured for the Japanese market. At the same time, Robert Bob Russell and Robert Bob Yannes were critical of the current product line-up at Commodore, with the support of Al Charpentier and Charles Winterble, they proposed to Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel a true low-cost sequel to the VIC-20. Tramiel dictated that the machine should have 64 KB of random-access memory, although 64-Kbit dynamic random-access memory chips cost over US$100 at the time, he knew that DRAM prices were falling, and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached. The product was named the VIC-40 as the successor to the popular VIC-20. The team that constructed it consisted of Yash Terakura, Bob Russell, Bob Yannes, the design, prototypes and some sample software were finished in time for the show, after the team had worked tirelessly over both Thanksgiving and Christmas weekends
Commodore 64
–
Game cartridges for
Radar Rat Race and
International Soccer
Commodore 64
–
Commodore 64
Commodore 64
–
Commodore SX-64
Commodore 64
–
Commodore 64c with
1541-II floppy disk drive and 1084S monitor displaying television-compatible
S-video
25.
Commodore 128
–
The Commodore 128, also known as the C128, C-128, C=128, or occasionally CBM128, is the last 8-bit home computer that was commercially released by Commodore Business Machines. Introduced in January 1985 at the CES in Las Vegas, it appeared three years after its predecessor, the bestselling Commodore 64, the C128 is a significantly expanded successor to the C64, with nearly full compatibility. The newer machine has 128 kB of RAM in two 64 kB banks, and an 80-column color video output and it has a redesigned case and keyboard. Also included is a Zilog Z80 CPU which allows the C128 to run CP/M, the presence of the Z80 and the huge CP/M software library it brings, coupled with the C64s software library, gives the C128 one of the broadest ranges of available software among its competitors. The primary hardware designer of the C128 was Bil Herd, who had worked on the Plus/4, other hardware engineers were Dave Haynie and Frank Palaia, while the IC design work was done by Dave DiOrio. The main Commodore system software was developed by Fred Bowen and Terry Ryan, the C128s keyboard includes four cursor keys, an Alt key, Help key, Esc key, Tab key and a numeric keypad. None of these were present on the C64, previous Commodores had only two cursor keys, which required using the Shift key to move the cursor up or left. This alternate arrangement was retained on the 128, for use under C64 mode, the lack of a numeric keypad, Alt key, and Esc key on the C64 was an issue with some CP/M productivity software when used with the C64s Z80 cartridge. A keypad was requested by many C64 owners who spent long hours entering machine language programs using MLX, many of the added keys matched counterparts present on the IBM PCs keyboard and made the new computer more attractive to business software developers. While the 128s 40-column mode closely duplicates that of the C64, the C128s power supply is improved over the C64s unreliable design, being much larger and equipped with cooling vents and a replaceable fuse. The C128 does not perform a system RAM test on power-up like previous Commodore machines, instead of the single 6510 microprocessor of the C64, the C128 incorporates a two-CPU design. The primary CPU, the 8502, is an improved version of the 6510. The second CPU is a Zilog Z80 which is used to run CP/M software, the two processors cannot run concurrently, thus the C128 is not a multiprocessing system. The C128s complex architecture includes four differently accessed kinds of RAM, early versions of the C128 occasionally experience temperature-related reliability issues due to the use of an electromagnetic shield over the main circuit board. The shield was equipped with fingers that contacted the tops of the major chips, the SID sound chip is particularly vulnerable in this respect. The most common remedy is to remove the shield, which Commodore had added late in development in order to comply with FCC radio-frequency regulations, the C128 has three operating modes. C128 Mode runs at 1 or 2 MHz with the 8502 CPU and has both 40- and 80-column text modes available, CP/M Mode uses both the Z80 and the 8502 and is able to function in both 40- or 80-column text mode. C64 Mode is nearly 100 percent compatible with the earlier computer, selection of these modes is implemented via the Z80 chip
Commodore 128
–
C128 Main board
Commodore 128
–
Using CP/M mode required use of a boot diskette. The diskette was included with the computer, which did not include a disk drive.
Commodore 128
–
Photo from the 1980s showing a typical C128 set-up with two disk drives and two monitors displaying the independent 40 and 80 column screens. Many users continued to use the 1541 inherited from their C64 system as a second drive.
Commodore 128
–
Commodore 128D on display at the
Musée Bolo,
EPFL, Lausanne.
26.
Apple II
–
The Apple II is an 8-bit home computer, one of the first highly successful mass-produced microcomputer products, designed primarily by Steve Wozniak. It was introduced in 1977 at the West Coast Computer Faire by Jobs and was the first consumer product sold by Apple Computer and it is the first model in a series of computers which were produced until Apple IIe production ceased in November 1993. The Apple II marks Apples first launch of a computer aimed at a consumer market – branded towards American households rather than businessmen or computer hobbyists. Along with the PET2001 and the TRS-80, Byte magazine referred to these as the 1977 Trinity of personal computing. The Apple II had the feature of being able to display color graphics. By 1976, Steve Jobs had convinced the product designer Jerry Manock to create the shell for the Apple II – a smooth case inspired by kitchen appliances that would conceal the internal mechanics. The earliest Apple IIs were assembled in Silicon Valley, and later in Texas, printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland, the original retail price of the computer was $1,298 and $2,638. To reflect the color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing has rainbow stripes. Perhaps most significantly, the Apple II was a catalyst for personal computers across many industries, the Apple II used a multiplicity of idiosyncratic engineering shortcuts to save hardware and reduce costs. This arrangement simultaneously eliminated the need for a separate circuit for the DRAM chips. Similarly, in the graphics mode, color is determined by pixel position and can thus be implemented in software. This also allows for subpixel font rendering since orange and blue pixels appear half a pixel-width farther to the right on the screen than green, the Apple II at first used data cassette storage like most other microcomputers of the time. In 1978 the company introduced an external 5 1⁄4-inch floppy disk drive, the Disk II interface, created by Wozniak, is regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components. The approach taken in the Disk II controller is typical of Wozniaks designs, with a few small-scale logic chips and a cheap PROM, he created a functional floppy-disk interface at a fraction of the component cost of standard circuit configurations. The cost of such terminals could easily exceed the price of the computer itself, the Apple IIs PCB underwent several revisions as Steve Wozniak made modifications to it. The earliest version was known as Revision 0, and the first 6000 units shipped used it, later revisions added a color killer circuit to prevent color fringing when the computer was in text mode, as well as modifications to improve the reliability of cassette I/O. Revision 0 Apple IIs powered up in a mode and had garbage on screen. This was eliminated on the later board revisions, Revision 0 Apple IIs could display only four colors, but Wozniak was later able to generate 16 in low-res mode
Apple II
–
Apple-II computer on display at the private
Musée Bolo from the
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne in
Lausanne.
Apple II
–
An Apple II computer with an external
modem
Apple II
–
Products and projects
27.
