1.
Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
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The organization comprises 57 member states and governments, three associate members and twenty observers. French geographer Onésime Reclus, brother of Élisée Reclus, coined the word Francophonie in 1880 to refer to the community of people and countries using the French language. Francophonie was then coined a second time by Léopold Sédar Senghor, founder of the Négritude movement, in the review Esprit in 1962, the modern organisation was created in 1970. Its motto is égalité, complémentarité, solidarité, an allusion to Frances motto liberté, égalité, fraternité. Finally in 2005, the adoption of a new Charter of the Francophonie gives the name to the Agency of international Organization of the Francophonie, the position of Secretary-General was created in 1997 at the seventh leaders summit held in Hanoi. Abdou Diouf, the president of the Republic of Senegal. At the 2014 summit in Dakar, former Governor General of Canada Michaëlle Jean was chosen to lead the organization starting in January 2015, the Secretary General of the Francophonie is elected during the Summit. He/she is the keystone of the device and of the Francophonie. He/she is the spokesperson and the official representative internationally of the actions of the Francophonie. The Secretary General is responsible for proposing priority areas for multilateral Francophonie actions, his/her job is to facilitate Francophone multilateral cooperation and to ensure that programs and activities of all operating agencies work in harmony. The Secretary General carries out his/her four-year mandate under the authority of the three institutions of the Francophonie, the Summits, the Ministerial Conference and the Permanent Council. It is chaired by the Head of state and government of the host country, armenia is to play host to the next summit in 2018 and Tunisia is to host in 2020. The Ministerial Conference of the Francophonie gathers the foreign or francophone affairs ministers of member states and this conference ensures that the decisions made during the previous Summits are carried out and to plan the next Summit. It also recommends new members and observers to the Summit and this conference also supervises the execution of the Summit decisions made by the ministerial conferences on a day-to-day basis, about the examination of the propositions of the budget distribution. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Francophonie is constituted by member sections representing 77 parliaments or interparliamentary organizations, the Secretary General is the French senator Jacques Legendre. The Agency of the Francophonie is the operator of the cultural, scientific, technical, economic. It is also the seat of the Secretary General and is used by him as an administrative support. For this reason, it is a place of exchange and dialogue, the Agencys headquarters are in Paris and it has three regional branches in Libreville, Gabon, Lomé, Togo, and Hanoi, Vietnam
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Boutros Boutros-Ghali
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Boutros Boutros-Ghali was an Egyptian politician and diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1992 to December 1996. An academic and former Vice Foreign Minister of Egypt, Boutros-Ghali oversaw the UN at a time when it dealt with several crises, including the breakup of Yugoslavia. He was then the first Secretary-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie from 16 November 1997 to 31 December 2002, Boutros Boutros-Ghali was born in Cairo on 14 November 1922 into a Coptic Christian family. His father Yusuf Butros Ghali was the son of Boutros Ghali and his mother Safela Mikhail Sharubim was daughter of Mikhail Sharubim, a prominent public servant and historian. Boutros-Ghali graduated from Cairo University in 1946 and he received a PhD in international law from the University of Paris and diploma in international relations from the Sciences Po in 1949. During 1949–1979, he was appointed Professor of International Law and International Relations at Cairo University and he became President of the Centre of Political and Strategic Studies in 1975 and President of the African Society of Political Studies in 1980. In 1986 he received a doctorate from the Faculty of Law at Uppsala University. He was also the Honorary Rector of the Graduate Institute of Peace Studies, Boutros Boutros-Ghalis political career developed during the presidency of Anwar El Sadat. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Arab Socialist Union from 1974 to 1977 and he served as Egypts Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1977 until early 1991. He then became Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs for several months moving to the UN. As Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, he played a part in the agreements between President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. He was serving as UN Secretary-General when the killings occurred four years later, elected in 1991 as Secretary-General, the top post of the UN, Boutros-Ghalis term in office remains controversial. In 1992, he submitted An Agenda for Peace, a suggestion for how the UN could respond to violent conflict, one of the hardest tasks during his term was dealing with the crisis of the Yugoslav Wars after the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia. His reputation became entangled in the controversies over the effectiveness of the UN. In 1996, ten Security Council members, led by African members Egypt, Guinea-Bissau and Botswana, sponsored a resolution backing Boutros-Ghali for a second five-year term, however, the United States vetoed a second term for him. Although not the first vetoed candidate, Boutros-Ghali was the only UN Secretary-General not to be elected to a term in office. He was succeeded at the UN by Kofi Annan, richard Clarke, Michael Sheehan and James Rubin participated in what they called Operation Orient Express. In the end Clinton was impressed that we had managed not only to oust Boutros-Ghali, richard Holbrooke wrote that the United States was opposed to Boutros-Ghali because of the latters reluctance on approving NATO bombing in Bosnia
3.
