1.
Copenhagen
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Copenhagen, Danish, København, Latin, Hafnia) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. Copenhagen has an population of 1,280,371. The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants, the city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road, originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a centre of power with its institutions, defences. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century and this included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing, since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark, Copenhagens economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö. With a number of connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs, the annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, the Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the largest airport in the Nordic countries, the name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was Køpmannæhafn, meaning merchants harbour, the literal English translation would be Chapmans haven. The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, the abbreviations Kbh. or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København, and kbh. for københavnsk. The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen, where it was discovered, the bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen, Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century, the remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen
2.
University of Copenhagen
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The University of Copenhagen is the oldest university and research institution in Denmark. Founded in 1479 as a studium generale, it is the second oldest institution for education in Scandinavia after Uppsala University. The university has 23,473 undergraduate students,17,398 postgraduate students,2,968 doctoral students, the university has four campuses located in and around Copenhagen, with the headquarters located in central Copenhagen. Most courses are taught in Danish, however, many courses are offered in English. The university has several thousands of students, about half of whom come from Nordic countries. The university has had 8 alumni become Nobel laureates and has produced one Turing Award recipient, the rector, the prorector and the director of the university is appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints directors of the different parts of the central administration, the deans appoint heads of 50 departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, hence the university has no faculty governance, although there are elected Academic Boards at faculty level who advise the deans. The governing body manages a budget of about BDKK8.3. The University is organized into six faculties and about 100 departments, the University employs about 5,600 academic staff and 4,400 technical and administrative staff. The total number of enrolled students is about 40,000 annually, UCPH has established an international graduate talent program which provides grants for international Ph. D, students and a tenure track carrier system. UCPH operates about fifty master’s programmes taught in English, and has arranged about 150 exchange agreements with institutions and 800 Erasmus agreements. Each year there are about 1,700 incoming exchange students,2,000 outbound exchange students and 4,000 international degree-seeking students, about 3,000 Ph. D. students study there each year. South Campus – houses the Faculty of Humanities and a proportion of the Faculty of Science. In the winter of 2016–2017, the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Theology will also move to South Campus, frederiksberg Campus – home to sections of the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences. The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Science also use the Taastrup Campus, the Faculty of Science also has facilities in Helsingør, Hørsholm and Nødebo. The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479 and is the oldest university in Denmark, between the closing of the Studium Generale in Lund in 1536 and the establishment of the University of Aarhus in the late 1920s, it was the only university in Denmark. The university became a centre of Roman Catholic theological learning, but also had faculties for the study of law, medicine, between 1675 and 1788, the university introduced the concept of degree examinations
3.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
4.
Nuclear physics
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Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions. Other forms of matter are also studied. Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the atom as a whole, discoveries in nuclear physics have led to applications in many fields. Such applications are studied in the field of nuclear engineering, Particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association. Nuclear astrophysics, the application of physics to astrophysics, is crucial in explaining the inner workings of stars. The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson a year later was an indication that the atom had internal structure, in the years that followed, radioactivity was extensively investigated, notably by Marie and Pierre Curie as well as by Ernest Rutherford and his collaborators. By the turn of the physicists had also discovered three types of radiation emanating from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments by Otto Hahn in 1911 and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energy that were observed in gamma. This was a problem for physics at the time, because it seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved in these decays. The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Becquerel for his discovery and to Marie, Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances. In 1905 Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass–energy equivalence, in 1906 Ernest Rutherford published Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through matter. Hans Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done, passing alpha particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Ernest Marsden, in 1911–1912 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it. The plum pudding model had predicted that the particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. But Rutherford instructed his team to look for something that shocked him to observe and he likened it to firing a bullet at tissue paper and having it bounce off. As an example, in this model consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons. The Rutherford model worked well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929
5.
Manhattan Project
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The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom, from 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs, the Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District, Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, the Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce material, with less than 10% for development. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war, a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, three methods were employed for uranium enrichment, electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, in parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. The plutonium was then separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design, the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, despite the Manhattan Projects tight security, Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was a bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexicos Alamogordo Bombing. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947, there were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter and it urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner, the committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940, Briggs proposed that the spend $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium
6.
Institute for Advanced Study
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The IAS is perhaps best known as the academic home of Albert Einstein, John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel, after their immigration to the United States. Although it is close to and collaborates with Princeton University, Rutgers University, Flexners guiding principle in founding the Institute was the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. There are no programs or experimental facilities at the Institute. Research is never contracted or directed, it is left to each individual researcher to pursue their own goals and it is supported entirely by endowments, grants, and gifts, and is one of the eight American mathematics institutes funded by the National Science Foundation. It is the model for the eight members of the consortium Some Institutes for Advanced Study. The institute consists of four schools–Historical Studies, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, in 2016, the Institute has been in the news for a faculty housing project proposal. While the Institute owns the property on which it wants to build these houses, historians and archaeological evidence confirm the site witnessed Gen. George Washingtons arrival and charge on horseback across the battlefield during the January 3,1777 Battle of Princeton. The Institute was founded in 1930 by Abraham Flexner, together with philanthropists Louis Bamberger, Flexner is generally regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of American medicine and played a major role in the reform of medical education. This led to an interest in education generally and as early as 1890 he had founded a school which had no formal curriculum, exams. It was a success at preparing students for prestigious colleges. The Bamberger siblings wanted to use the proceeds from the sale of their department store in Newark, New Jersey, Flexner convinced them to put their money in the service of more abstract research. In 1932 Veblen resigned from Princeton and became the first professor in the new Institute for Advanced Study and he selected most of the original faculty and also helped the Institute acquire land in Princeton for both the original facility and future expansion. Flexner and Veblen set out to recruit the best mathematicians and physicists they could find, the rise of fascism and the associated anti-semitism forced many prominent mathematicians to flee Europe and some, such as Einstein and Hermann Weyl, found a home at the new institute. Weyl as a condition of accepting insisted that the Institute also appoint the thirty year old Austrian-Hungarian polymath John von Neumann, indeed, the IAS became the key lifeline for scholars fleeing Europe. Einstein was Flexners first coup and shortly after that he was followed by Veblens brilliant student James Alexander, Flexner was fortunate in the luminaries he directly recruited but also in the people that they brought along with them. Thus, by 1934 the fledgeling institute was led by six of the most prominent mathematicians in the world, in 1935 quantum physics pioneer Wolfgang Pauli became a faculty member. With the opening of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton replaced Göttingen as the center for mathematics in the twentieth century. Princeton Universitys science departments are less than two miles away and informal ties and collaboration between the two institutions occurred from the beginning and this helped start an incorrect impression that it was part of the University, one that has never been completely eradicated
7.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
8.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
9.
Ben Roy Mottelson
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Ben Roy Mottelson is an American-born Danish nuclear physicist. He won the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the geometry of atomic nuclei. Mottelson was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Georgia and Goodman Mottelson and he graduated from Lyons Township High School in LaGrange, Illinois. He received a Bachelors degree from Purdue University in 1947, and he moved to Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen on the Sheldon Traveling Fellowship from Harvard, and remained in Denmark. In 1971 he became a naturalized Danish citizen, in 1950–51, James Rainwater and Aage Bohr had developed models of the atomic nucleus which began to take into account the behaviour of the individual nucleons. Mottelson worked with Aage Bohr to compare the models with experimental data. This work stimulated new theoretical and experimental studies, Bohr and Mottelson continued to work together, publishing a two-volume monograph, Nuclear Structure. The first volume, Single-Particle Motion, appeared in 1969, professor Mottelson is a member of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. He is a fellow of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences and the Norwegian Academy of Science. In 1969, he received the Atoms for Peace Award and he acted as director of ECT* from 1993 to 1997. He has both Danish and American citizenship, Mottelson was married to Nancy Jane Reno from 1948 until her death in 1975. They had two sons and one daughter, Mottelson then married Britta Marger Siegumfeldt in 1983. Nobel prize press release Autobiography from the Nobel foundation website Ben Roy Mottelson
10.