Apple Computer
–
Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
Apple Computer
–
Apple Campus (1
Infinite Loop,
Cupertino, California)
Apple Computer
–
Apple Inc.
Apple Computer
–
Home of Paul and Clara Jobs, on Crist Drive in
Los Altos, California.
Steve Jobs formed Apple Computer in its garage with
Steve Wozniak and
Ronald Wayne in 1976.
Apple Computer
–
The
Apple I, Apple's first product, was sold as an assembled circuit board and lacked basic features such as a keyboard, monitor, and case. The owner of this unit added a keyboard and a wooden case.
28.
Apple II family
–
Introduced at the West Coast Computer Faire on April 16,1977, the Apple II was among the first successful personal computers, it launched the Apple company into a successful business. Throughout the years, a number of models were sold, with the most popular model remaining relatively little changed into the 1990s, while primarily an 8-bit computer, by mid-run a 16-bit model was introduced. It was first sold on June 10,1977, by the end of production in 1993, somewhere between five and six million Apple II series computers had been produced. The Apple II was one of the longest running mass-produced home computer series, the Apple II became one of several recognizable and successful computers during the 1980s and early 1990s, although this was mainly limited to the USA. The original Apple II operating system was in ROM along with Integer BASIC, programs were entered, then saved and loaded on cassette tape. When the Disk II was implemented in 1978 by Steve Wozniak, the final and most popular version of this software was Apple DOS3.3. Some commercial Apple II software booted directly and did not use standard DOS formats and this discouraged the copying or modifying of the software on the disks and improved loading speed. Apple DOS was superseded by ProDOS, which supported a hierarchical filesystem, with an optional third-party Z80-based expansion card the Apple II could boot into the CP/M operating system and run WordStar, dBase II, and other CP/M software. At the height of its evolution, towards the late 1980s, by 1992, the platform had 16-bit processing capabilities, a mouse-driven graphical user interface, and graphics and sound capabilities far beyond the original. At its peak, it was an industry with its associated community of third-party developers and retailers. The Apple IIGS was sold until the end of 1992, the last II-series Apple in production, total Apple II sales for its 14-year run were about 6 million units, with the peak occurring in 1983 when 1 million were sold. The Apple II was designed to more like a home appliance than a piece of electronic equipment. The Apple II had color and high-resolution graphics modes, sound capabilities, the Apple II was targeted for the masses rather than just hobbyists and engineers, it also influenced most of the microcomputers that followed it. Unlike preceding home microcomputers, it was sold as a consumer appliance rather than as a kit. VanLOVEs Apple Handbook and The Apple Educators Guide by Gerald VanDiver, the Apple dealer network used this book to emphasize the growing software developer base in education and personal use. The Apple II series had a built into the motherboard shell. An upgrade kit was later to house the motherboard of an Apple IIGS in an Apple IIe case. The Apple II case was durable enough, according to a 1981 Apple ad, early II-series models were usually designated Apple ][ plus
Apple II family
–
An Apple II computer with an internal
modem and external
DAA
Apple II family
–
The 1977 Apple II, shown here with two Disk II floppy disk drives and a 1980s-era Apple Monitor II. The Apple II featured an integrated keyboard, sound, a plastic case, and eight internal expansion slots.
Apple II family
–
Apple II Plus
Apple II family
–
Apple II J-Plus
29.
Apple Macintosh
–
The Macintosh (/ˈmækᵻntɒʃ/ MAK-in-tosh, is a series of personal computers designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. Steve Jobs introduced the original Macintosh computer on January 24,1984 and this was the companys first mass-market personal computer featuring an integral graphical user interface and mouse. This first model was renamed to Macintosh 128k for uniqueness amongst a populous family of subsequently updated models which are also based on Apples same proprietary architecture. Since 1998, Apple has largely phased out the Macintosh name in favor of Mac, Macintosh systems still found success in education and desktop publishing and kept Apple as the second-largest PC manufacturer for the next decade. In the 1990s, improvements in the rival Wintel platform, notably with the introduction of Windows 3.0, then Windows 95, gradually took market share from the more expensive Macintosh systems. The performance advantage of 68000-based Macintosh systems was eroded by Intels Pentium, even after a transition to the superior PowerPC-based Power Macintosh line in 1994, the falling prices of commodity PC components and the release of Windows 95 saw the Macintosh user base decline. In 1998, after the return of Steve Jobs, Apple consolidated its multiple consumer-level desktop models into the all-in-one iMac G3, since their transition to Intel processors in 2006, the complete lineup is entirely based on said processors and associated systems. Its current lineup comprises three desktops, and three laptops and its Xserve server was discontinued in 2011 in favor of the Mac Mini and Mac Pro. Apple also develops the operating system for the Mac, currently macOS version 10.12 Sierra, Macs are currently capable of running non-Apple operating systems such as Linux, OpenBSD, and Microsoft Windows with the aid of Boot Camp or third-party software. Apple does not license macOS for use on computers, though it did license previous versions of the classic Mac OS through their Macintosh clone program from 1995 to 1997. The Macintosh project was begun in 1979 by Jef Raskin, an Apple employee who envisioned an easy-to-use, in 1978 Apple began to organize the Apple Lisa project, aiming to build a next-generation machine similar to an advanced Apple III or the yet-to-be-introduced IBM PC. In 1979, Steve Jobs learned of the work on graphical user interfaces taking place at Xerox PARC. He arranged a deal in which Xerox received Apple stock options in return for which Apple would license their designs, the basic layout of the Lisa was largely complete by 1982, at which point Jobs continual suggestions for improvements led to him being kicked off the project. At the same time that the Lisa was becoming a GUI machine in 1979, the design at that time was for a low-cost, easy-to-use machine for the average consumer. Raskin was authorized to start hiring for the project in September 1979 and his initial team would eventually consist of himself, Howard, Joanna Hoffman, Burrell Smith, and Bud Tribble. Smiths design used fewer RAM chips than the Lisa, which production of the board significantly more cost-efficient. Though there were no memory slots, its RAM was expandable to 512 kB by means of soldering sixteen IC sockets to accept 256 kb RAM chips in place of the factory-installed chips. The final products screen was a 9-inch, 512x342 pixel monochrome display, burrels innovative design, combining the low production cost of an Apple II with the computing power of Lisas Motorola 68000 CPU, began to receive Jobs attentions
Apple Macintosh
–
Original
iMac G3 (Tray Loading).
Apple Macintosh
–
Macintosh
Apple Macintosh
–
A prototype of the Macintosh from 1981 (at the
Computer History Museum)
Apple Macintosh
–
This television commercial, first aired during
Super Bowl XVIII, launched the original Macintosh.
30.
IBM
–
International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
IBM
–
"THINK"
IBM
–
NACA researchers using an IBM type 704 electronic data processing machine in 1957
IBM
–
IBM's
Blue Gene supercomputers were awarded the
National Medal of Technology and Innovation by
U.S. President Barack Obama on September 18, 2009
IBM
–
IBM showing their various innovations at
CeBIT 2010 in Hanover, Germany
31.