Moustapha Niasse
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Moustapha Niasse is a Senegalese politician and diplomat who has been President of the National Assembly of Senegal since 2012. He served in the government of Senegal as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1978 to 1984 and he was Prime Minister of Senegal for a few weeks in 1983, and he held that position again from 2000 to 2001. Niasse was born in Keur Madiabel, Senegal and he was Director of the Presidential Cabinet from 1970 to 1979. In March 1979, he became Minister of Town Planning, Housing and Environment, serving in that position until September 1979 and he was promoted to the rank of Minister of State for Foreign Affairs in January 1981 and served in that position until April 1984. He briefly served as Prime Minister for a month in April 1983 prior to the abolition of that position, Niasse served as Minister of Foreign Affairs for a second time from June 1993 to July 1998. He then became Representative of the Secretary General of the United Nations in the Great Lakes countries until 1999, during the late 1990s he broke with President Abdou Diouf and formed his own party, the Alliance of the Forces of Progress. He was a candidate in the February 2000 presidential election, in which against President Diouf, Niasse received third place and 16. 77% of the vote, while Diouf and Wade went to a runoff. Niasse supported Wade in the round, and Wade promised him the position of Prime Minister. After Wade took office in early April 2000, he appointed Niasse as his Prime Minister, Niasse served as Prime Minister until he resigned on March 3,2001 due to the difficult relationship between himself and Wade. In the April 2001 parliamentary election, Niasse was elected to the National Assembly through national list proportional representation as an AFP candidate. In 2002, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Niasse to be his envoy to the Democratic Republic of Congo in attempts to form a unity government there. In December 2006, Niasse was chosen as the candidate of Alternative 2007, according to final results, Niasse placed fourth in the presidential election with 5. 93% of the vote. He won one of the countrys 34 departments, that of Nioro, Niasse rejected the results, alleged fraud, and said that the election was a farce, but also said that he did not intend to file an appeal regarding the results. Soon after the election, Wade mentioned Niasse as one of opposition politicians who would be facing prosecution for corruption. Wade renewed an allegation, previously made in 2002, that Niasse had sold diplomatic passports to Taiwanese businessmen, in the March 2009 local elections, the opposition coalition Benno Siggil Senegaal—which included Niasse and the AFP—performed well in Nioro Department and across the country. Shortly afterward, Niasse said that Wade should react to his partys poor performance by dissolving the National Assembly, according to Niasse, Wade betrayed the people of Senegal and put the country in a catastrophic situation. He also derided Wade for having what he described as a paranoid fixation on Nioro Department, in the February–March 2012 presidential election, Niasse stood again as a candidate and then backed Macky Sall against President Wade in the second round. A few months later, Niasse was elected to the National Assembly in the July 2012 parliamentary election as a member of the coalition supporting President Sall, the presidential coalition won a large majority of seats
4.
Abdoulaye Wade
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Abdoulaye Wade is a Senegalese politician who was President of Senegal from 2000 to 2012. He is also the Secretary-General of the Senegalese Democratic Party and has led the party since it was founded in 1974, a long-time opposition leader, he ran for President four times, beginning in 1978, before he was elected in 2000. He won re-election in 2007 with a majority in the first round, Wade was born in Kébémer, Senegal, officially, he was born in 1926, although some claim he was born several years earlier, and the record-keeping of the time is not considered particularly reliable. He studied and taught law at the lycée Condorcet in France and he holds two doctorates in law and economics. He was also dean of the law and economics faculty at the University of Dakar in Senegal. At a summit of the Organization of African Unity in Mogadishu in 1974, Wade told President Léopold Sédar Senghor that he wanted to start a new party, the PDS was founded on 31 July 1974. Wade first ran for President in February 1978 against Senghor, taking 17. 38% of the vote, Senghor gave Wade the nickname Diombor. Also in 1978, Wade was elected to the National Assembly, subsequently he ran in the presidential elections of 1983 and 1988, taking second place each time, behind Senghors successor Abdou Diouf. Following the 1988 election, he was arrested due to protests against the results, subsequently he went to France, but returned in 1990. In April 1991, Wade and four other PDS members joined a national unity government together with the ruling Socialist Party, in October 1992, he and the other PDS ministers quit the government due to complaints about the manner in which the PS was said to control the government. In the February 1993 presidential election, Wade again took place, with 32% of the vote, behind Diouf. Following the May 1993 killing of Constitutional Council Vice-President Babacar Sèye, Wade, along with other PDS leaders, faced police questioning. On October 1, Wade, his wife, and two PDS members of the National Assembly, were charged with complicity in the murder, although they were not held in custody or put on trial. Following riots in February 1994, Wade was arrested along with others for allegedly threatening state security. The charge of complicity in Sèyes murder was dismissed in May 1994 and he and his co-defendants were released on July 4, and the remaining charges were dismissed on August 30,1994. Wade rejoined the government as Minister of State in March 1995, but he, Wade subsequently spent a year in France, returning to Senegal on October 27,1999. Wade won this round with 58. 49% of the vote, having received the support of candidates from the first round, Wade became President on April 1,2000 and appointed Niasse as his Prime Minister shortly afterwards. Wade initially cohabited with the PS, which held a majority in the legislature until the PDS, a new constitution was adopted in 2001, reducing presidential terms to five years following the completion of Wades seven-year term in 2007
5.
Senegambia Confederation
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The confederation was founded on 1 February 1982 following an agreement between the two countries signed on 12 December 1981. It was intended to promote cooperation between the two countries, but was dissolved by Senegal on 30 September 1989 after the Gambia refused to move closer toward union, as a political unit, Senegambia was created by dueling French and English colonial forces in the region. Competition between the French and the English began in the 16th century when both started to establish trading centers, although there was some overlap in their areas of influence, French trade centered on the Senegal River and in the Cap-Vert region and English trade on the Gambia River. From 1500 to 1758, the two used their naval power to try to remove each other from the region. In 1758, during the Seven Years War based in Europe, the unified region collapsed in 1779. With the British occupied by the American Revolutionary War in North America, the unified region ended officially in 1783 in the aftermath of the British defeat and independence by the United States. The Treaty of Versailles created a balance between France and Britain, Saint Louis, l’île de Gorée, and the Senegal River region were restored to France, and the Gambia was left to the British. Although the areas were ruled by separate, competing powers, they did not determine an official border between the French and British Senegambian colonies until 1889, at the time, France agreed to accept the current border between the two countries and remove its border trading posts. For each country, the lock and key border situation has posed problems for international relations, especially in trade. One of the greatest problems for both countries is the ease with which violence could spread through the region and this fear was realized during the 1981 coup attempt to oust President Dawda Jawara of the Gambia. Specific threats came from Kwame Nkrumahs Ghana, Moussa Traorés Mali, Ahmed Sekou Tourés Guinea, João Bernardo Vieiras Guinea-Bissau, while the Senegalese government speculated about some dangers, in the late 1980s it had border skirmishes with Mauritania. After the coup attempt, the government realized that its forces were not adequate to stop, or prevent. Security of the region was becoming more and more difficult to maintain, the opposing trade policies fueled a large black market around the Senegal–Gambia border, which brought cheaper manufactured goods into Senegal. The black market also attracted an export drain into the Gambia, the Senegalese government began to institute a delayed payment system with its groundnut farms. When farmers sold their harvest to the Senegalese government, they would get a voucher, known as a chit, in the short term, the Senegambia Confederation was a pragmatic union based on a mutual security interest. As noted, the Senegalese government feared national instability caused by uprisings in either the Gambia or the Casamance region and this fear nearly became reality on 30 July 1981 when Gambian leftists attempted a coup détat against President Sir Dawda Jawara. At the request of President Jawara, the Senegalese army entered the Gambia, the attempted coup resulted in both countries leaders promoting the unification ideas which had been developing in the region. Senghor’s belief in Negritude informed the possibility of unification between Senegal and the Gambia, and fostered the belief that unification would happen as an organic process
6.