James Rainwater
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Leo James Rainwater was an American physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 for his part in determining the asymmetrical shapes of certain atomic nuclei. During World War II, he worked on the Manhattan Project that developed the first atomic bombs, in 1949, he began developing his theory that, contrary to what was then believed, not all atomic nuclei are spherical. His ideas were tested and confirmed by Aage Bohrs and Ben Mottelsons experiments. He also contributed to the understanding of X-rays and participated in the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Rainwater joined the faculty at Columbia in 1946, where he reached the rank of full professor in 1952 and was named Pupin Professor of Physics in 1982. Leo James Rainwater was born on December 9,1917, in Council, Idaho and he never used his first name and was always referred to as James or Jim. His father died in the influenza epidemic of 1918 and Rainwater and his mother moved to Hanford, California, where she married George Fowler. In time he acquired a half-brother, George Fowler, Jr. who became naval officer. At high school he excelled in mathematics, chemistry and physics and was admitted to the California Institute of Technology on the strength of a chemistry competition and he received his Bachelor of Science degree as a physics major in 1939. Rainwater then chose to undertake studies at Columbia University. At the time this was a move for a scholar from California, as Columbia was not then renowned for its physics. Pegram had recently built up the department, and hired scientists like Enrico Fermi. At Columbia Rainwater studied under Isidor Isaac Rabi, Enrico Fermi, Edward Teller, Fermi was engaged in neutron moderator studies that would lead to the construction of the first nuclear reactor, while Dunning and Eugene T. Booth had built Columbias first cyclotron, in the basement of the Pupin Physics Laboratories, Rainwater received his Master of Arts in 1941. Rainwater married Emma Louise Smith in March 1942 and they had three sons, James, Robert and William and a daughter, Elizabeth Ann, who died from leukaemia when she was nine. Fermis reactor group moved to the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago in 1942, Rainwater remained at Columbia, where he joined the Manhattan Projects Substitute Alloy Materials Laboratories. The Manhattan Project was the Allied effort during World War II to develop atomic bombs, the SAM Laboratories primary task was the development of gaseous diffusion technology for uranium enrichment, to produce fissile uranium-235 for use in atomic bombs. Rainwater worked with William W. Havens, Jr. and Chien-Shiung Wu, mostly on studies of neutron cross sections, after the war, a dozen papers by Dunning, Havens, Rainwater and Wu would be declassified and published
11.
Atomic nucleus
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After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Dmitri Ivanenko and Werner Heisenberg. Almost all of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force. The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of 6985175000000000000♠1.75 fm for hydrogen to about 6986150000000000000♠15 fm for the heaviest atoms and these dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself, by a factor of about 23,000 to about 145,000. The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the nucleus, including its composition. The nucleus was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherfords efforts to test Thomsons plum pudding model of the atom, the electron had already been discovered earlier by J. J. Knowing that atoms are electrically neutral, Thomson postulated that there must be a charge as well. In his plum pudding model, Thomson suggested that an atom consisted of negative electrons randomly scattered within a sphere of positive charge, to his surprise, many of the particles were deflected at very large angles. This justified the idea of an atom with a dense center of positive charge. The term nucleus is from the Latin word nucleus, a diminutive of nux, in 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the central point of an atom. The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912, the adoption of the term nucleus to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N, the nuclear strong force extends far enough from each baryon so as to bind the neutrons and protons together against the repulsive electrical force between the positively charged protons. The nuclear strong force has a short range, and essentially drops to zero just beyond the edge of the nucleus. The collective action of the charged nucleus is to hold the electrically negative charged electrons in their orbits about the nucleus. The collection of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus display an affinity for certain configurations, which chemical element an atom represents is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus, the neutral atom will have an equal number of electrons orbiting that nucleus. Individual chemical elements can create more stable electron configurations by combining to share their electrons and it is that sharing of electrons to create stable electronic orbits about the nucleus that appears to us as the chemistry of our macro world. Protons define the entire charge of a nucleus, and hence its chemical identity, neutrons are electrically neutral, but contribute to the mass of a nucleus to nearly the same extent as the protons. Neutrons explain the phenomenon of isotopes – varieties of the chemical element which differ only in their atomic mass. They are sometimes viewed as two different quantum states of the particle, the nucleon
12.
Semi-empirical mass formula
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In nuclear physics, the semi-empirical mass formula is used to approximate the mass and various other properties of an atomic nucleus from its number of protons and neutrons. As the name suggests, it is based partly on theory, the theory is based on the liquid drop model proposed by George Gamow, which can account for most of the terms in the formula and gives rough estimates for the values of the coefficients. The liquid drop model in nuclear physics treats the nucleus as a drop of incompressible fluid of very high density. It was first proposed by George Gamow and then developed by Niels Bohr, the nucleus is made of nucleons, which are held together by the nuclear force. This is very similar to the structure of liquid drop made of microscopic molecules. This is a model that does not explain all the properties of the nucleus. It also helps to predict the binding energy and to assess how much is available for consumption. Mathematical analysis of the theory delivers an equation which attempts to predict the energy of a nucleus in terms of the numbers of protons and neutrons it contains. This equation has five terms on its right hand side and these correspond to the cohesive binding of all the nucleons by the nuclear force, a surface energy term, the electrostatic mutual repulsion of the protons, an asymmetry term and a pairing term. When an assembly of nucleons of the size is packed together into the smallest volume. So, this energy is proportional to the volume. A nucleon at the surface of a nucleus interacts with other nucleons than one in the interior of the nucleus. This surface energy term takes that into account and is negative and is proportional to the surface area. The electric repulsion between each pair of protons in a nucleus contributes toward decreasing its binding energy, an energy associated with the Pauli exclusion principle. An energy which is a term that arises from the tendency of proton pairs. An even number of particles is more stable than an odd number, in the following formulae, let A be the total number of nucleons, Z the number of protons, and N the number of neutrons, so that A = Z + N. The coefficients a V, a S, a C, a A, the term a V A is known as the volume term. The volume of the nucleus is proportional to A, so this term is proportional to the volume, the basis for this term is the strong nuclear force
13.
Niels Bohr
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Niels Henrik David Bohr was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research, although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity, that items could be analysed in terms of contradictory properties. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohrs thinking in science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and Werner Heisenberg. He predicted the existence of a new element, which was named hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen. Later, the element bohrium was named after him, during the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by the Germans, he had a meeting with Heisenberg. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, from there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for cooperation on nuclear energy. He had a sister, Jenny, and a younger brother Harald. Jenny became a teacher, while Harald became a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played for the Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Bohr was a footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Bohr as goalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven, in 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under Professor Christian Christiansen and he also studied astronomy and mathematics under Professor Thorvald Thiele, and philosophy under Professor Harald Høffding, a friend of his father. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet, Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his fathers laboratory in the university, the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had to make his own glassware and his essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted a version of the paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
14.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
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Field hockey
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Field hockey is a team sport of the hockey family. The earliest origins of the date back to the Middle Ages in England, Scotland, France. The game can be played on a field or a turf field as well as an indoor board surface. Each team plays with eleven players, including the goalie, players use sticks made out of wood, carbon fibre, fibre glass or a combination of carbon fibre and fibre glass in different quantities to hit a round, hard, plastic ball. The length of the stick depends on the players individual height, only one end of the stick is allowed to be used. Goalies often have a different kind of stick, however they can use an ordinary field hockey stick. The specific goal-keeping sticks have another curve at the end of the stick, the uniform consists of shin guards, shoes, shorts, a mouth guard and a jersey. Today, the game is played globally, with particular popularity throughout Western Europe, the Indian subcontinent, Southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Field Hockey is the national game of India and Pakistan. The term field hockey is used primarily in Canada and the United States where ice hockey is more popular, in Sweden the term landhockey is used. To some degree also in Norway and it is a section of Norways Bandy Association. Until recently they called it hockey, when it was changed to landhockey, during play, goal keepers are the only players who are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body, while field players play the ball with the flat side of their stick. Goal keepers also cannot play the ball with the back of their stick, whoever scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout, there are many variations to overtime play that depend on the league and tournament play. In college play, an overtime period consists of a 10-minute golden goal period with seven players for each team. If a tie remains, the game enters a one-on-one competition where each team chooses 5 players to dribble from the 25 yard line down to the circle against the opposing goalie. The player has 8 seconds to score on the goalie keeping it in bounds, the play ends after a goal is scored, the ball goes out of bounds, a foul is committed or time expires. If the tie still persists extra rounds thereafter until one team has scored, the FIH is also responsible for organising the Hockey Rules Board and developing the rules for the game. A popular variant of field hockey is indoor field hockey, which differs in a number of respects while embodying the principles of hockey
16.