Personal computer
–
A personal computer is a multi-purpose electronic computer whose size, capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use. PCs are intended to be operated directly by a end-user, rather than by an expert or technician. In the 2010s, PCs are typically connected to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web, personal computers may be connected to a local area network, either by a cable or a wireless connection. In the 2010s, a PC may be, a multi-component desktop computer, designed for use in a location a laptop computer, designed for easy portability or a tablet computer. In the 2010s, PCs run using a system, such as Microsoft Windows, Linux. The very earliest microcomputers, equipped with a front panel, required hand-loading of a program to load programs from external storage. Before long, automatic booting from permanent read-only memory became universal, in the 2010s, users have access to a wide range of commercial software, free software and free and open-source software, which are provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile form. Since the early 1990s, Microsoft operating systems and Intel hardware have dominated much of the computer market, first with MS-DOS. Alternatives to Microsofts Windows operating systems occupy a minority share of the industry and these include Apples OS X and free open-source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and Berkeley Software Distribution. Advanced Micro Devices provides the alternative to Intels processors. PC is an initialism for personal computer, some PCs, including the OLPC XOs, are equipped with x86 or x64 processors but not designed to run Microsoft Windows. PC is used in contrast with Mac, an Apple Macintosh computer and this sense of the word is used in the Get a Mac advertisement campaign that ran between 2006 and 2009, as well as its rival, Im a PC campaign, that appeared in 2008. Since Apples transition to Intel processors starting 2005, all Macintosh computers are now PCs, the “brain” may one day come down to our level and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far, in the history of computing there were many examples of computers designed to be used by one person, as opposed to terminals connected to mainframe computers. Using the narrow definition of operated by one person, the first personal computer was the ENIAC which became operational in 1946 and it did not meet further definitions of affordable or easy to use. An example of an early single-user computer was the LGP-30, created in 1956 by Stan Frankel and used for science and it came with a retail price of $47, 000—equivalent to about $414,000 today. Introduced at the 1965 New York Worlds Fair, the Programma 101 was a programmable calculator described in advertisements as a desktop computer. It was manufactured by the Italian company Olivetti and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto, the Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from 1965 to 1969 in a group headed by Victor Glushkov
Personal computer
–
Commodore PET in 1983 (at
American Museum of Science and Energy)
Personal computer
Personal computer
–
IBM Personal Computer XT in 1988
Personal computer
–
The 8-bit
PMD 85 personal computer produced in 1985-1990 by the
Tesla company in the former socialist
Czechoslovakia. This computer was produced locally (in
Piešťany) due to a lack of foreign currency with which to buy systems from the West.
32.
Tandy Corporation
–
Tandy Corporation, was an American family-owned leather goods company based in Fort Worth, Texas. Tandy Leather was founded in 1919 as a supply store. In 2000, the Tandy Corporation name was dropped and the entity became the RadioShack Corporation, Hinckley and Tandy opened their first branch store in 1927 in Beaumont, Texas and in 1932, Dave Tandy moved the store from Beaumont to Houston, Texas. Tandys business survived the economic storms of the Depression, gathered strength, Dave Tandy had a son, Charles Tandy, who was drafted into the business during his early twenties. Charles obtained a B. A degree at Texas Christian University then began attending the Harvard Business School to further expand his education, as World War II escalated Charles was called to serve his country in the military and relocated to Hawaii. Leathercraft gave the men something useful to do and their handiwork, Charles Tandy returned home from the service as a Lieutenant Commander in 1948 and negotiated to operate the fledgling leathercraft division himself. He had encouraged and followed the development of that venture through correspondence with his father, within a short time Charles succeeded in opening the first of two retail stores in 1950 that specialized exclusively in leathercraft. Mr. Hinckley did not share the enthusiasm of Dave and Charles Tandy for the new leathercraft division, the first Tandy Catalog, only 8 pages long, was mailed to readers of Popular Science magazine who had responded to two-inch test ads that were placed by Tandy. From 1950 forward Tandy operated retail mail order stores supported by direct mail advertising and this successful formula helped the company expand into a chain of some 150 leathercraft stores. A growing do-it-yourself movement prompted by a shortage of consumer goods, the fifteen leathercraft stores opened during this divisions first two years of operation became quite successful. Sixteen additional retail stores were opened in 1953, and by 1955 Tandy Leather was a company with leased sales sites in 75 cities across the United States. Tandy Leather became a commodity and was purchased in 1955 by the American Hide. Charles continued to control of managing the Tandy Leather division while owned by GAI. During 1956, General American Industries acquired three other companies unrelated to the industry and a struggle for control of the parent company began. Charles saw the need to emancipate from the direction initiated by GAI and he used all his resources, raised additional money, and exercised his right to purchase the 500,000 shares of stock that were included in the original settlement. When the votes were counted on the day of that pivotal stockholders meeting, Tandy had a landmark year in 1961. The company name was changed to Tandy Corporation and the headquarters were moved to Fort Worth, Texas where Charles Tandy became the President. Tandy Leather was operating 125 stores in 105 cities of the United States and Canada, the first of the Tandy Marts was also opened in Fort Worth in December 1961
Tandy Corporation
–
A Tandy laptop computer, the 1400LT
33.
CompuServe
–
CompuServe was the first major commercial online service provider in the United States. It dominated the field during the 1980s and remained an influence through the mid-1990s. They are also known for their introduction of the GIF format for pictures, AOLs entry into the PC market in 1991 marked the beginning of the end for CIS. AOL used a monthly subscription instead of hourly rates, so for active users it was less expensive. AOL also used a GUI-based client, and while such systems existed for CIS, in response, CIS lowered their hourly rates on several occasions. The number of users grew, peaking at 3 million in April 1995, by this point AOL had over 20 million users in the United States alone, but this was off their peak of 27 million, due to customers leaving for lower-cost offerings. CIS finally introduced monthly pricing in late 1997, but by time the number of users leaving all online services for dialup Internet service providers was reaching a crescendo. In 1997, CISs parent company, H&R Block, announced its desire to sell the company, a complex deal was worked out with WorldCom acting as a broker, resulting in CIS being sold to AOL. CompuServe Classic shut down in 2009, CompuServe 2000 followed suit in 2011, CompuServe Dialer continues to operate as a Web portal. CompuServe was founded in 1969 as Compu-Serv Network, Inc. in Columbus, Ohio, as a subsidiary of Golden United Life Insurance. While Jeffrey Wilkins, the son-in-law of Golden United founder Harry Gard, Sr. is widely credited as the first president of CompuServe, Goltz and Wilkins were both graduate students in electrical engineering at the University of Arizona. Early employees also recruited from the University of Arizona included Sandy Trevor, Doug Chinnock, Wilkins replaced Goltz as CEO within the first year of operation. It was spun off as a company in 1975, trading on the NASDAQ under the symbol CMPU. The first of new executives was Robert Tillson, who left Service Bureau Corporation to become CompuServes Executive Vice President of Marketing. He then recruited Charles McCall, Maury Cox, and Robert Massey, barry Berkov was recruited from Xerox to head product development and marketing. In 1977, CompuServes board changed the name to CompuServe Incorporated. In 1980, H&R Block acquired CompuServe, in the earliest buildups, each line terminated on a single machine at CompuServes host, so different numbers had to be used to reach different computers. Finally, CompuServe developed its own switching network, implemented on DEC PDP-11 minicomputers acting as network nodes that were installed throughout the US
CompuServe
–
The WOW! logo
34.