Dawda Jawara
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Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara, GCMG is a Gambian statesman who was the first leader of the Gambia, serving first as Prime Minister from 1962 to 1970 and then as President from 1970 to 1994. Born Kairaba Jawara on May 16,1924 at Barajally, MacCarthy Island Division and his parents were Mamma Fatty and Almami Jawara, Dawda was educated at the Methodist Boys’ High School in colonial Bathurst, then attended Achimota College in Ghana. He was trained as a surgeon at the Glasgow veterinary school. He completed his training at Liverpool University, from 1962 until 1970, when the country was a Commonwealth realm with Elizabeth II as head of state, Jawara was Prime Minister and head of government. A1970 referendum led to the becoming an republic. One of six sons, Dawda is the lastborn on his mother’s side and their father Almammi, who had several wives, was a well-to-do trader who commuted from Barajally Tenda to his trading post in Wally Kunda. Dawda from an early age attended the local Arabic schools to memorize the Quran, there were no primary schools in Barajally Tenda, the nearest was in Georgetown, the provincial capital, but this boarding school was reserved for the sons of the chiefs. Around 1933, young Jawara’s formal education was sponsored by a friend of his father, Dawda was enrolled at Mohammedan primary school. After graduation from Mohammedan, Jawara won a scholarship to an all-boys High School, where he enjoyed all his classes, upon matriculation in 1945, he worked as a nurse until 1947 at the Victoria Hospital in Bathurst. The limited career and educational opportunities in colonial Gambia led to a stint at Prince of Wales College and School in Achimota, Accra, in the then Gold Coast. While he was happy to have met Ghana’s founding father, Kwame Nkrumah, after attending Achimota College, Jawara won a scholarship to Scotland’s Glasgow University to study veterinary medicine. At the time, colonial education was intended to train Africans for the most menial of clerical tasks in the civil service, and it was rare for Gambians to be awarded scholarships in the sciences. It was at Glasgow University in the late 1940s, that Jawara’s interest in politics began, in 1948 he joined the African Students Association and was later elected secretary-general and president, respectively. Also, while at Glasgow, Jawara honed his political interests and skills by joining the Student Labour Party Organization, Forward Group, though never a leftist, Jawara immersed himself in the Labour Party’s socialist politics and ideology. At Glasgow Jawara met Cheddi Jagan, who later became Premier of British Guiana, Jawara classified this period in his life “as very interesting politically”. It was a moment of rising Pan-Africanist fervour and personal growth politically and he completed his studies in 1953. When Jawara returned home in 1953 after completing his studies as a veterinary surgeon, in 1955 he married Augusta Mahoney, daughter of Sir John Mahoney, a prominent Aku in Bathurst. The Aku, a small and educated group, are descendants of freed slaves who settled in the Gambia after manumission, despite their relatively small size, they came to dominate both the social, political and economic life of the colony
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Prime Minister of Senegal
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The Prime Minister of Senegal is the head of government of Senegal. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of Senegal, who is elected for a seven-year term. The Prime Minister, in turn, appoints the Senegalese cabinet, the following is a list of Prime Ministers of Senegal, since the country gained independence from France in 1960. Political parties Other factions Senegal President of Senegal List of colonial governors of Senegal Politics of Senegal Lists of office-holders World Statesmen - Senegal
8.
Mamadou Dia
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Mamadou Dia was born in Khombole, Senegal on July 18,1910. He was educated at École William Ponty, Dia started life in politics as a leader in the Afrique occidentale française. Dia served in the French Senate from 1948 to 1956 and the French National Assembly from 1956 to 1958, Dia was appointed as Prime Minister by the French National Assembly to serve alongside the newly elected President Léopold Sédar Senghor. His time served as Prime Minister was often controversial and his radical socialist views often clashed with those of the more moderate Senghor, in 1962, he was accused of plotting a coup and as a result, was forced to resign and was subsequently imprisoned until 1974. Dia attempted to restart his career in the early 1980s, and he died in Dakar on January 25,2009 at the age of 98. Pp. 327–342 F. Diaye, M. Printz, Tine,10 personnalités politiques parlent, LHarmattan,1991,260 p. ISBN 2-7384-0567-3 Babacar Ndiaye et Waly Ndiaye, Présidents et ministres de la République du Sénégal, Dakar,2000. « La crise éclair qua vécue Dakar » « Le Sénégal après la crise » The African Nations and World Solidarity. New York, Frederick A. Praeger,1961 Un article de M. Dia qui analyse la politique économique du Président Wade en 2001 Senegal - History and Politics Institute for Security Studies, South Africa
9.