1948 Summer Olympics
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The 1948 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIV Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event which was held in London, England, United Kingdom. After a 12-year hiatus because of World War II, these were the first Summer Olympics since the 1936 Games in Berlin, the 1940 Games had been scheduled for Tokyo, and then for Helsinki, the 1944 Games had been provisionally planned for London. This was the occasion that London had hosted the Olympic Games. The 1948 games were the first of two summer Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Sigfrid Edström, the event came to be known as the Austerity Games, because of the economic climate and post-war rationing. No new venues were built for the games, and athletes were housed in existing accommodation in the Wembley area instead of an Olympic Village, as were the 1936 Games and the subsequent 1952 Games. A record 59 nations were represented by 4,104 athletes,3,714 men and 390 women, germany and Japan were refused permission to participate, the USSR was invited but chose not to send any athletes. The United States team won the most total medals,84, the host nation won 23 medals, three of them gold. One of the performers at the Games was Dutch sprinter Fanny Blankers-Koen. Dubbed The Flying Housewife, the 30-year-old mother of two won four medals in athletics. In the decathlon, American Bob Mathias became the youngest male ever to win an Olympic gold medal at the age of 17, the most individual medals were won by Veikko Huhtanen of Finland who took three golds, a silver and a bronze in mens gymnastics. In June 1939, the International Olympic Committee awarded the 1944 Olympic Summer Games to London, ahead of Rome, Detroit, Budapest, Lausanne, Helsinki, Montreal, World War II stopped the plans and the Games were cancelled so London again stood as a candidate for 1948. Britain almost handed the 1948 games to the USA due to financial and rationing problems. The official report of the London Olympics shows that there was no case of London being pressed to run the Games against its will. As a result, a committee was set up by the British Olympic Council to work out in some detail the possibility of holding the Games. After several meetings they recommended to the council that the Lord Mayor of London should be invited to apply for the allocation of the Games in 1948. In March 1946 the IOC, through a vote, gave the summer Games to London. London was selected ahead of Baltimore, Minneapolis, Lausanne, Los Angeles, London, which had previously hosted the 1908 Summer Olympics, became the second city to host the Olympics twice, Paris hosted the event in 1900 and 1924. It became the first city to host the Olympics for the time when London hosted the 2012 Summer Olympics. E
17.
Niels Bohr Institute
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The Niels Bohr Institute is a research institute of the University of Copenhagen. The research of the institute spans astronomy, geophysics, nanotechnology, particle physics, on the 80th anniversary of Niels Bohrs birth - October 7,1965 - the Institute officially became The Niels Bohr Institute. Much of its funding came from the charitable foundation of the Carlsberg brewery. During the 1920s, and 1930s, the Institute was the center of the disciplines of atomic physics. Physicists from across Europe often visited the Institute to confer with Bohr on new theories and discoveries, the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is named after work done at the Institute during this time. On January 1,1993 the institute was merged with the Astronomic Observatory, the Ørsted Laboratory, the new resulting institute retained the name Niels Bohr Institute. In 2010, the year of the 125th anniversary of the birth of Niels Bohr and it is an annual award for a particularly outstanding researcher who is working in the spirit of Niels Bohr, International cooperation and the exchange of knowledge. The medal is made by Danish sculptor Rikke Raben for the Niels Bohr Institute, on the front is a portrait of Niels Bohr, the atom sign and stars. The illustration on the back is inspired by a quote from Bohr and our task is to communicate experience and ideas to others. On the back of the medal, Unity of Knowledge - the title of a given by Bohr at Columbia University in 1954. Nosce te ipsum is latin and means know thyself and this quote originates from the Oracle of Delphi, in the Temple of Apollo in Greece
18.
Hans Kramers
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Hendrik Anthony Hans Kramers was a Dutch physicist who worked with Niels Bohr to understand how electromagnetic waves interact with matter. Hans Kramers was born in Rotterdam, the son of Hendrik Kramers, a physician, and Jeanne Susanne Breukelman. In 1912 Hans finished secondary education in Rotterdam, and studied mathematics and physics at the University of Leiden, where he obtained a masters degree in 1916. Kramers wanted to obtain foreign experience during his research, but his first choice of supervisor. Because Denmark was neutral in war, as was the Netherlands, he travelled to Copenhagen. Bohr took him on as a Ph. D. candidate, although Kramers did most of his doctoral research in Copenhagen, he obtained his formal Ph. D. under Ehrenfest in Leiden, on 8 May 1919. Kramers greatly enjoyed music and could play the cello and the piano, after working for almost ten years in Bohrs group and becoming an associate professor at the University of Copenhagen, Kramers left Denmark in 1926 and returned to the Netherlands. He became a professor in theoretical physics at Utrecht University. In 1934 he left Utrecht and succeeded Paul Ehrenfest in Leiden, from 1931 until his death he held also a cross appointment at Delft University of Technology. Kramers was one of the founders of the Mathematisch Centrum in Amsterdam, in 1925, with Werner Heisenberg he developed the Kramers–Heisenberg dispersion formula. He is also credited with introducing in 1948 the concept of renormalization into quantum field theory, on 25 October 1920 he was married to Anna Petersen. They had three daughters and one son, Kramers became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1929, he was forced to resign in 1942. He joined the Academy again in 1945, Kramers won the Lorentz Medal in 1947 and Hughes Medal in 1951. Kramers – Between Tradition and Revolution, belinfante, F. J. ter Haar, D. Hendrik Anthony Kramers, 1894–1952. Casimir, Kramers, Hendrik Anthony, in Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland, J. M. Romein, Hendrik Anthony Kramers, in, Jaarboek van de Maatschappij der Nederlandse Letterkunde te Leiden, 1951–1953, pp. 83–91
19.
Oskar Klein
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Oskar Benjamin Klein was a Swedish theoretical physicist. Klein was born in Danderyd outside Stockholm, son of the rabbi of Stockholm, Gottlieb Klein from Humenné in Slovakia. He became a student of Svante Arrhenius at the Nobel Institute at an age and was on the way to Jean-Baptiste Perrin in France when World War I broke out. From 1917, he worked a few years with Niels Bohr in the University of Copenhagen, in 1923, he received a professorship at University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and moved there with his recently wedded wife, Gerda Koch from Denmark. Klein was awarded the Max Planck Medal in 1959 and he retired as professor emeritus in 1962. Klein is credited for inventing the idea, part of Kaluza–Klein theory, that extra dimensions may be real but curled up and very small. In 1938, he proposed a model for charge-charging weak interactions. His model was based on a local gauge symmetry and anticipated the later successful theory of Yang-Mills. The Oskar Klein Memorial Lecture, held annually at the University of Stockholm, has named after him. The Oskar Klein Centre for Cosmoparticle Physics in Stockholm, Sweden is also in his honor, Oskar Klein is the grandfather of Helle Klein
20.
Yoshio Nishina
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Yoshio Nishina was a Japanese physicist. He was called the father of modern physics research in Japan. Nishina was born in Satoshō, Okayama, and graduated from Tokyo Imperial University as an engineer in 1918. After graduation, he became a member at the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research. In 1921, he was sent to Europe for research and he visited some European universities and institutions, including Cavendish Laboratory, Georg August University of Göttingen, and University of Copenhagen. In Copenhagen, he did research with Niels Bohr and they became good friends, in 1928, he wrote a paper on incoherent or Compton scattering with Oskar Klein in Copenhagen, from which the Klein–Nishina formula derives. In 1929, he returned to Japan, where he endeavored to foster an environment for the study of quantum mechanics and he established Nishina Laboratory at RIKEN in 1931, and invited some Western scholars to Japan including Heisenberg, Dirac and Bohr to stimulate Japanese physicists. His laboratory was damaged during World War II and most equipment had to be discarded. He died from cancer in 1951. The crater Nishina on the Moon is named in his honor and his research was concerned with cosmic rays and particle accelerator development for which he constructed a few cyclotrons at RIKEN. In particular, he detected what turned out to be the muon in cosmic rays and he also discovered the uranium-237 isotope and pioneered the studies of symmetric fission phenomena occurring upon fast neutron irradiation of uranium. He was an investigator of RIKEN and mentored generations of physicists. During World War II, he was the head of the Japanese nuclear weapon program
21.