Habitat (video game)
–
Habitat is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game developed by LucasArts. It is the first attempt at a large-scale commercial virtual community that was graphic based, both Farmer and Morningstar were given a First Penguin Award at the 2001 Game Developers Choice Awards for their innovative work on Habitat. As a graphical MUD it is considered a forerunner of modern MMORPGs unlike other communities of the time. Habitat is a multi-participant online virtual environment, a cyberspace, each participant uses a home computer as an intelligent, interactive client, communicating via modem and telephone over a commercial packet-switching network to a centralized, mainframe host system. The client software provides the interface, generating a real-time animated display of what is going on. The host maintains the systems world model enforcing the rules and keeping each players client informed about the changing state of the universe. Users in the world were represented by onscreen avatars, meaning that individual users had a third-person perspective of themselves. Players in the region could see, speak, and interact with one another. Interestingly, Habitat was governed by its citizenry, the only off-limits portions were those concerning the underlying software constructs and physical components of the system. The users were responsible for laws and acceptable behavior within the Habitat, the authors of Habitat were greatly concerned with allowing the broadest range of interaction possible, since they felt that interaction, not technology or information, truly drove cyberspace. Avatars had to barter for resources within the Habitat, and could even be robbed or killed by other avatars, initially, this led to chaos within the Habitat, which led to rules and regulations to maintain order. Randy Farmer and Chip Morningstar created the first graphical virtual world, Habitat ran from 1986 to 1988, and was closed down at the end of the pilot run. The service proved too costly to be viable, so Lucasfilm Games recouped the cost of development by releasing a sized down version called Club Caribe on Quantum Link in 1988 and it was then licensed by Fujitsu in 1988, and released in Japan as Fujitsu Habitat in 1990. In 1994, Fujitsu Cultural Technologies was spun off as a new division of Fujitsu Open Systems Solutions, in conjunction with Electric Communities, the two companies began work on the WorldsAway project. Originally, the plan was for the team to work from the Fujitsu Habitat code and bring it to the Mac. Unfortunately, this not to be possible due to the fact the underlying architecture was nothing like its predecessor Habitat due to being developed by a different team. This led to delays in the project whilst the kinks were being worked out It was launched on CompuServe in 1995 as a service for members. The world was called Dreamscape and moved to the public Internet in 1997 still under the operation of Fujitsu, as CompuServe morphed into AOLs value brand, Fujitsu sought to sell off its product as they were making a loss
Habitat (video game)
–
Lucasfilm's Habitat, Qlink's Club Caribe, Fujitsu Habitat, WorldsAway, and others.
35.
LucasArts
–
LucasArts Entertainment Company, LLC is an American video game publisher and licensor. Until 2013, it was also a game developer. LucasArts is best known for its graphic adventure games, as well as based on the Star Wars. Its headquarters are located in San Francisco, California and it was founded in May 1982 by George Lucas as Lucasfilm Games, the video game development group of his film company, Lucasfilm. Lucas initially served as the companys chairman, during a 1990 reorganization of Lucas companies, the Lucasfilm Games division was renamed LucasArts. LucasArts was acquired by The Walt Disney Company through the acquisition of its parent company Lucasfilm in 2012, on April 3,2013, Disney halted all internal development at LucasArts and laid off most of its staff. However, LucasArts remained open so that it could retain its function as a licensor, development of games based on the Star Wars license will be performed by Electronic Arts, through an exclusive license, for the core gaming market. Disney Interactive Studios retained the ability to develop, and LucasArts retained the ability to license the franchise for the gaming market. Development of video based upon other Lucasfilm properties will now be assumed by Disney Interactive Studios or licensed to third parties. The company was founded in May 1982 as the game development group of Lucasfilm Limited. Lucas wanted his company to branch out into areas of entertainment. The Lucasfilm Games Group originally cooperated with Atari, which helped fund the video game groups founding, the first results of this collaboration were unique action games like Ballblazer in 1984, and Rescue on Fractalus. In 1984, they were released for the Atari 5200 under the Lucasfilm Games label, versions for home computers were not released until 1985, by publisher Epyx. Lucasfilms next two games were Koronis Rift and The Eidolon and their first games were only developed by Lucasfilm, and a publisher would distribute the games. Atari published their games for Atari systems, Activision and Epyx would do their computer publishing, Maniac Mansion was the first game to be published and developed by Lucasfilm Games. The early charter of Lucasfilm Games was to make experimental, innovative, Habitat, an early online role-playing game, was one such title. It was only released as a beta test in 1986 by Quantum Link, Quantum Link could not provide the bandwidth at the time to support the game, so the full Habitat was never released outside of the beta test. However, Lucasfilm Games recouped the cost of development by releasing a sized down version called Club Caribe in 1988, Lucasfilm later licensed the software to Fujitsu, who released it in Japan as Fujitsu Habitat in 1990
LucasArts
–
The "Gold Guy" LucasArts logo (1991–2005)
LucasArts
–
Logo from 2005 to present
36.
Play-by-mail game
–
Play-by-mail games, or play-by-post games, are games, of any type, played through postal mail or email. Correspondence chess has been played by mail for centuries, the boardgame Diplomacy has been played by mail since the 1960s, starting with a printed newsletter written by John Boardman. More complex games, moderated entirely or partially by computer programs, were pioneered by Rick Loomis of Flying Buffalo in 1970. The first such game offered via major e-mail services was WebWar II from Neolithic Enterprises who accepted e-mail turns from all of the major services including CompuServe in 1983. Play by mail games are referred to as PBM games. Another variation on the name is Play-by-Internet or Play-by-Web, in all of these examples, player instructions can be either executed by a human moderator, a computer program, or a combination of the two. Bob McLain, the publisher and editor of Gaming Universal, further popularized the hobby by writing articles that appeared in many of the mainstream gaming magazines of the time. Flagship later bought overseas right to Gaming Universal, making it the leading magazine in the field, flagship magazine was founded by Chris Harvey and Nick Palmer. The magazine still exists, under a new editor, but health concerns have led to worries over the long term viability. In the late 1990s, computer and Internet games marginalized play-by-mail conducted by postal mail. Postal gaming developed as a way for geographically separated gamers to compete each other. It was especially useful for those living in isolated areas and those whose tastes in games were uncommon, in the case of a two player game such as chess, players would simply send their moves to each other alternately. In the case of a game such as Diplomacy, a central game master would run the game, receiving the moves. Such adjudications were often published in postal game zines, some of which contained far more than just games, the commercial market for play-by-mail games grew to involve computer servers set up to host potentially thousands of players at once. Players would typically be split up into parallel games in order to keep the number of players per game at a reasonable level, with new games starting as old games ended. A typical closed game session might involve one to two players, although some games claimed to have as many as five hundred people simultaneously competing in the same game world. With turns being processed every few weeks, more advanced games could last over a year, game themes are heavily varied, and may range from those based on historical or real events to those taking place in alternate or fictional worlds. The mechanics of play-by-mail games require that players think and plan carefully before making moves, because planned actions can typically only be submitted at a fixed maximum frequency, the number of discrete actions is limited compared to real-time games
Play-by-mail game
–
Postcard for international correspondence chess
37.