French West Africa
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French West Africa was a federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa, Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Dahomey and Niger. The capital of the federation was Dakar, the federation existed from 1895 until 1960. Until after the Second World War almost all the Africans living in the colonies of France were not citizens of France, rather, they were French Subjects, lacking rights before the law, property ownership rights, rights to travel, dissent, or vote. Anyone able to prove they were born in these towns was legally French and they could vote in parliamentary elections, which had been previously dominated by white and Métis residents of Senegal. The Four Communes of Senegal were entitled to elect a Deputy to represent them in the French Parliament in the years 1848–1852, 1871–1876, in 1914, the first African, Blaise Diagne, was elected as the Deputy for Senegal in the French Parliament. In 1916, Diagne pushed through the National Assembly a law granting citizenship to all residents of the so-called Four Communes. In return, he had promised to help millions of Africans to fight in World War I. Thereafter, all black Africans of Dakar, Gorée, Saint-Louis and these conquered areas were usually governed by French Army officers, and dubbed Military Territories. The first Governor General of Senegal was named in 1895, and in 1904, Gabon would later become the seat of its own federation French Equatorial Africa, which was to border its western neighbor on the modern boundary between Niger and Chad. While the latter fell to Free France already after the Battle of Gabon in November 1940, following World War II, the French government began a process of extending limited political rights in its colonies. In 1945 the French Provisional Government allocated ten seats to French West Africa in the new Constituent Assembly called to write a new French Constitution, of these five would be elected by citizens and five by African subjects. The elections brought to prominence a new generation of French-educated Africans and they were all re-elected to the 2nd Constituent Assembly on 2 June 1946. In 1946, the Loi Lamine Guèye granted some limited rights to natives of the African colonies. The French Empire was renamed the French Union on 27 October 1946, in late 1946 under this new constitution each territory was for the first time able elect local representatives, albeit on a limited franchise, to newly established General Councils. These elected bodies had only limited powers, although they did approve local budgets. The Loi Cadre of 23 June 1956 brought universal suffrage to elections held after that date in all French African colonies, the first elections under universal suffrage in French West Africa were the municipal elections of late 1956. On 31 March 1957, under universal suffrage, territorial Assembly elections were held in each of the eight colonies, the leaders of the winning parties were appointed to the newly instituted positions of Vice-Presidents of the respective Governing Councils — French Colonial Governors remained as Presidents. The Constitution of the French Fifth Republic of 1958 again changed the structure of the colonies from the French Union to the French Community, each territory was to become a Protectorate, with the consultative assembly named a National Assembly
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Senegal
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Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country in West Africa. Senegal is bordered by Mauritania in the north, Mali to the east, Guinea to the southeast, and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest. Senegal also borders The Gambia, a country occupying a narrow sliver of land along the banks of the Gambia River, Senegal also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde. Senegals economic and political capital is Dakar and it is the westernmost country in the mainland of the Old World, or Afro-Eurasia, and owes its name to the Senegal River, which borders it to the east and north. The name Senegal comes from the Wolof Sunuu Gaal, which means Our Boat, Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres and has an estimated population of about 15 million. The climate is Sahelian, but there is a rainy season, the territory of modern Senegal has been inhabited by various ethnic groups since prehistory. Organized kingdoms emerged around the century, and parts of the country were ruled by prominent regional empires such as the Jolof Empire. The present state of Senegal has its roots in European colonialism, which began during the mid-15th century, the establishment of coastal trading posts gradually led to control of the mainland, culminating in French rule of the area by the 19th century, albeit amid much local resistance. Senegal peacefully attained independence from France in 1960, and has since been among the politically stable countries in Africa. Senegals economy is centered mostly on commodities and natural resources, major industries are fish processing, phosphate mining, fertilizer production, petroleum refining, construction materials, and ship construction and repair. As in most African nations, agriculture is a sector, with Senegal producing several important cash crops, including peanuts, sugarcane, cotton, green beans, tomatoes, melons. Owing to its stability, tourism and hospitality are also burgeoning sectors. A multiethnic and secular nation, Senegal is predominantly Sunni Muslim with Sufi, French is the official language, although many native languages are spoken and recognized. Since April 2012 Senegals president has been Macky Sall, Senegal has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 1970. Senegal is named after the Senegal River, the etymology of which is contested, one popular theory is that it stems from the Wolof phrase sunu gaal, which means our canoe, resulting from a miscommunication between 15th-century Portuguese sailors and Wolof fishermen. The our canoe theory has been embraced in modern Senegal for its charm. It is frequently used in appeals to national solidarity, frequently heard in the media, modern historians believe the name probably refers to the Sanhaja, Berbers who lived on the northern side of the river. A competing theory is that it derives from the town of Sanghana
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Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
12.
Cheikh Anta Diop University
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Cheikh Anta Diop University, also known as the University of Dakar, is a university in Dakar, Senegal. It is named after the Senegalese physicist, historian and anthropologist Cheikh Anta Diop and has an enrollment of over 60,000, Cheikh Anta Diop University predates Senegalese independence and grew out of several French institutions set up by the colonial administration. In 1936, under the Popular Front government in France, Dakar became home to the Institut Fondamental dAfrique Noire, an institute for the study of African culture. In 1950s, with decolonisation already looming, the French administration expanded these schools, added science faculties, in 1957, a new campus was constructed as the 18th French Public University, attached to the University of Paris and the University of Bordeaux. This became the University of Dakar the largest and most prestigious university in French West Africa, in 1987, its name was changed to honor the Senegalese philosopher and anthropologist, Cheikh Anta Diop. At independence in 1960, enrollment was 1,018 students, only 39% Senegalese, by 1976, this number grew to 8,014. In the 1970s, a time of financial crisis, funding to higher education was cut. Most of this funding, though, went to meet the needs of primary schools, in the 1990s and 2000s there was a huge boom in Senegalese primary and secondary education, much of it funded through international projects. In 1984 around 50% of Senegalese children received education and by 2004 more than 90% did. In the mid-1980s around 20% of World Bank funding to Senegalese education went to higher education, with these projects came severe World Bank restrictions, dramatically cutting domestic funding available to university programs. As students who have benefited from primary and secondary education age, nine thousand Senegalese students received a Baccalaureate degree in 2000, while total registration shot above 40,000, for a campus built with only 5,000 dorm rooms. Despite these pressures Cheikh Anta Diop University maintains a reputation as one of Africas most prestigious institutions, most of the post-independence generation of Senegalese leaders are graduates of the university, and its alumni teach in universities around the world. The education system follows the French pattern, with oral and/or written final exams administered at the end of the year, all courses at the university are taught in French, except those in language departments other than French. UCAD offers courses of study in Humanities, Sciences, Engineering, Medicine, Finance, Accounting, the university awards the following degrees, B. A. B. S. Ph. D. and D. M. A. The School of Medicine includes departments of Pharmacy, Research, the university also encompasses the Institute of Sciences of the Environment and the Institute of Sciences of Earth. The Institut Fondamental dAfrique Noire, founded in 1936, remains one of the centers of African Studies. The IFAN Museum of African Arts Musée dArt africain, attached to IFAN, displays, the Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar at CADU is the regulatory body for the Wolof language. The university oversees a school, Institut de Français pour Etrangers
13.