Wolfgang Pauli
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Wolfgang Ernst Pauli was an Austrian-born Swiss and American theoretical physicist and one of the pioneers of quantum physics. The discovery involved spin theory, which is the basis of a theory of the structure of matter, Pauli was born in Vienna to a chemist Wolfgang Joseph Pauli and his wife Bertha Camilla Schütz, his sister was Hertha Pauli, the writer and actress. Paulis middle name was given in honor of his godfather, physicist Ernst Mach, Paulis paternal grandparents were from prominent Jewish families of Prague, his great-grandfather was the Jewish publisher Wolf Pascheles. Paulis father converted from Judaism to Roman Catholicism shortly before his marriage in 1899, Paulis mother, Bertha Schütz, was raised in her own mothers Roman Catholic religion, her father was Jewish writer Friedrich Schütz. Pauli was raised as a Roman Catholic, although eventually he and he is considered to have been a deist and a mystic. Pauli attended the Döblinger-Gymnasium in Vienna, graduating with distinction in 1918, only two months after graduation, he published his first paper, on Albert Einsteins theory of general relativity. He attended the Ludwig-Maximilians University in Munich, working under Arnold Sommerfeld, Sommerfeld asked Pauli to review the theory of relativity for the Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften. Two months after receiving his doctorate, Pauli completed the article and it was praised by Einstein, published as a monograph, it remains a standard reference on the subject to this day. From 1923 to 1928, he was a lecturer at the University of Hamburg, during this period, Pauli was instrumental in the development of the modern theory of quantum mechanics. In particular, he formulated the principle and the theory of nonrelativistic spin. In 1928, he was appointed Professor of Theoretical Physics at ETH Zurich in Switzerland where he made significant scientific progress and he held visiting professorships at the University of Michigan in 1931, and the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton in 1935. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1931, at the end of 1930, shortly after his postulation of the neutrino and immediately following his divorce and the suicide of his mother, Pauli experienced a personal crisis. He consulted psychiatrist and psychotherapist Carl Jung who, like Pauli, Jung immediately began interpreting Paulis deeply archetypal dreams, and Pauli became one of the depth psychologists best students. He soon began to criticize the epistemology of Jungs theory scientifically, a great many of these discussions are documented in the Pauli/Jung letters, today published as Atom and Archetype. Jungs elaborate analysis of more than 400 of Paulis dreams is documented in Psychology, the German annexation of Austria in 1938 made him a German citizen, which became a problem for him in 1939 after the outbreak of World War II. In 1940, he tried in vain to obtain Swiss citizenship, Pauli moved to the United States in 1940, where he was employed as a professor of theoretical physics at the Institute for Advanced Study. In 1946, after the war, he became a citizen of the United States and subsequently returned to Zurich. In 1949, he was granted Swiss citizenship, in 1958, Pauli was awarded the Max Planck medal
22.
Werner Heisenberg
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Werner Karl Heisenberg was a German theoretical physicist and one of the key pioneers of quantum mechanics. He published his work in 1925 in a breakthrough paper, in the subsequent series of papers with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, during the same year, this matrix formulation of quantum mechanics was substantially elaborated. In 1927 he published his uncertainty principle, upon which he built his philosophy, Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 for the creation of quantum mechanics. He was a principal scientist in the Nazi German nuclear weapon project during World War II and he travelled to occupied Copenhagen where he met and discussed the German project with Niels Bohr. Following World War II, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics and he was director of the institute until it was moved to Munich in 1958, when it was expanded and renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics. He studied physics and mathematics from 1920 to 1923 at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, at Munich, he studied under Arnold Sommerfeld and Wilhelm Wien. At Göttingen, he studied physics with Max Born and James Franck and he received his doctorate in 1923, at Munich under Sommerfeld. He completed his Habilitation in 1924, at Göttingen under Born, at the event, Bohr was a guest lecturer and gave a series of comprehensive lectures on quantum atomic physics. There, Heisenberg met Bohr for the first time, and it had a significant, Heisenbergs doctoral thesis, the topic of which was suggested by Sommerfeld, was on turbulence, the thesis discussed both the stability of laminar flow and the nature of turbulent flow. The problem of stability was investigated by the use of the Orr–Sommerfeld equation and he briefly returned to this topic after World War II. Heisenbergs paper on the anomalous Zeeman effect was accepted as his Habilitationsschrift under Max Born at Göttingen, in his youth he was a member and Scoutleader of the Neupfadfinder, a German Scout association and part of the German Youth Movement. In August 1923 Robert Honsell and Heisenberg organized a trip to Finland with a Scout group of this association from Munich, Heisenberg arrived at Munich in 1919 as a member of Freikorps to fight the Bavarian Soviet Republic established a year earlier. Five decades later he recalled those days as youthful fun, like playing cops and robbers and so on, from 1924 to 1927, Heisenberg was a Privatdozent at Göttingen. His seminal paper, Über quantentheoretischer Umdeutung was published in September 1925 and he returned to Göttingen and with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, over a period of about six months, developed the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics. On 1 May 1926, Heisenberg began his appointment as a university lecturer and it was in Copenhagen, in 1927, that Heisenberg developed his uncertainty principle, while working on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. On 23 February, Heisenberg wrote a letter to fellow physicist Wolfgang Pauli, in his paper on the uncertainty principle, Heisenberg used the word Ungenauigkeit. In 1927, Heisenberg was appointed ordentlicher Professor of theoretical physics and head of the department of physics at the Universität Leipzig, in his first paper published from Leipzig, Heisenberg used the Pauli exclusion principle to solve the mystery of ferromagnetism. Slater, Edward Teller, John Hasbrouck van Vleck, Victor Frederick Weisskopf, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Gregor Wentzel, in early 1929, Heisenberg and Pauli submitted the first of two papers laying the foundation for relativistic quantum field theory
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Carl Jacobsen
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Carl Christian Hillman Jacobsen was a Danish brewer, art collector and philanthropist, the son of J. C. Jacobsen, who founded the brewery Carlsberg and named it after him and she was the daughter of the Danish grain merchant Conrad Stegmann and wife Louise Marie, née Brummer. First Carl worked for his father but partly because of his conflicts between them, he founded his own brewery in 1882, at his fathers death, Carl Jacobsen did not at once obtain the leading post of the old brewery. Instead his father left it to the Carlsberg Foundation which he had founded in 1876, as a sole ruler he carried on his father’s work. Carl Jacobsens interest in the arts is also demonstrated by his brewery and he employed the leading Danish architects of the time, mainly Vilhelm Dahlerup, and the buildings were designed with great care to detail as seen in the Winding Chimney. Often taking part in discussions of architecture of Copenhagen, he paid for the restoration of several churches and public buildings and was also behind the 1913 sculpture of The Little Mermaid
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Epistemology
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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591 and this philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history, the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge and the suffix -logy, meaning a logical discourse to. J. F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of ontology, to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the true beginning of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte, French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as theory of knowledge. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, in mathematics, it is known that 2 +2 =4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person, place, thing, or activity. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between knowing that, knowing how, and acquaintance-knowledge, with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these, while these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages. In French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch to know is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer, modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω and ξέρω. Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, German has the verbs wissen and kennen. The verb itself implies a process, you have to go from one state to another and this verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the episteme in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name Erkenntnistheorie. The theoretical interpretation and significance of linguistic issues remains controversial. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance, gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. This position is essentially Ryles, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress and this includes the truth, and everything else we accept as true for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. Whether someones belief is true is not a prerequisite for belief, on the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself, epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer
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Rescue of the Danish Jews