DOS
–
None of these systems were officially named DOS, and indeed DOS is a general term for disk operating system. MS-DOS dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995, and Microsoft Windows, still ran on top of it until about 2001, dozens of other operating systems also use the acronym DOS, including DOS/360 from 1966. Others are Apple DOS, Apple ProDOS, Atari DOS, Commodore DOS, TRSDOS, see List of DOS operating systems § Other operating systems. IBM PC DOS and its predecessor, 86-DOS, resembled Digital Researchs CP/M—the dominant disk operating system for 8-bit Intel 8080, DOS instead ran on Intel 8086 16-bit processors. Starting with MS-DOS1.28 and PC DOS2.0 the operating system incorporated various features inspired by Xenix, when IBM introduced the IBM PC, built with the Intel 8088 microprocessor, they needed an operating system. Seeking an 8088-compatible build of CP/M, IBM initially approached Microsoft CEO Bill Gates, IBM was sent to Digital Research, and a meeting was set up. However, the negotiations for the use of CP/M broke down, Digital Research wished to sell CP/M on a royalty basis, while IBM sought a single license. Digital Research founder Gary Kildall refused, and IBM withdrew, Gates in turn approached Seattle Computer Products. There, programmer Tim Paterson had developed a variant of CP/M-80, the system was initially named QDOS, before being made commercially available as 86-DOS. Microsoft purchased 86-DOS, allegedly for $50,000 and this became Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS, introduced in 1981. Within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies, Microsoft later required the use of the MS-DOS name, with the exception of the IBM variant. IBM continued to develop their version, PC DOS, for the IBM PC, Digital Research became aware that an operating system similar to CP/M was being sold by IBM, and threatened legal action. IBM responded by offering an agreement, they would give PC consumers a choice of PC DOS or CP/M-86, side-by-side, CP/M cost almost $200 more than PC DOS, and sales were low. CP/M faded, with MS-DOS and PC DOS becoming the operating system for PCs. Microsoft originally sold MS-DOS only to original equipment manufacturers, one major reason for this was that not all early PCs were 100% IBM PC compatible. DOS was structured such that there was a separation between the specific device driver code and the DOS kernel. Microsoft provided an OEM Adaptation Kit which allowed OEMs to customize the device driver code to their particular system, by the early 1990s, most PCs adhered to IBM PC standards so Microsoft began selling MS-DOS in retail with MS-DOS5.0. In the mid-1980s Microsoft developed a version of DOS
DOS
–
FreeDOS screenshot showing the command line interface, directory structure and version information.
38.
GeoWorks
–
GEOS is a computer operating environment, graphical user interface, and suite of application software. Originally released as PC/GEOS, it runs on MS-DOS-based, IBM PC compatible computers, the package later became GeoWorks Ensemble, then NewDeal Office, and is now Breadbox Ensemble. Versions for some platforms were also released. PC/GEOS was first created by Berkeley Softworks, who later became GeoWorks Corporation, version 4.0 was developed in 2001 by Breadbox Computer Company, LLC, and named Breadbox Ensemble. PC/GEOS should not be confused with the 8-bit GEOS product from the same company, in 1990, GeoWorks released GEOS for IBM PC compatible systems, PC/GEOS. GeoWorks saw an opportunity to provide a graphical user interface for the 16 million older model PCs that were unable to run Microsoft Windows 2. x. GEOS was packaged with a suite of productivity applications, each had a name prefixed by Geo, GeoWrite, GeoDraw, GeoManager, GeoPlanner, GeoDex, and GeoComm. It was also bundled with numerous PCs at the time, but like other GUI environments for the PC platform, such as GEM, Former CEO of GeoWorks claims that GEOS faded away because Microsoft threatened to withdraw supply of MS-DOS to hardware manufacturers who bundled Geoworks with their machines. In December 1992 NEC and Sony bundled an OEM version of GeoWorks called the CD Manager with their respective CD-ROM players that sold as retail box add-on peripherals for consumers. The NEC Bundle retailed for around $500.00 with a 1x external CD Rom, SCSI Interface Controller, during that time, the popular single 3.5 disk that AOL was distributing on could be hacked to boot the GeoWorks graphical operating environment. IBM released the PC/GEOS-based EduQuest SchoolView network management tool for K-12 schools in 1994, negotiations to make PC/GEOS an integral part of PC DOS7.0 failed. Even though PC/GEOS is referred to as a system, it still requires DOS software in order to load. GEOS and its applications were written in a mix of 8086 assembly and C, when, under DR DOS6.0, TASKMAX is loaded before PC/GEOS, PC/GEOS registered as graphical menu system for TASKMAX. This still worked under the pre-emptive multitasker provided by Novell DOS7, OpenDOS7.01 and DR-DOS7.02, after release of Ensemble 2.01, GeoWorks dropped support for the desktop version to focus on handhelds and smart devices. Geoworks Ensemble won the 1991 Software Publishing Association Excellence in Software Award for Best Consumer Program, after NewDeal Inc. went out of business, Breadbox purchased the rights in the software from GeoWorks in 2003. Their newest PC/GEOS,4. x, is now a full productivity and Internet suite, including Web Browser, other essential programs such as word processing, spreadsheet, flat file database and graphics applications are integrated into this package. On 2015-11-14, Frank S. Fischer, the CEO and owner of Breadbox Ensemble LLC, died of a heart attack, alongside the Newton OS from Apple, PEN/GEOS1.0 on Zoomer devices pioneered PDA technology. GEOS was also used in the low-end GeoBook laptop from Brother Industries, PEN/GEOS2.0 was released in 1992, and version 3.0 was released in 1995
GeoWorks
–
A screenshot of Breadbox Ensemble 4.1.2
39.
Microsoft Windows
–
Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
Microsoft Windows
–
Screenshot of
Windows 10, showing the
Action Center and
Start Menu
40.