Pantheon-Sorbonne University
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Pantheon-Sorbonne University, also known as Paris 1, is a public research university in Paris, France. It was established in 1971 as one of the inheritors of the historical University of Paris. Following that tradition, it is one of the largest French universities and remains an important center of research, pantheon-Sorbonnes headquarters is located on the Place du Panthéon in the Latin Quarter, an area in the 5th and the 6th arrondissements of Paris. The university occupies part of the Sorbonne and over 25 buildings in Paris, such as the Centre Pierre Mendès France and it is a founding member of the alliance called Hautes Études-Sorbonne-Arts et Métiers. After the student protests of May and June 1968, thirteen universities succeeded to the University of Paris, indeed, most of the law professors of the faculty of law and economics of the University of Paris wished only to restructure their faculty into a university. Sorbonne building, Panthéon-Sorbonne occupies part of this seat, rebuilt at the end of the 19th century. Albert Châtelet Center, commonly called Calvin, it is a building of the Sorbonne. Rue dUlm Center, like Calvin, a building of the Sorbonne. Place du Panthéon Building (not to be confused with the actual Panthéon, Institute of Geography, located in the Rue Saint-Jacques, it houses one of the oldest and richest collections of maps in France. Institute of Philosophy of Sciences and Techniques, located in the Rue du Four, mahler Center, located in the 4th arrondissement, it houses an historical and legal studies institute. Saint-Charles Center, located in the 15th arrondissement, founded in 1973, it houses the Art School and the School of Cinema. Pierre Mendès-France Center, commonly called Tolbiac, it is located in the 13th arrondissement, founded in 1973, it is the main center of the University. Freshmen and Sophomores in Humanities are educated at Tolbiac, Tolbiac Center, a secondary building of the Mendès-France Center. René Cassin Center, located in the 13th arrondissement, founded in 1990, it houses the main part of Law School. Economical Studies Building, located in the 13th arrondissement and it houses the Economics Graduate School. Broca Center, Located in the 5th arrondissement, International Building, located in the Boulevard Arago, commonly called Arago. It houses the International Relations Institute, michelet Center, an exotic Mesopotamian-style building in the 5th arrondissement, it houses the Art History and Archeology School. Fontenay Center, located in the town of Fontenay-aux-Roses, in the old buildings of the École Normale Supérieure
14.
Serer language
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Serer, sometimes called Serer-Sine Serer proper after its prestige dialect, is a language of the Senegambian branch of Niger–Congo spoken by 1.2 million people in Senegal and 30,000 in the Gambia. It is the language of the Serer people. Serer is one of the Senegambian languages, which are characterized by consonant mutation, the traditional classification of Atlantic is that of Sapir, which found that Serer was closest to Fulani. However, a widely cited misreading of the data by Wilson inadvertently exchanged Serer for Wolof, dialects of Serer are Serer Sine, Segum, Fadyut-Palmerin, Dyegueme, and Niominka. Not all Serer people speak Serer, because the speakers are ethnically Serer, these are commonly thought to be Serer dialects. However, they are not closely related, Serer is significantly closer to Fulani than it is to Cangin, the voiceless implosives are also written ⟨ƥ ƭ ƈ ⟩, these are highly unusual sounds. The following greetings and responses are spoken in most regions of Senegal that have Serer speakers, in Senegalese culture, greetings are very important. Sometimes, people will spend several minutes greeting each other, the ethnolinguistic classification of Seereer in question. In Africa, Challenges of Multilingualism, ds Altmayer, Claus / Wolff, H. Ekkehard, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, consonant mutation and reduplication in Seereer-Siin. Mc Laughlin, Fiona, Voiceless implosives in Seereer-Siin, Journal of the International Phonetic Association,35, 201–214, doi,10. 1017/S0025100305002215 Crétois, Dakar, Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar. Fal, A. Les nominaux en sereer-siin, Parler de Jaxaaw, senghor, L. S. Lharmonie vocalique en sérère. Journal de la Société des Linguistes
15.
Senegalese presidential election, 2000
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Presidential elections were held in Senegal on 27 February 2000, with a second round taking place on 19 March after no candidate won over 50% of votes in the first round. Voter turnout was 62. 2% in the first round and 60. 8% in the second, political Turnover and Social Change in Senegal. Democracy in Senegal, Tocquevillian Analytics in Africa
16.