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The rescue of the Danish Jews occurred during Nazi Germanys occupation of Denmark during World War II. On October 1,1943, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler ordered Danish Jews to be arrested and deported, on April 9,1940, Denmark and Norway were invaded by Nazi Germany. Realizing that successful armed resistance was impossible and wishing to avoid civilian casualties, the Nazi German government stated that its occupation was a measure taken against the Allies and that Germany did not intend to disturb the political independence of Denmark. Because the Danish government promised loyal cooperation with the Germans, the occupation of Denmark was thus relatively mild at first. German propaganda even referred to Denmark as the protectorate, earning the nickname the Cream Front, due to the relative ease of the occupation. King Christian X retained his throne, and the Danish government, the Rigsdag, even censorship of radio and the press was administered by the Danish government, rather than by the occupying German civil and military authorities. During the early years of the occupation, Danish officials repeatedly insisted to the German occupation authorities that there was no Jewish problem in Denmark, in addition, the German Reich relied substantially upon Danish agriculture, which supplied meat and butter to 3.6 million Germans in 1942. In late 1941, during the visit of the Danish foreign minister, Erik Scavenius, to Berlin, the Danish state responded robustly, the courts imposed stiff fines and jail sentences on the editors and would-be arsonists, and the government took further administrative action. At the same time, the Danish resistance movement was becoming more assertive in its underground press, during the summer, several nationwide strikes led to armed confrontations between Danes and German troops. Deeming these terms unacceptable and a violation of sovereignty, the Danish government declared a state of emergency. Some 100 prominent Danes were taken hostage, including the Chief Rabbi Dr. Max Friediger, in response, the Danish government resigned on August 29,1943. Without the uncooperative Danish government to impede them, Denmarks German occupiers began planning the deportation to Nazi concentration camps of the 7,800 or so Jews in Denmark. On September 28,1943, Duckwitz leaked word of the plans for the operation against Denmarks Jews to Hans Hedtoft, chairman of the Danish Social Democratic Party. Hedtoft contacted the Danish Resistance Movement and the head of the Jewish community, C. B. Henriques, the early phases of the rescue were improvised. Some simply contacted friends and asked them to go through telephone books, most Jews hid for several days or weeks, uncertain of their fate. Although the majority of the Danish Jews were in hiding, they would eventually have been caught if safe passage to Sweden could not have been secured, Sweden had earlier been receiving Norwegian Jews with some sort of Swedish connection. But the actions to save the Norwegians were not entirely efficient, when martial law was introduced in Denmark on August 29, the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs realized that the Danish Jews were in immediate danger. On October 2, the Swedish government announced in a statement that Sweden was prepared to accept all Danish Jews in Sweden
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De Havilland Mosquito
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The de Havilland DH.98 Mosquito is a British multi-role combat aircraft with a two-man crew which served during and after the Second World War. It was one of few operational front-line aircraft of the era constructed almost entirely of wood and was nicknamed The Wooden Wonder, the Mosquito was also known affectionately as the Mossie to its crews. It was also used by the British Overseas Airways Corporation as a fast transport to carry small high-value cargoes to, a single passenger could be carried in the aircrafts bomb bay, which would be adapted for the purpose. When production of the Mosquito began in 1941, it was one of the fastest operational aircraft in the world, entering widespread service in 1942, the Mosquito was a high-speed, high-altitude photo-reconnaissance aircraft, continuing in this role throughout the war. From mid-1942 to mid-1943, Mosquito bombers flew high-speed, medium or low-altitude missions against factories, railways and other pinpoint targets in Germany, from late 1943, Mosquito bombers were formed into the Light Night Strike Force and used as pathfinders for RAF Bomber Commands heavy-bomber raids. They were also used as bombers, often dropping Blockbuster bombs –4,000 lb cookies – in high-altitude. As a night fighter from mid-1942, the Mosquito intercepted Luftwaffe raids on the United Kingdom, starting in July 1942, Mosquito night-fighter units raided Luftwaffe airfields. As part of 100 Group, it was a fighter and intruder supporting RAF Bomber Commands heavy bombers that reduced bomber losses during 1944 and 1945. Second Tactical Air Force Mosquitos supported the British Army during the 1944 Normandy Campaign, from 1943, Mosquitos with RAF Coastal Command strike squadrons attacked Kriegsmarine U-boats and intercepted transport ship concentrations. The Mosquito flew with the Royal Air Force and other air forces in the European, Mediterranean and Italian theatres. The Mosquito was also operated by the RAF in the South East Asian theatre, during the 1950s, the RAF replaced the Mosquito with the jet-powered English Electric Canberra. By the early-mid-1930s, de Havilland had a reputation for innovative high-speed aircraft with the DH.88 Comet racer, the later DH.91 Albatross airliner pioneered the composite wood construction that the Mosquito used. The 22-passenger Albatross could cruise at 210 miles per hour at 11,000 feet,100 miles per hour better than the Handley Page H. P.42, on 8 September 1936, the British Air Ministry issued Specification P. Aviation firms entered heavy designs with new high-powered engines and multiple turrets, leading to the production of the Avro Manchester. In May 1937, as a comparison to P. 13/36, George Volkert, in 20 pages, Volkert planned an aerodynamically clean medium bomber to carry 3,000 pounds of bombs at a cruising speed of 300 miles per hour. There was support in the RAF and Air Ministry, Captain R N Liptrot, Research Director Aircraft 3, appraised Volkerts design, there were, however, counter-arguments that, although such a design had merit, it would not necessarily be faster than enemy fighters for long. The idea of a small, fast bomber gained support at an earlier stage than sometimes acknowledged though it was likely that the Air Ministry envisaged it using light alloy components. Geoffrey de Havilland also believed a bomber with an aerodynamic design and he thought that adapting the Albatross to meet the RAFs requirements could save time
27.
British Overseas Airways Corporation
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British Overseas Airways Corporation was the British state-owned airline created in 1940 by the merger of Imperial Airways and British Airways Ltd. It continued operating overseas services throughout World War II, after the passing of the Civil Aviation Act of 1946, European and South American services passed to two further state-owned airlines, British European Airways and British South American Airways. BOAC absorbed BSAA in 1949, but BEA continued to operate British domestic, a 1971 Act of Parliament merged BOAC and BEA with effect from 31 March 1974, forming todays British Airways. On 24 November 1939, BOAC was created by Act of Parliament to become the British state airline, formed from the merger of Imperial Airways and British Airways Ltd. The companies had been operating together since war was declared on 3 September 1939, on 1 April 1940, BOAC started operations as a single company. Linking Britain to the Horseshoe Route taxed the resources of BOAC, although Spain denied access, Portugal welcomed BOACs civilian aircraft at Lisbon. The Empire flying-boats were at their limit on the 1,900 mile Lisbon-Bathurst sector, refuelling at Las Palmas in the Canary Islands was permitted by Spain for some Empire flying-boat flights in 1940 and 1941. In 1941 longer range Consolidated Catalinas, Boeing 314As were introduced to guarantee non-stop Lisbon to Bathurst sectors, BOACs flying-boat base for Britain was shifted from Southampton to Poole, Dorset, but many flights used Foynes in Éire, reached by shuttle flight from Whitchurch. Use of Foynes reduced the chance of interception or friendly fire incidents over the English Channel. BOAC had large bases at Durban, Asmara, Alexandria and a school at Soroti. These were BOACs first New York services and this was the first sustained North Atlantic landplane service. By September 1944 BOAC had made 1,000 transatlantic crossings, in late 1942, the new hard-surface airport at Lisbon permitted the use of civil registered Liberators to North and West Africa and Egypt. Arguably, BOACs most famous wartime route was the Ball-bearing Run from Leuchars to Stockholm in neutral Sweden, initially flown with Lockheed 14s and Lockheed Hudson transports, the unsuitable Armstrong Whitworth Whitley civilianised bombers were also used between 9 August and 24 October 1942. The much faster civilian registered de Havilland Mosquitoes were introduced by BOAC in 1943, between 1939 and 19456,000 passengers were transported by BOAC between Stockholm and Great Britain. At the end of the war, BOACs fleet consisted of Lockheed Lodestars, lend-lease Douglas DC-3s, Liberators, converted Sunderlands, and the first Avro Lancastrians, Avro Yorks, and Handley Page Haltons. The Short Empire, Short S.26 and Boeing 314A flying boats, the Corporations aircraft, bases and personnel were scattered around the world, and it took a decade to reorganise it into an efficient unit at Heathrow. Whilst the major world airlines abandoned flying-boats at the end of WWII, BOAC continued with theirs until 1950, and even introduced the new Short Solent on the leisurely Nile route to South Africa. In 1948, the unpressurised Yorks were still operating passenger services as far afield as Nairobi, Accra, Delhi and Calcutta, after its first six Lockheed 049 Constellations, BOAC had to use some ingenuity to increase its Constellation fleet
28.
Bomb bay
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The bomb bay or weapons bay on some military aircraft is a compartment to carry bombs, usually in the aircrafts fuselage, with bomb bay doors which open at the bottom. The bomb bay doors are opened and the bombs are dropped when over the target or at a launching point. Bomb bays were born of necessity, early military aircraft suffered severe aerodynamic drag with bombs hanging from the wings or below the fuselage, so military aviation designers moved the bombs inside the aircraft. Notable exceptions are the F-101, F-102 and F-106 interceptor aircraft, all of which had used to store missiles. The principal reason for the change is to use technology to make aircraft more difficult to detect on radar. Military fighters are now designed to have the smallest possible radar cross-section, large racks of missiles and bombs hanging below the wings return very distinct radar signatures which can be eliminated by bringing the weapons inside the fuselage. This also improves performance and increases the payload which can be carried. Examples of modern U. S. fighters with weapons bays are the F-117 Nighthawk, F-22 Raptor and these stealth aircraft such as the Chengdu J-20 use retractable guided missile launchers which move out on rails allowing the weapons bay to be closed while the missiles still hang outside. The Breda Ba.88 was one of a few aircraft to use a semi-recessed bomb bay. Large-sized bombs, which may be nuclear, are dropped from hook-type releases or bomb cradles, when a bomber carries many smaller bombs, the bombs are typically loaded onto mechano-electrical devices known as ejector racks, which allow for larger bomb loads to be dropped with greater accuracy. The advantage of a bomb rack is a prompt release of all stores in short order. Bombers like the B-52, the B-1 or the B-2 use custom designed bomb rack support structures with their own designation e. g, Common Bomb Rack, Common Bomb Module, or Smart Bomb Rack Assembly. These bomb racks may have special store release control mechanisms, aside from the release options of a rack a pilot can select release mode for releasing one or multiple stores. Stores can be jettisoned selectively in single mode or ripple mode or salvo mode, the term ripple applies to the single- or ripple and single- continuous release mode from one or from mirror stations. Salvo release mode applies to a combination of several stations together e. g. adjacent stations, for multiple store release an interval timer can be set to release stores in fixed time steps. For an external store emergency release there may be a button to release all of the weapons. A rotary launcher is a rotating suspension equipment mounted inside the bomb bay, rotary launchers have stations of their own and offer the ability to select certain stores within the bomb bay for release. Advantages include the ability for different weapons and easier loading for the ground crew
29.