GEnie
–
Jinn, also romanized as djinn or anglicized as genies, are supernatural creatures in early Arabian and later Islamic mythology and theology. An individual member of the jinn is known as a jinni, djinni and they are mentioned frequently in the Quran and other Islamic texts. The jinn, humans, and angels make up the three known sapient creations of God, like human beings, the jinn can be good, evil, or neutrally benevolent and hence have free will like humans. Jaini were among various creatures believe among pre-Zoroastrian peoples of Persia, Jinn is an Arabic collective noun deriving from the Semitic root JNN, whose primary meaning is to hide. Some authors interpret the word to mean, literally, beings that are concealed from the senses, cognates include the Arabic majnūn, jannah, and janīn. Jinn is properly treated as a plural, with the singular being jinni, the anglicized form genie is a borrowing of the French génie, from the Latin genius, a guardian spirit of people and places in Roman religion. It first appeared in 18th-century translations of the Thousand and One Nights from the French, numerous mentions of jinn in the Quran and testimony of both pre-Islamic and Islamic literature indicate that the belief in spirits was prominent in pre-Islamic Bedouin religion. Julius Wellhausen has observed that such spirits were thought to inhabit desolate, dingy, and dark places, One had to protect oneself from them, but they were not the objects of a true cult. In Islamic theology jinn are said to be creatures with free will, made from fire by God as humans were made of clay. When jinns are called fire spirits it´s does not refer to their current nature, Jinn are mentioned 29 times in the Quran, Surah 72 is named after the jinn, and has a passage about them. Another surah mentions jinn in the last verse, the Quran also mentions that Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both humanity and the jinn, and that prophets and messengers were sent to both communities. Like humans, jinn will also be judged on the Day of Judgment, the social organization of the jinn community resembles that of humans, e. g. they have kings, courts of law, weddings, mourning rituals and practise religion. One common belief in Muslim belief lists five distinct orders of jinn — the Marid, the Ifrit, the Shaitan, the Ghul, and the Jann. A few traditions, divide jinn into three classes, those who have wings and fly in the air, those who resemble snakes and dogs, described them as creatures of different forms, some resembling vultures and snakes, others tall men in white garb. They may even appear as dragons, onagers, or any number of other animals, in addition to their animal forms, the jinn occasionally assume human form to mislead and destroy their human victims. Ibn Taymiyyah, a late medieval theologian whose writings would later become the source of Wahhabism, believed the jinn to be generally ignorant, untruthful, oppressive. In Sūrat Al-Jinn, verses 8–10, Allah narrates concerning the jinn how they touched or sought the limits of the sky and found it full of guards and shooting stars. Seven kings of the Jinn are traditionally associated with days of the week, the notion of a qarin is not universally accepted among all Muslims, but it is generally accepted that Shayṭān whispers in human minds, and he is assigned to each human being
GEnie
–
Imam Ali Conquers Jinn, unknown artist, Ahsan-ol-Kobar (1568) Golestan Palace
GEnie
GEnie
–
Prophet Idris visits Heaven (Paradise) and Hell,
Persian miniature
GEnie
–
The black king of the djinns, Al-Malik al-Aswad, in the late 14th century
Book of Wonders
41.
Neverwinter Nights (AOL game)
–
Neverwinter Nights was the first multiplayer online role-playing game to display graphics, and ran from 1991 to 1997 on AOL. Neverwinter Nights was developed with similar to other games in the Gold Box series. Players begin by creating a character, when combat occurs, gameplay switches to full-screen combat mode, in which a players characters and enemies are represented by icons which move around in the course of battle. The game features a ranking of players based upon prowess in battle known as a Ladder. The most widely renowned of such Ladders, the World PVP Council Ladder, Neverwinter Nights was a co-development of AOL, Stormfront Studios, SSI, and TSR. It was the first multiplayer online role-playing game to display graphics, don Daglow and the Stormfront game design team began working with AOL on original online games in 1987, in both text-based and graphical formats. At the time AOL was a Commodore 64 only online service, known as Quantum Computer Services, with just a few thousand subscribers, Online graphics in the late 1980s were severely restricted by the need to support modem data transfer rates as slow as 300 bits per second. In 1989 the Stormfront team started working with SSI on Dungeons & Dragons games using the Gold Box engine that had debuted with Pool of Radiance in 1988, case approved funding for NWN and work began with the game going live 18 months later in March 1991. Daglow chose Neverwinter as the location because of its magical features. The area also was enough to the settings of the other Gold Box games to allow subplots to intertwine between the online and the disk-based titles. In late June 1997, America Online announced it would be closing down the game world on July 19,1997. The company also said it would start a new channel called World Play. Neverwinter Nights was the game in the companys roster which did not make the transition to the new service. The capacity of each server grew from 50 players in 1991 to 500 players by 1995, ultimately, the game became a free part of the AOL subscriber service. Near the end of its run in 1997, the game had 115,000 players and typically hosted 2,000 adventurers during prime evening hours, a 4, 000% increase over 1991. Much of the popularity was based on the presence of active and creative player guilds. It is this committed fan base that BioWare sought when they licensed the rights to Neverwinter Nights from AOL, NWN gained incidental media attention from AOL tech and marketing staff by appearing in the Dont Copy That Floppy campaign by the Software Publishers Association. In 1998, development work began on a clone of Neverwinter Nights called Forgotten World, a post on IGN from the games host revealed that Neverwinter Nights, Resurrection shut down its servers on July 31,2012
Neverwinter Nights (AOL game)
–
Neverwinter Nights
42.
USENET
–
Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose UUCP dial-up network architecture, tom Truscott and Jim Ellis conceived the idea in 1979, and it was established in 1980. Users read and post messages to one or more categories, known as newsgroups, Usenet resembles a bulletin board system in many respects and is the precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSs, though posts are stored on the server sequentially, the name comes from the term users network. One notable difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the absence of a server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers that store, individual users may read messages from and post messages to a local server operated by a commercial usenet provider, their Internet service provider, university, employer, or their own server. Usenet has significant cultural importance in the world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely recognized concepts and terms such as FAQ, flame. The name Usenet emphasized its creators hope that the USENIX organization would take a role in its operation. The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, for instance, sci. math and sci. physics are within the sci. * hierarchy, for science. Or, talk. origins and talk. atheism are in the talk. * hierarchy, when a user subscribes to a newsgroup, the news client software keeps track of which articles that user has read. In most newsgroups, the majority of the articles are responses to some other article, the set of articles that can be traced to one single non-reply article is called a thread. Most modern newsreaders display the articles arranged into threads and subthreads, when a user posts an article, it is initially only available on that users news server. Each news server talks to one or more servers and exchanges articles with them. In this fashion, the article is copied from server to server, the later peer-to-peer networks operate on a similar principle, but for Usenet it is normally the sender, rather than the receiver, who initiates transfers. Usenet was designed under conditions when networks were much slower and not always available, many sites on the original Usenet network would connect only once or twice a day to batch-transfer messages in and out. This is largely because the POTS network was used for transfers. The format and transmission of Usenet articles is similar to that of Internet e-mail messages, today, Usenet has diminished in importance with respect to Internet forums, blogs and mailing lists. The groups in alt. binaries are still used for data transfer
USENET
–
This is a list of some of the biggest binary groups. With 1317+ days retention, the (binary) Usenet storage (which binsearch.info indexes) is more than 9
petabytes (9000
terabytes).