Joof family
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Joof or Diouf is a surname typically Serer. This surname is also spelt Juuf or Juf, the differences in spelling is because Senegal was colonized by France, while the Gambia was colonized by Britain. Although spelt differently, they are pronounced the same way, the totem and symbol of the Joof family is the antelope, the symbol of grace, royalty, wisdom, hard work and protection in Serer mythology. The name of their clan is Njoofene variations, Njuufeen or Njufeen, members of this family had ruled over many of the pre-colonial kingdoms of Senegambia, including the Kingdom of Sine, the Kingdom of Saloum and the Kingdom of Baol. The royal princesses from the Joof family were given in marriage to the pre-colonial kings. Some of these included the kings of Jolof, kings of Waalo, kings of Cayor, from these marriages, they provided many heirs to the thrones of these kingdoms. Although usually associated with Serer royalty, the Joof family also figure prominently in Serer religious affairs, the Joof family is one of the old families of Senegambia. Serer oral tradition speaks of a noble called Lamane Jegan Joof, owner of a herd of livestock. He migrated from Lambaye following an argument with his relative, the king of Lambaye, the dispute concerned the governance of Lambaye and over-taxation of his herd which he considered unjust. As such, he decided to head south and founded Tukar with his younger brother Ndik Joof, the tradition then went on to say that, he had a son called Sosseh Joof who was the heir of Tukar. There was in fact no Battle of Troubang, in reporting this tradition, Henry Gravrand did not notice that this is actually a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala. The Joof family had ruled Tukar for many centuries, inherited from their ancestor Lamane Jegan Joof through the Serer Lamanic custom, in 2004, Lamane Njaga Dibor Ndoffene Joof was the last lamane of Tukar. In the early history of the Ghana Empire to its end and these royal princesses belonged to the maternal clan Wagadou. With the Joof paternal clan, they ruled the Kingdom of Baol, some of these kings include Boureh Joof, Guidiane Joof, Ma Joof, Jinak Dialane Joof, Maguinak Joof, etc. These kings preceded the Guelowar period by at least two or three centuries and long before the Fall paternal dynasty of Baol and Cayor who inherited the throne around 1549 after the Battle of Danki and they simply married into the old royal family and succeeded to the throne. The Guelowar period starts from 1350 during the reign of the first Guelowar king of Sine - Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali and ends in 1969 after the death of the last king of Sine, Maysa Wali and his family fled Kaabu in 1335 after the Battle of Troubang. They were defeated by the maternal dynasty of Kaabu and were granted asylum in the Kingdom of Sine by a Serer noble Council called The Great Council of Lamanes. Having served as advisor to this noble Council for 15 years, Maysa Wali managed to win the confidence and trust of the Council
17.
Toucouleur people
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The Toucouleur people, also called Tukulor or Haalpulaar, are a West African ethnic group. They are found mostly in Futa Toro region of Senegal, with some in Mali, the Toucouleur have been Muslims who embraced Islam in the 11th century, their early and strong Islamic heritage is a matter of great pride for them. They speak the Fulani language, and are distinct from but related to the Fula, Wolof, the Toucouleur are traditionally sedentary, settled primarily in the Senegal River valley, with farming, fishing and raising cattle as their main activities. The Toucouleur society has been patrilineal, polygynous and with high social stratification that included slavery, there are an estimated 1 million Toucouleur people in West Africa. They are found primarily in the regions of Senegal where they constitute 15% of the population. This region is irrigated by the Senegal River valley, overlaps southern Mauritania, during the colonial era, and in the modern times, some of the Toucouleurs resettled in western Mali. They are about a million Toucouleur people in Senegal River valley area, the Fulani language, also called the Fula or Pulaar, is their first language. It is an Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family of languages, locally, they are variously referred to as Pulaar, Torooɓe, Futanke, or Haalpulaar. The name Toucouleur is of unclear origin, with sources stating it as a French derivation meaning of color. According to the traditions of the Toucouleurs and Serer people. This tradition is supported by scholars including Foltz and Phillips. A mutually acceptable bantering-style interaction, called the relationship by anthropologists, exists between the Serers and Toucouleurs. The Toucouleur people have inhabited the Senegal River area, with roots of an organized Tekrur kingdom tracing back to the 5th century. They were part of the 10th to the 18th century kingdom, in the 18th century, a Toucouleur empire emerged which reached its peak influence in the 19th century under the Islamic leader El Hadj Umar Tall. Umar was born in a Toucouleur clerical family in 1797, during his visit to Mecca in 1827, he was designated as the Caliph of Black Africa. He returned to West Africa in 1833, and learnt political, Umar Tal returned to Senegal in 1845, where he began preaching Islam among the Toucouleur people. Umar Tal obtained weapons from Europe, then mobilized the Toucouleur to pursue an Islamic holy war in 1854 against the ethnic groups. The Toucouleur Empire grew and extended from Senegal to much of Mali over the ten years
18.
Serer people
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The Serer people are a West African ethnoreligious group. They are the third largest ethnic group in Senegal making up 15% of the Senegalese population and they are also found in northern Gambia and southern Mauritania. They have had a sedentary settled culture and have known for their farming expertise. In the 20th century, most of them converted to Islam, the Serer society, like other ethnic groups in Senegal, has had social stratification featuring endogamous castes and slaves. The Serer people are referred to as Sérère, Sereer, Serere, Sarer, Kegueme, Seereer. The Serer people are found in contemporary Senegal, particularly in the west-central part of the country. In The Gambia, they occupy parts of old Nuimi and Baddibu as well as the Gambian Kombo, the Serer-Noon occupy the ancient area of Thiès in modern-day Senegal. The Serer-Ndut are found in southern Cayor and north west of ancient Thiès, the Serer-Njeghen occupy old Baol, the Serer-Palor occupies the west central, west southwest of Thiès and the Serer-Laalaa occupy west central, north of Thiès and the Tambacounda area. Senegal,1.84 million The Gambia,31,900 Mauritania,3500 The Serer occupy the Sine, the Serer people include the Seex, Serer-Noon, Serer-Ndut, Serer-Njeghene, Serer-Safene, Serer-Niominka, Serer-Palor, and the Serer-Laalaa. Each group speaks Serer or a Cangin language, Serer is the standard English spelling. Seereer or Sereer reflects the Serer pronunciation of the name and are used by Senegalese Serer historians or scholars. The meaning of the word Serer is uncertain, issa Laye Thiaw views it as possibly pre-Islamic and suggests four possible derivations,1. From the Serer Wolof word reer meaning misplaced, i. e. doubting the truth of Islam, from the Serer Wolof expression seer reer meaning to find something hidden or lost. From the Arabic word seereer meaning sahir magician or one who practices magic, from a Pulaar word, meaning separation, divorce, or break, again referring to refusing Islam. Professor Cheikh Anta Diop citing the work of the 19th century French archeologist and egyptologist - Paul Pierret, Diop went on to write, That would be consistent with their present religious position, they are one of the rare Senegalese populations who still reject Islam. Their route is marked by the stones found at about the same latitude from Ethiopia all the way to the Sine-Salum. Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and this lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices. The actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system and their own oral traditions recite legends on they being part of, or related to the Toucouleur people in the Senegal River valley area
19.