Tube Alloys
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Starting before the Manhattan Project in the United States, the British efforts were kept classified and as such had to be referred to by code even within the highest circles of government. The possibility of weapons was acknowledged early in the war. This led to the formation of the MAUD Committee, which called for an effort to develop nuclear weapons. Wallace Akers, who oversaw the project, chose the deliberately misleading name Tube Alloys and his Tube Alloys Directorate was part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Tube Alloys programme in Britain and Canada was the first nuclear weapons project, due to the high costs, and the fact that Britain was fighting a war within bombing range of its enemies, Tube Alloys was ultimately subsumed into the Manhattan Project. The Soviet Union gained valuable information through its spies, who had infiltrated both the British and American projects. The United States terminated co-operation after the war ended and this prompted the United Kingdom to launch its own project, High Explosive Research. Production facilities were established and British scientists continued their work under the auspices of an independent British programme, finally in 1952, Britain performed a nuclear test under codename Operation Hurricane. In December 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann conducted experiments in Hahns laboratory in Berlin-Dahlem that involved bombarding uranium with slowed neutrons and they discovered that barium had been produced, and therefore that the uranium nucleus had been split. Atoms had been split before, by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1932, the neutron had been discovered by James Chadwick at Cavendish only in 1932. Experiments with bombardment of elements by slow neutrons had always produced heavier elements and this phenomenon was a new type of nuclear disintegration and was radioactively more powerful than ever seen before. Frisch and Meitner calculated this energy released by each disintegration to be approximately 200,000,000 electron volts, by analogy with the division of biological cells, they named this process fission. This was followed up by a group of scientists at the Collège de France in Paris, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Hans von Halban, Lew Kowarski, in February 1939, the Paris Group showed that when fission occurs in uranium, two or three extra neutrons are given off. This important observation suggested that a nuclear chain reaction might be possible. It was immediately apparent to scientists that, in theory. The term atomic bomb was already familiar to the British public through the writings of H. G. Wells, Perrin defined a critical mass of uranium to be the smallest amount that could sustain a chain reaction. Thus, in order to create a chain reaction, there existed a need for a neutron moderator to contain. The College de France found that water and graphite could be used as acceptable moderators
30.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
31.
J. Robert Oppenheimer
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Julius Robert Oppenheimer was an American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. After the war, Oppenheimer became chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the newly created United States Atomic Energy Commission and he used that position to lobby for international control of nuclear power to avert nuclear proliferation and a nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union. Nine years later, President John F. Kennedy awarded him with the Enrico Fermi Award as a gesture of political rehabilitation. As a teacher and promoter of science, he is remembered as a father of the American school of theoretical physics that gained world prominence in the 1930s. After World War II, he director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. Julius came to America with no money, no baccalaureate studies and he got a job in a textile company and within a decade was an executive with the company. The Oppenheimers were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, in 1912 the family moved to an apartment on the 11th floor of 155 Riverside Drive, near West 88th Street, Manhattan, an area known for luxurious mansions and townhouses. Their art collection included works by Pablo Picasso and Édouard Vuillard, Robert had a younger brother, Frank, who also became a physicist. Oppenheimer was initially educated at Alcuin Preparatory School, and in 1911 he entered the Ethical Culture Society School and this had been founded by Felix Adler to promote a form of ethical training based on the Ethical Culture movement, whose motto was Deed before Creed. His father had been a member of the Society for many years, Oppenheimer was a versatile scholar, interested in English and French literature, and particularly in mineralogy. He completed the third and fourth grades in one year, during his final year, he became interested in chemistry. He entered Harvard College a year late, at age 18, Oppenheimer majored in chemistry, but Harvard required science students to also study history, literature, and philosophy or mathematics. He compensated for his start by taking six courses each term and was admitted to the undergraduate honor society Phi Beta Kappa. He was attracted to physics by a course on thermodynamics that was taught by Percy Bridgman. He graduated summa cum laude in three years, in 1924 Oppenheimer was informed that he had been accepted into Christs College, Cambridge. He wrote to Ernest Rutherford requesting permission to work at the Cavendish Laboratory, Bridgman provided Oppenheimer with a recommendation, which conceded that Oppenheimers clumsiness in the laboratory made it apparent his forte was not experimental but rather theoretical physics. Rutherford was unimpressed, but Oppenheimer went to Cambridge in the hope of landing another offer and he was ultimately accepted by J. J. Thomson on condition that he complete a basic laboratory course. He developed a relationship with his tutor, Patrick Blackett
32.
Enrico Fermi
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Enrico Fermi was an Italian physicist, who created the worlds first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. He has been called the architect of the age and the architect of the atomic bomb. He was one of the few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally and he made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermis first major contribution was to statistical mechanics, today, particles that obey the exclusion principle are called fermions. Later Pauli postulated the existence of an invisible particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay. Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle and his theory, later referred to as Fermis interaction and still later as weak interaction, described one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura Capon and he emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Fermi led the team designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942. He was on hand when the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, went critical in 1943, at Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Tellers thermonuclear Super bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, after the war, Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee, which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy. Following the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949 and he was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimers behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the latters security clearance. Enrico Fermi was born in Rome, Italy, on 29 September 1901 and he was the third child of Alberto Fermi, a division head in the Ministry of Railways, and Ida de Gattis, an elementary school teacher. His only sister, Maria, was two years older than he was, and his brother Giulio was a year older, after the two boys were sent to a rural community to be wet nursed, Enrico rejoined his family in Rome when he was two and a half. Although he was baptised a Roman Catholic in accordance with his grandparents wishes, his family was not particularly religious, as a young boy he shared the same interests as his brother Giulio, building electric motors and playing with electrical and mechanical toys. Giulio died during the administration of an anesthetic for an operation on a throat abscess in 1915, one of Fermis first sources for his study of physics was a book he found at the local market at Campo de Fiori in Rome. Published in 1840, the 900-page Elementorum physicae mathematicae, was written in Latin by Jesuit Father Andrea Caraffa and it covered mathematics, classical mechanics, astronomy, optics, and acoustics, insofar as these disciplines were understood when the book was written. Fermis interest in physics was encouraged by his fathers colleague Adolfo Amidei, who gave him several books on physics and mathematics. Fermi graduated from school in July 1918 and, at Amideis urging
33.
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
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The United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9,1945, respectively, during the final stage of World War II. The United States had dropped the bombs with the consent of the United Kingdom as outlined in the Quebec Agreement, the two bombings, which killed at least 129,000 people, remain the only use of nuclear weapons for warfare in history. In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. This was preceded by a U. S. conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities, the war in Europe had concluded when Nazi Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8,1945, just after Hitler committed suicide. The Japanese, facing the fate, refused to accept the Allies demands for unconditional surrender. The Allies called for the surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945—the alternative being prompt. The Japanese response to this ultimatum was to ignore it, orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. Three days later, on August 9, a plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, in both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison. Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki, on September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II. The justification for the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is still debated to this day, in 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. The Japanese fought fiercely, ensuring that U. S. victory would come at an enormous cost, December 1944 saw American battle casualties hit an all-time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5,1 in the Philippines to 2,1 on Okinawa, although some Japanese were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99% of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed, of the 117,000 Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April–June 1945, 94% were killed. American military leaders used these figures to estimate high casualties among American soldiers in the invasion of Japan. As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people, Japans merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945
34.