USENET
–
A diagram of Usenet servers and clients. The blue, green, and red dots on the servers represent the groups they carry. Arrows between servers indicate newsgroup group exchanges (feeds). Arrows between clients and servers indicate that a user is subscribed to a certain group and reads or submits articles.
43.
Eternal September
–
Before then, Usenet was largely restricted to colleges and universities. Every September, a number of incoming freshmen would acquire access to Usenet for the first time, taking time to become accustomed to Usenets standards of conduct. After a month or so, these new users would either learn to comply with the social norms or tire of using the service. The term may have first been used by Dave Fischer in a January 26,1994, post to alt. folklore. computers, September 1993 will go down in net. history as the September that never ended. In homage to the term, one server, formerly named Motzarella. org, calls itself Eternal September. A tongue-in-cheek program called sdate outputs the current date, formatted using the Eternal September calendar and this is not the identically named sdate, one of the sixty commands that comes with the First Edition of Unix, that is used to set the system clock. TheSeptemberThatNeverEnded at MeatballWiki Sdate, a Unix program that outputs the date of Never Ending September
Eternal September
–
Abuse
44.
Carpet bombing
–
Carpet bombing, also known as saturation bombing, is a large aerial bombing done in a progressive manner to inflict damage in every part of a selected area of land. The phrase evokes the image of explosions completely covering an area, Carpet bombing is usually achieved by dropping many unguided bombs. The term obliteration bombing is used to describe especially intensified bombing with the intention of destroying a city or a large part of the city. The term area bombing refers to indiscriminate bombing of an area and it was used in that sense especially during World War II. Carpet bombing of cities, towns, villages, or other containing a concentration of civilians is considered a war crime as of the 1977 Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions. In the European Theatre, the first city to suffer heavily from aerial bombardment was Warsaw on 25, September 1939. Continuing this trend in warfare the Rotterdam Blitz was a bombardment of Rotterdam by 90 bombers of the German Air Force on 14 May 1940. The objective was to support the German assault on the city, despite a ceasefire, the bombing destroyed almost the entire historic city centre, killing nearly nine hundred civilians and leaving 30,000 people homeless. The destructive success of the led the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe to threaten to destroy the city of Utrecht if the Dutch Government did not surrender. The Dutch capitulated early the next morning, as the war progressed, the Battle of Britain developed from a fight for air supremacy into strategic and aerial bombing of London, Coventry and other British cities. The bomber force was then wielded by Arthur Travers Harris in an effort to break German morale, the United States joined the war and the USAAF greatly enforced the campaign bringing in the 8th airforce into the European Theatre. Many cities, both large and small, were destroyed by Allied bombing. Cologne, Berlin, Hamburg and Dresden are among the most infamous, W. G. Carpet bombing was also used as close air support for ground operations. Massive bombing was concentrated in a narrow and shallow area of the front, the first successful use of the technique was on 6 May 1943, at the end of the Tunisia Campaign. Carried out under Sir Arthur Tedder, it was hailed by press as Tedders bomb-carpet, the bombing was concentrated in a four by three-mile area preparing the way for the First Army. This tactic was used in many cases in Normandy Campaign. In the Pacific War, carpet bombing was used extensively against Japanese civilian population centers, on the night of 9–10 March 1945,334 B-29 Superfortress heavy bombers were directed to attack the most heavily populated civilian sectors of Tokyo. In just one night, over 100,000 people burned to death from a bombardment of incendiary bombs
Carpet bombing
–
On May 14, 1940 at 1:22 p.m., in the
Rotterdam Blitz, German bombers set the entire inner city ablaze, killing 814 inhabitants
Carpet bombing
–
Wesel was 97% destroyed before it was finally taken by Allied troops in 1945
Carpet bombing
–
B-52F releasing its payload of bombs over Vietnam
45.
National Education Association
–
The National Education Association is the largest labor union in the United States. It represents public school teachers and other personnel, faculty and staffers at colleges and universities, retired educators. The NEA has just under 3 million members and is headquartered in Washington, the NEA had a budget of more than $341 million for the 2012–2013 fiscal year. Lily Eskelsen García is the NEAs current president, the NEA, originally on the conservative side of U. S. politics, by the 1970s emerged as a factor in modern liberalism. While the NEA has a position of non-partisan, it typically supports the Democratic Party. Conservatives, libertarians, and parents rights groups have criticized the NEAs liberal positions, State affiliates of the NEA regularly lobby state legislators for funding, seek to influence education policy, and file legal actions. At the national level, the NEA lobbies the United States Congress, from 1989 through the 2014 election cycle, the NEA spent over $92 million on political campaign contributions, 97% of which went to Democrats. The NEA has a membership of just under 3 million people, the NEA is incorporated as a professional association in a few states and as a labor union in most. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code and it is not a member of the AFL–CIO, but is part of Education International, the global federation of teachers unions. NEA members set the policies through the Representative Assembly. The executive officers of the NEA are Lily Eskelsen García, Rebecca Pringle and these three posts are elected by the Representative Assembly. The Board of Directors and Executive Committee are responsible for the general policies, the Board of Directors consists of one director from each state affiliate, six directors for the retired members, and three directors for the student members. The board also includes representatives of ethnic minorities, administrators, classroom teachers in higher education. The NEA was founded in Philadelphia in 1857 as the National Teachers Association, zalmon Richards was elected the NTAs first president and presided over the organizations first annual meeting in 1858. The union was chartered by Congress in 1906, NEA officially merged with the American Teachers Association, the historically black teachers association founded as the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, in 1966. However, five NEA state affiliates have merged with their AFT counterparts, mergers occurred in Florida, Minnesota, Montana, New York and North Dakota. North Dakota United formed in 2013, before the 1960s, only a small portion of public school teachers were unionized. That began to change in 1959, when Wisconsin became the first state to pass a collective bargaining law for public employees, over the next 20 years, most other states adopted similar laws
National Education Association
–
NEA headquarters in Washington, DC
National Education Association
–
NEA
National Education Association
–
The National Education Association headquarters located at 1201
16th Street near the White House.
46.