Saint-Louis, Senegal
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Saint-Louis, or Ndar as it is called in Wolof, is the capital of Senegals Saint-Louis Region. Located in the northwest of Senegal, near the mouth of the Senegal River, Saint-Louis was the capital of the French colony of Senegal from 1673 until 1902 and French West Africa from 1895 until 1902, when the capital was moved to Dakar. From 1920 to 1957 it also served as the capital of the colony of Mauritania. The heart of the old city is located on a narrow island in the Senegal River,25 km from its mouth. At this point the river is separated from the Atlantic Ocean to the west by a sand spit, the Langue de Barbarie. Yet a third part of the city, Sor, lies on the mainland and is nearly surrounded by tidal marshes. Saint-Louis is situated on the Mauritanian border, though the crossing is at Rosso,100 km upstream. Three characteristics give Saint-Louis its distinctive appearance, the Sahel, the marshes. The marshes are flood basins that form during the season when the river overflows into the countryside, creating ponds and stretches of mangroves that attract birds like flamingos. The Langue de Barbarie, a 600 km long stretch of sand from Nouadhibou in Mauritania to Saint-Louis and its vegetation mainly consists of Filao trees, propagated to prevent soil erosion in sandy and salty soils. A2011 documentary described Saint-Louis as the African city most threatened by rising sea levels, Saint-Louis was established in 1659 by French traders on an uninhabited island called Ndar. It was baptized Saint-Louis-du-Fort in homage to the former French king Louis IX and it was the first permanent French settlement in Senegal. The fortified factory commanded trade along the Senegal River, slaves, hides, beeswax, ambergris and, later, gum arabic were exported. During the Seven Years War, in 1758 British forces captured Senegal, in February 1779, French forces recaptured Saint-Louis. In the late 18th century, Saint Louis had about 5,000 inhabitants, Saint-Louis became the leading urban centre in sub-Saharan Africa”. Between 1659 and 1779, nine chartered companies succeeded one another in administering Saint-Louis, as in Gorée, a Franco-African Creole, or Métis, merchant community characterized by the famous signares, or bourgeois women entrepreneurs, grew up in Saint-Louis during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Métis were important to the economic, social, cultural and political life of the city and they created a distinctive urban culture characterized by public displays of elegance, refined entertainment and popular festivities. They controlled most of the river trade and they financed the principal Catholic institutions
20.
Dakar University
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Cheikh Anta Diop University, also known as the University of Dakar, is a university in Dakar, Senegal. It is named after the Senegalese physicist, historian and anthropologist Cheikh Anta Diop and has an enrollment of over 60,000, Cheikh Anta Diop University predates Senegalese independence and grew out of several French institutions set up by the colonial administration. In 1936, under the Popular Front government in France, Dakar became home to the Institut Fondamental dAfrique Noire, an institute for the study of African culture. In 1950s, with decolonisation already looming, the French administration expanded these schools, added science faculties, in 1957, a new campus was constructed as the 18th French Public University, attached to the University of Paris and the University of Bordeaux. This became the University of Dakar the largest and most prestigious university in French West Africa, in 1987, its name was changed to honor the Senegalese philosopher and anthropologist, Cheikh Anta Diop. At independence in 1960, enrollment was 1,018 students, only 39% Senegalese, by 1976, this number grew to 8,014. In the 1970s, a time of financial crisis, funding to higher education was cut. Most of this funding, though, went to meet the needs of primary schools, in the 1990s and 2000s there was a huge boom in Senegalese primary and secondary education, much of it funded through international projects. In 1984 around 50% of Senegalese children received education and by 2004 more than 90% did. In the mid-1980s around 20% of World Bank funding to Senegalese education went to higher education, with these projects came severe World Bank restrictions, dramatically cutting domestic funding available to university programs. As students who have benefited from primary and secondary education age, nine thousand Senegalese students received a Baccalaureate degree in 2000, while total registration shot above 40,000, for a campus built with only 5,000 dorm rooms. Despite these pressures Cheikh Anta Diop University maintains a reputation as one of Africas most prestigious institutions, most of the post-independence generation of Senegalese leaders are graduates of the university, and its alumni teach in universities around the world. The education system follows the French pattern, with oral and/or written final exams administered at the end of the year, all courses at the university are taught in French, except those in language departments other than French. UCAD offers courses of study in Humanities, Sciences, Engineering, Medicine, Finance, Accounting, the university awards the following degrees, B. A. B. S. Ph. D. and D. M. A. The School of Medicine includes departments of Pharmacy, Research, the university also encompasses the Institute of Sciences of the Environment and the Institute of Sciences of Earth. The Institut Fondamental dAfrique Noire, founded in 1936, remains one of the centers of African Studies. The IFAN Museum of African Arts Musée dArt africain, attached to IFAN, displays, the Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar at CADU is the regulatory body for the Wolof language. The university oversees a school, Institut de Français pour Etrangers
21.
Sorbonne
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The Sorbonne is an edifice of the Latin Quarter, in Paris, France, which was the historical house of the former University of Paris. The name is derived from the Collège de Sorbonne, initiated during 1257 by the eponymous Robert de Sorbon as one of the first significant colleges of the medieval University of Paris. The university predates the college by about a century, and minor colleges had been founded already during the late 12th century, during the 16th century, the Sorbonne became involved with the intellectual struggle between Catholics and Protestants. The Collège de Sorbonne was suppressed during the French Revolution, reopened by Napoleon during 1808 and this was only one of the many colleges of the University of Paris that existed until the French revolution. After months of conflicts between students and authorities at the University of Paris at Nanterre, the administration closed that university on May 2,1968. Students at the Sorbonne campus in Paris met on May 3 to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. More than 20,000 students, teachers and other endorsers marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to make out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again, may 10 marked the Night of Barricades, where students used cars, wood, and cobblestones to barricade the streets of the Latin Quarter. Brutal street fighting ensued between students and riot police, most notably on Rue Gay-Lussac, early the next morning, as the fighting disbanded, Daniel Cohn-Bendit sent out a radio broadcast calling for a general strike. On Monday,13 May, more than one million workers went on strike, negotiations ended, and students returned to their campuses after a false report that the government had agreed to reopen them, only to discover police still occupying the schools. When the Sorbonne reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous Peoples University, during 1970, the University of Paris was divided into thirteen universities, managed by a common rectorate, the Chancellerie des Universités de Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. The building also houses the École Nationale des Chartes, the École pratique des hautes études, the Cours de Civilisation Française de la Sorbonne, nowadays, the use of the name refers more often to Panthéon-Sorbonne University for French public especially students in France. But, all Parisian universities like to refer as their ancestor, some alliances of universities use that name, like Sorbonne University. Listing of the works of Alexandre Falguière List of works by Henri Chapu La Sorbonne
22.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
23.