Stopping power (particle radiation)
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Its application is important in areas such as radiation protection and nuclear medicine. Both charged and uncharged particles lose energy while passing through matter, positive ions are considered in most cases below. The stopping power depends on the type and energy of the radiation and on the properties of the material it passes, since the production of an ion pair requires a fixed amount of energy, the density of ionization is proportional to the stopping power. The stopping power of the material is numerically equal to the loss of energy E per unit path length, the force usually increases toward the end of range and reaches a maximum, the Bragg peak, shortly before the energy drops to zero. The curve that describes the force as function of the depth is called the Bragg curve. This is of practical importance for radiation therapy. The equation above defines the linear stopping power which in the system is expressed in N but is usually indicated in other units like MeV/mm or similar. If a substance is compared in gaseous and solid form, then the linear stopping powers of the two states are very different just because of the different density, the mass stopping power then depends only very little on the density of the material. The picture shows how the power of 5.49 MeV alpha particles increases while the particle traverses air. This particular energy corresponds to that of the alpha radiation from naturally radioactive gas radon which is present in the air in minute amounts. The deposited energy can be obtained by integrating the stopping power over the path length of the ion while it moves in the material. Electronic stopping refers to the slowing down of a projectile ion due to the collisions between bound electrons in the medium and the ion moving through it. The term inelastic is used to signify that energy is lost during the process, linear electronic stopping power is identical to unrestricted linear energy transfer. Instead of energy transfer, some consider the electronic stopping power as momentum transfer between electron gas and energetic ion. This is consistent with the result of Bethe in the energy range. Instead, the stopping power is often given as a simple function of energy F e which is an average taken over all energy loss processes for different charge states. It can be determined to an accuracy of a few % in the energy range above several hundred keV per nucleon from theoretical treatments. At energies lower than about 100 keV per nucleon, it more difficult to determine the electronic stopping theoretically
35.
Princeton, New Jersey
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As of the 2010 United States Census, the municipalitys population was 28,572, reflecting the former townships population of 16,265, along with the 12,307 in the former borough. Princeton was founded before the American Revolution and is best known as the location of Princeton University, Princeton is roughly equidistant from New York City and Philadelphia. It is close to major highways that serve both cities, and receives major television and radio broadcasts from each. It is also close to Trenton, New Jerseys capital city, the governor of New Jerseys official residence has been in Princeton since 1945, when Morven in the borough became the first Governors mansion. It was later replaced by the larger Drumthwacket, a mansion located in the former Township. Morven became a property of the New Jersey Historical Society. Princeton was ranked 15th of the top 100 towns in the United States to Live, although residents of Princeton traditionally have a strong community-wide identity, the community had been composed of two separate municipalities, a township and a borough. The central borough was completely surrounded by the township, the Borough contained Nassau Street, the main commercial street, most of the University campus, and incorporated most of the urban area until the postwar suburbanization. The Borough and Township had roughly equal populations, the Lenni Lenape Native Americans were the earliest identifiable inhabitants of the Princeton area. Europeans founded their settlement in the part of the 17th century. The first European to find his home in the boundaries of the town was Henry Greenland. He built his house in 1683 along with a tavern, in this drinking hole representatives of West Jersey and East Jersey met to set boundaries for the location of the township. Originally, Princeton was known only as part of nearby Stony Brook, James Leonard first referred to the town as Princetown, when describing the location of his large estate in his diary. The town bore a variety of names subsequently, including, Princetown, Princes Town, although there is no official documentary backing, the town is considered to be named after King William III, Prince William of Orange of the House of Nassau. Another theory suggests that the name came from a large land-owner named Henry Prince, a royal prince seems a more likely eponym for the settlement, as three nearby towns had similar names, Kingston, Queenstown and Princessville. When Richard Stockton, one of the founders of the township, died in 1709 he left his estate to his sons, who helped to expand property, based on the 1880 United States Census, the population of the town comprised 3,209 persons. Local population has expanded from the nineteenth century, according to the 2010 Census, Princeton Borough had 12,307 inhabitants, while Princeton Township had 16,265. Aside from housing the university of the name, the settlement suffered the revolutionary Battle of Princeton on its soil
36.
Isidor Isaac Rabi
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Isidor Isaac Rabi was an American physicist and Nobel laureate, recognized in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance, which is used in magnetic resonance imaging. He was also one of the first scientists in the US to work on the cavity magnetron, which is used in microwave radar and microwave ovens. Born into a traditional Jewish family in Rymanów, Galicia, in what was part of Austria-Hungary. He entered Cornell University as an engineering student in 1916. Later, he interested in physics. He continued his studies at Columbia University, where he was awarded his doctorate for a thesis on the susceptibility of certain crystals. In 1927, he headed for Europe, where he met, in 1929 Rabi returned to the United States, where Columbia offered him a faculty position. In collaboration with Gregory Breit, he developed the Breit-Rabi equation and his techniques for using nuclear magnetic resonance to discern the magnetic moment and nuclear spin of atoms earned him a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1944. Nuclear magnetic resonance became an important tool for nuclear physics and chemistry, the subsequent development of magnetic resonance imaging from it has made it important to medicine as well. During World War II he worked on radar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Radiation Laboratory, after the war, he served on the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, and was chairman from 1952 to 1956. He also served on the Science Advisory Committees of the Office of Defense Mobilization and the Armys Ballistic Research Laboratory, and was Science Advisor to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. He was involved with the establishment of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1946, when Columbia created the rank of University Professor in 1964, Rabi was the first to receive such a chair. A special chair was named after him in 1985 and he retired from teaching in 1967 but remained active in the department and held the title of University Professor Emeritus and Special Lecturer until his death. Israel Isaac Rabi was born on 29 July 1898 into a Polish-Jewish Orthodox family in Rymanów, Galicia, soon after he was born, his father, David Rabi, emigrated to the United States. The younger Rabi and his mother, Sheindel, joined David there a few later. At home the family spoke Yiddish, when Rabi was enrolled in school, Sheindel said his name was Izzy, and a school official, thinking it was short for Isidor, put that down as his name. Henceforth, that became his official name, later, in response to anti-Semitism, he started writing his name as Isidor Isaac Rabi, and was known professionally as I. I. To most of his friends and family, including his sister Gertrude, who was born in 1903, he was simply as Rabi
37.
Hyperfine structure
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In atomic physics, hyperfine structure is the different effects leading to small shifts and splittings in the energy levels of atoms, molecules and ions. The name is a reference to the structure, which results from the interaction between the magnetic moments associated with electron spin and the electrons orbital angular momentum. The optical hyperfine structure was observed in 1881 by Albert Abraham Michelson and it could, however, only be explained in terms of quantum mechanics when Wolfgang Pauli proposed the existence of a small nuclear magnetic moment in 1924. In 1935, H. Schüler and Theodor Schmidt proposed the existence of a quadrupole moment in order to explain anomalies in the hyperfine structure. The theory of structure comes directly from electromagnetism, consisting of the interaction of the nuclear multipole moments with internally generated fields. The theory is derived first for the case, but can be applied to each nucleus in a molecule. Following this there is a discussion of the additional effects unique to the molecular case, the dominant term in the hyperfine Hamiltonian is typically the magnetic dipole term. Atomic nuclei with a nuclear spin I have a magnetic dipole moment, given by, μ I = g I μ N I. There is an associated with a magnetic dipole moment in the presence of a magnetic field. For a nuclear magnetic moment, μI, placed in a magnetic field, B. Electron orbital angular momentum results from the motion of the electron about some fixed point that we shall take to be the location of the nucleus. Written in terms of the Bohr magneton, this gives, B el l = −2 μ B μ04 π1 r 3 r × m e v ℏ. Recognizing that mev is the momentum, p, and that r×p/ħ is the orbital angular momentum in units of ħ, l, we can write. The electron spin angular momentum is a different property that is intrinsic to the particle. Nonetheless it is angular momentum and any angular momentum associated with a charged particle results in a dipole moment. The magnetic field of a moment, μs, is given by. The first term gives the energy of the dipole in the field due to the electronic orbital angular momentum. The second term gives the energy of the finite distance interaction of the dipole with the field due to the electron spin magnetic moments
38.