American Federation of Teachers
–
The American Federation of Teachers is an American labor union that primarily represents teachers. The union was founded in Chicago in 1916, with Margaret Haley credited as its founder, a precursor to the group, the American Federation of Teachers and Students, was founded in 1900. The AFTs affiliations include the union federation since its founding, the old American Federation of Labor until 1955. AFT was founded in Chicago, Illinois, on April 15,1916, by 1919, AFT had 100 local affiliates and a membership of approximately 11,000 teachers, which amounted to 1. 5% of the nations teaching force. In its early days, AFT distinguished itself from the National Education Association by its exclusion of school administrators from membership, facing opposition from politicians and boards of education, membership in AFT declined to 7,000 by 1930. During this period, the organization had impact on local or national education policy. AFT membership climbed during the Great Depression, reaching 33,000 by 1939, during the 1930s, AFT, whose members had historically been primary school teachers, saw influential college professors join the union. Also during the 1930s, the Communist Party gained influence within the AFT, in 1941, under pressure from the AFL, the union ejected three local unions in New York City and Philadelphia for being communist-dominated. The charter revocations represented nearly a third of the national membership. The 1940s were marked by a series of strikes, including 57 strikes that occurred from 1946 through 1949. By 1947, AFT had a membership of 42,000, the 1960s and 1970s also saw numerous teacher strikes, including 1,000 strikes involving more than 823,000 teachers between 1960 and 1974. AFT membership was 59,000 in 1960,200,000 in 1970, since 1977, AFT has published a quarterly magazine for teachers covering various issues about children and education called American Educator. In 1998, the membership of the NEA rejected a merger with AFT. The AFTs membership is half that of the NEAs, Albert Shanker In 1974, Albert Shanker was elected president of AFT. He served in this role until his death on February 22,1997, for 27 years, Shanker wrote a weekly column entitled Where We Stand that ran as an advertisement in The New York Times. Shanker was an advocate of charter schools. He also called for a competency test for teachers, merit pay for teachers. During his tenure as AFT president, Shanker was jailed twice for leading illegal strikes, Sandra Feldman Sandra Feldman served as AFTs president from 1997 to 2004
American Federation of Teachers
–
AFT
47.
National Geographic (magazine)
–
National Geographic is the official magazine of the National Geographic Society. It has been published continuously since its first issue in 1888 and it primarily contains articles about science, geography, history, and world culture. The magazine is known for its thick square-bound glossy format with a rectangular border. The magazine is published monthly, and additional map supplements are also included with subscriptions and it is available in a traditional printed edition and through an interactive online edition. On occasion, special editions of the magazine are issued and this includes a US circulation of 3.5 million. From the 1970s through about 2010 the magazine was printed in Corinth, Mississippi, the current Editor-in-Chief of the National Geographic Magazine is Susan Goldberg. Goldberg is also Editorial Director for National Geographic Partners, overseeing the print and she is responsible for News, Books, National Geographic Traveler magazine, National Geographic History magazine, Maps, and all digital content with the exception of National Geographic Kids. Goldberg reports to Declan Moore, CEO of National Geographic Partners, the first issue of National Geographic Magazine was published on September 22,1888, nine months after the Society was founded. The June 1985 cover portrait of the presumed to be 12-year-old Afghan girl Sharbat Gula, shot by photographer Steve McCurry, in the late 1990s, the magazine began publishing The Complete National Geographic, a digital compilation of all the past issues of the magazine. It was then sued over copyright of the magazine as a work in Greenberg v. National Geographic and other cases. The magazine eventually prevailed in the dispute, and in July 2009 it resumed publishing a compilation containing all issues through December 2008. The compilation was updated to make more recent issues available. National Geographic Kids, the version of the magazine, was launched in 1975 under the name National Geographic World. The January 2017 issue of National Geographic has a nine-year-old transgender girl on the cover, the magazine printed articles on Berlin, de-occupied Austria, the Soviet Union, and Communist China that deliberately downplayed politics to focus on culture. In its coverage of the Space Race, National Geographic focused on the scientific achievement while largely avoiding reference to the connection to nuclear arms buildup. There were also articles in the 1930s, 40s and 50s about the individual states and their resources. Many of these articles were written by longtime staff such as Frederick Simpich, there were also articles about biology and science topics. In later years articles became outspoken on issues such as issues, deforestation, chemical pollution, global warming
National Geographic (magazine)
–
March 2009 cover of National Geographic
National Geographic (magazine)
–
January 1915 cover of The National Geographic Magazine
National Geographic (magazine)
–
Color photograph of the
Taj Mahal. Source: The National Geographic Magazine, March 1921
National Geographic (magazine)
–
Srirangam Temple, India (National Geographic Magazine November 1909)
48.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
Smithsonian Institution
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The
"Castle" (1847), the Institution's first building and still its headquarters
Smithsonian Institution
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Smithsonian Institution Logo of the Smithsonian Institution
Smithsonian Institution
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Aircraft on display at the
National Air and Space Museum, including a
Ford Trimotor and
Douglas DC-3 (top and second from top)
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Castle doorway
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Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
Library of Congress
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Construction of the
Thomas Jefferson Building, from July 8, 1888, to May 15, 1894.
Library of Congress
Library of Congress
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The West façade of the Library of Congress in 1898
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress inside the
U.S. Capitol Building c. 1890
50.
Pearson PLC
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Pearson PLC is a British multinational publishing and education company headquartered in London. It was founded as a business in the 1840s. It shut down its activities in the 1920s and switched to publishing. It is the largest education company and the largest book publisher in the world, Pearson has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange in the form of American Depository Receipts. The company was founded by Samuel Pearson in 1844 as a building and engineering concern operating in Yorkshire under the name S. Pearson & Son. In 1880, control passed to his grandson Weetman Dickinson Pearson, an engineer, in November 1915, the firm began construction of HM Factory, Gretna, the largest cordite factory in the UK during World War I. The construction business was shut down in the 1920s, among its final projects was completion of the Sennar Dam, in Sudan, in 1925. In 1919, the firm acquired a 45% stake in the London branch of merchant bankers Lazard Brothers, Pearson continued to hold a 50% stake until 1999. In 1921, Pearson purchased a number of daily and weekly newspapers in the United Kingdom. In 1957, it bought the Financial Times and acquired a 50% stake in The Economist and it purchased the publisher Longman in 1968. The company was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1969 and it went on to buy paperback publisher Penguin in 1970, and in 1972, childrens imprint Ladybird Books. In 1986, Pearson invested in the British Satellite Broadcasting consortium, which, during the 1990s, Pearson acquired a number of TV production and broadcasting assets and sold most of its non-media assets, under the leadership of future U. S. Westminster Press was sold to Newsquest in 1996, Pearson acquired the education division of HarperCollins in 1996 from News Corporation and acquired book publishers Scott Foresman & Co. in 1996. In 1998 Pearson acquired Prentice Hall Textbooks/Simon & Schuster Trade Books from Viacom and merged it with its own education unit, Addison-Wesley Longman to form Pearson Education. In 2002, Pearson sold its 22% stake in RTL Group for 1.5 billion Euros, and then purchased Rough Guides, the travel publisher, and brought it under Penguin. Pearson acquired Edexcel, a provider of qualifications in the UK, in 2003, Pearson purchased a series of other testing and assessment businesses, including Knowledge Technologies in 2004, AGS in 2005, and National Evaluation Systems and Promissor in 2006. Pearson then completed the acquisition of Harcourt Assessment, merging the businesses into Pearson Assessment & Information
Pearson PLC
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80 Strand in London, the headquarters of Pearson
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