Deuterium
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Deuterium is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen. The nucleus of deuterium, called a deuteron, contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common hydrogen isotope, Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earths oceans of about one atom in 6420 of hydrogen. Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0. 0156% of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans, the abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another. The deuterium isotopes name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning second, Deuterium was discovered and named in 1931 by Harold Urey. When the neutron was discovered in 1932, this made the structure of deuterium obvious. Soon after deuteriums discovery, Urey and others produced samples of water in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated. Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced, other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium. Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago and this is the ratio found in the gas giant planets, such as Jupiter. However, other bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1. This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets, like the water-cycle in Earths weather, such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium. The analysis of ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earths oceans. This reinforces theories that much of Earths ocean water is of cometary origin, the deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, as measured by the Rosetta space probe, is about three times that of earth water. This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet, deuterium/protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology. Deuterium is frequently represented by the chemical symbol D, since it is an isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2, it is also represented by 2H. IUPAC allows both D and 2H, although 2H is preferred, a distinct chemical symbol is used for convenience because of the isotopes common use in various scientific processes. In quantum mechanics the energy levels of electrons in atoms depend on the mass of the system of electron. For hydrogen, this amount is about 1837/1836, or 1.000545, the energies of spectroscopic lines for deuterium and light-hydrogen therefore differ by the ratios of these two numbers, which is 1.000272. The wavelengths of all deuterium spectroscopic lines are shorter than the lines of light hydrogen
39.
Nuclear shell model
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The first shell model was proposed by Dmitry Ivanenko in 1932. The shell model is analogous to the atomic shell model which describes the arrangement of electrons in an atom. When adding nucleons to a nucleus, there are points where the binding energy of the next nucleon is significantly less than the last one. This observation, that there are certain magic numbers of nucleons,2,8,20,28,50,82,126 which are tightly bound than the next higher number, is the origin of the shell model. The shells for protons and for neutrons are independent of each other, therefore, one can have magic nuclei where one nucleon type or the other is at a magic number, and doubly magic nuclei, where both are. Some semimagic numbers have been found, notably Z=40 giving nuclear shell filling for the elements,16 may also be a magic number. In order to get these numbers, the shell model starts from an average potential with a shape something between the square well and the harmonic oscillator. To this potential a spin orbit term is added, nevertheless, the magic numbers of nucleons, as well as other properties, can be arrived at by approximating the model with a three-dimensional harmonic oscillator plus a spin-orbit interaction. A more realistic but also complicated potential is known as Woods Saxon potential and this would give, for example, in the first two levels We can imagine ourselves building a nucleus by adding protons and neutrons. These will always fill the lowest available level, thus the first two protons fill level zero, the next six protons fill level one, and so on. Therefore nuclei which have a full outer shell will have a higher binding energy than other nuclei with a similar total number of protons. All this is true for neutrons as well and this means that the magic numbers are expected to be those in which all occupied shells are full. We see that for the first two numbers we get 2 and 8, in accord with experiment, however the full set of magic numbers does not turn out correctly. These can be computed as follows, In a three-dimensional harmonic oscillator the total degeneracy at level n is 2, due to the spin, the degeneracy is doubled and is. Thus the magic numbers would be ∑ n =0 k =3 for all integer k and this gives the following magic numbers,2,8,20,40,70,112. Which agree with experiment only in the first three entries and these numbers are twice the tetrahedral numbers from the Pascal Triangle. In particular, the first six shells are, level 0,2 states =2, level 2,2 states +10 states =12. Level 3,6 states +14 states =20, level 4,2 states +10 states +18 states =30
40.
Maria Goeppert-Mayer
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Maria Goeppert Mayer was a German-born American theoretical physicist, and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. She was the second female Nobel laureate in physics, after Marie Curie, a graduate of the University of Göttingen, Goeppert Mayer wrote her doctorate on the theory of possible two-photon absorption by atoms. At the time, the chances of experimentally verifying her thesis seemed remote, today, the unit for the two-photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert Mayer unit. Maria Goeppert married Joseph Edward Mayer and moved to the United States, in 1937, she moved to Columbia University, where she took an unpaid position. During World War II, she worked for the Manhattan Project at Columbia on isotope separation, after the war, Goeppert Mayer became a voluntary associate professor of Physics at the University of Chicago and a senior physicist at the nearby Argonne National Laboratory. She developed a model for the structure of nuclear shells, for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963. In 1960, she was appointed professor of physics at the University of California. Maria Göppert was born on June 28,1906, in Kattowitz, a city in Prussia, in 1910, she moved with her family to Göttingen when her father, a sixth-generation university professor, was appointed as the professor of pediatrics at the University of Göttingen. Goeppert was closer to her father than her mother, well, my father was more interesting, she later explained. He was after all a scientist, Göppert was educated at the Höhere Technische in Göttingen, a school for middle-class girls who aspired to higher education. In 1921, she entered the Frauenstudium, a high school run by suffragettes that aimed to prepare girls for university. She took the abitur, the university examination, at age 17. All the girls passed, but only one of the boys did, in the Spring of 1924, Göppert entered the University of Göttingen, where she studied mathematics. Instead, Goeppert became interested in physics, and chose to pursue a Ph. D, in her 1930 doctoral thesis she worked out the theory of possible two-photon absorption by atoms. Eugene Wigner later described the thesis as a masterpiece of clarity, to honor her fundamental contribution to this area, the unit for the two-photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert-Mayer unit. One GM is 10−50 cm4 s photon−1 and her examiners were three future Nobel prize winners, Max Born, James Franck and Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus. On January 19,1930, Goeppert married Joseph Edward Mayer, the two had met when Mayer had boarded with the Goeppert family. The couple moved to Mayers home country of the United States and they had two children, Maria Ann and Peter Conrad
41.
Magic number (physics)
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In nuclear physics, a magic number is a number of nucleons such that they are arranged into complete shells within the atomic nucleus. The seven most widely recognized magic numbers as of 2007 are 2,8,20,28,50,82, large isotopes with magic numbers of nucleons are said to exist in an island of stability. Unlike the magic numbers 2–126, which are realized in spherical nuclei, before this was realized, higher magic numbers, such as 184,258,350, and 462, were predicted based on simple calculations that assumed spherical shapes, these are generated by the formula 2. It is now believed that the sequence of spherical magic numbers cannot be extended in this way, further predicted magic numbers are 114,122,124, and 164 for protons as well as 184,196,236, and 318 for neutrons. It seemed a little magic to him, and that is how the words ‘Magic Numbers’ were coined. ”Nuclei which have neutron number and proton numbers each equal to one of the magic numbers are called double magic. Examples of double magic isotopes include helium-4, oxygen-16, calcium-40, calcium-48, nickel-48, nickel-78, double-magic effects may allow existence of stable isotopes which otherwise would not have been expected. An example is calcium-40, with 20 neutrons and 20 protons, both calcium-48 and nickel-48 are double magic because calcium-48 has 20 protons and 28 neutrons while nickel-48 has 28 protons and 20 neutrons. Calcium-48 is very neutron-rich for such an element, but like calcium-40. Nickel-48, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich isotope known beyond helium-3, at the other extreme, nickel-78 is also doubly magical, with 28 protons and 50 neutrons, a ratio observed only in much heavier elements apart from tritium with one proton and two neutrons. Magic number shell effects are seen in ordinary abundances of elements, helium-4 is among the most abundant nuclei in the universe, Magic effects can keep unstable nuclides from decaying as rapidly as would otherwise be expected. For example, the nuclides tin-100 and tin-132 are examples of doubly magic isotopes of tin that are unstable, and represent endpoints beyond which stability drops off rapidly. In December 2006 hassium-270, with 108 protons and 162 neutrons, was discovered by a team of scientists led by the Technical University of Munich having the half-life of 22 seconds. Hassium-270 evidently forms part of an island of stability, and may even be double magic, Nuclear shells are said to occur when the separation between energy levels is significantly greater than the local mean separation. In the shell model for the nucleus, magic numbers are the numbers of nucleons at which a shell is filled. For instance the magic number 8 occurs when 1s1/2, 1p3/2, 1p1/2 energy levels are filled as there is an energy gap between the 1p1/2 and the next highest 1d5/2 energy levels. The atomic analog to nuclear magic numbers are numbers of electrons leading to discontinuities in the ionization energy. These occur for the noble gases helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon and oganesson, hence, the atomic magic numbers are 2,10,18,36,54,86 and 118. In 2007, Jozsef Garai from Florida International University proposed a formula describing the periodicity of the nucleus in the periodic system based on the double tetrahedron
listen); 19 June 1922 – 8 September 2009) was a Danish nuclear physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 with Ben Mottelson and James Rainwater "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection".[1] Starting from Rainwater's concept of an irregular-shaped liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr and Mottelson developed a detailed theory that was in close agreement with experiments, since his father, Niels Bohr, had won the prize in 1922, he and his father were one of the six pairs of fathers and sons who have both won the Nobel Prize and one of the four pairs who have both won the Nobel Prize in Physics.[2]