Sine-Saloum
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Sine-Saloum is a region in Senegal located north of the Gambia and south of the Petite Côte. It encompasses an area of 24,000 square kilometers, about 12% of Senegal, the western portion contains the Saloum Delta, a river delta at the junction of the Saloum and the North Atlantic. It is in region that the Saloum Delta National Park is located. 145,811 hectares of the Delta were designated a UNESCO Heritage Site in 2011, because it flows so slowly, this delta allows saltwater to travel deep inland. Long ago, the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum were rivals, in 1984, the area was divided into two administrative regions, Kaolack and Fatick. Primary economic activities in the 2000s consisted of fishing, salt production, peanut farming, transportation is difficult because of the many islands. A secondary economy is the construction of fishing boats, much of the region consists of mangrove swamps. The upper reaches of the rivers adjoin the Sahel region and are affected by its desertification, the salinity of the water increased during the 1970s instance of the Sahel drought and mismanagement of the rivers upstream has been described as a factor. Mangroves are disappearing, and freshwater fish are disappearing with them, the villagers have difficulty obtaining freshwater. Sometimes water pumps are donated by international organizations, but spare parts are difficult to find when the pumps fail, the change in water salinity is affecting the ecosystem as much as it is changing the lifestyle of the inhabitants of the region. Sine-Saloum has long feared by even Europes most distinguished mariners because the sandbanks move. This danger to outsiders has long protected the region and preserved its individual villages, labour Party of Sine Saloum Tourism in Senegal M. Klein. Un exemple d’économie coloniale, le Sine-Saloum, de 1887 à1940, Paris, Université de Paris VII. Frans J. Schepers. Oiseaux deau dans le Delta du Sine-Saloum et la Petite Côte, Sine-Saloum at Au-Senegal. com Sine-Saloum at Senegalaisement. com
24.
Electoral fraud
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Electoral fraud, election manipulation, or vote rigging is illegal interference with the process of an election. Acts of fraud affect vote counts to bring about a result, whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates. What constitutes electoral fraud under law varies from country to country, many kinds of election fraud are outlawed in electoral legislation, but others are in violation of general laws, such as those banning assault, harassment or libel. Show elections, in only one candidate can win, are sometimes classified as electoral fraud. In national elections, successful electoral fraud can have the effect of a coup détat or corruption of democracy, in a narrow election, a small amount of fraud may be enough to change the result. Even if the outcome is not affected, revelation of fraud can have an effect, if not punished. A list of threats to voting systems, or electoral fraud methods considered as sabotage, is kept by the National Institute of Standards, Electoral fraud can occur in advance of voting if the composition of the electorate is altered. The legality of this type of manipulation varies across jurisdictions, deliberate manipulation of election outcomes is widely considered a violation of the principles of democracy. In many cases it is possible for authorities to control the composition of an electorate in order to produce a foregone result. One way of doing this is to move a number of voters into the electorate prior to an election. Many countries prevent this with rules stipulating that a voter must have lived in a district for a minimum period in order to be eligible to vote there. However, such laws can also be used for demographic manipulation as they tend to disenfranchise those with no fixed address, such as the homeless, travelers, Roma, students, another strategy is to permanently move people into an electoral district, usually through public housing. One notable example of this occurred in the City of Westminster in England under Shirley Porter, immigration law may also be used to manipulate electoral demography. A method of manipulating primary contests and other elections of party leaders is related to this, people who support one party may temporarily join another party in order to elect a weak candidate for that partys leadership. The goal ultimately is defeat of the candidate in the general election by the leader of the party that the voter truly supports. The composition of an electorate may also be altered by disenfranchising some classes of people, from the turn of the century into the late 1960s, most African Americans in the southern states of the former Confederacy were disenfranchised by such measures. Compared to most European nations, many states in the US have much more severe laws that prevent convicted felons who have served their sentences from ever voting again, groups may also be disenfranchised by rules which make it impractical or impossible for them to cast a vote. Communities may also be effectively disenfranchised if polling places are situated in areas perceived by voters as unsafe, in some cases voters may be invalidly disenfranchised, which is true electoral fraud
25.
Gambia
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The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is entirely surrounded by Senegal except for its coastline on the Atlantic Ocean at its western end. It is the smallest country in mainland Africa, the Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River, the nations namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres with a population of 1,882,450 at the April 2013 census, Banjul is the Gambian capital, and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama. Later, on 25 May 1765, The Gambia was made a part of the British Empire when the government formally assumed control, in 1965, The Gambia gained independence under the leadership of Dawda Jawara, who ruled until Yahya Jammeh seized power in a bloodless 1994 coup. Adama Barrow became The Gambias third president in January 2017, after defeating Jammeh in December 2016 elections, Jammeh initially refused to accept the results, which triggered a constitutional crisis and military intervention by the Economic Community of West African States, resulting in his exile. The Gambias economy is dominated by farming, fishing, and especially tourism, in 2008, about a third of the population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. The name Gambia is derived from the Mandinka term Kambra/Kambaa, meaning Gambia river, upon independence as a Commonwealth realm, the country used the name The Gambia. Following the proclamation of a republic in 1970, the name of the country became Republic of The Gambia. The administration of Yahya Jammeh changed the name to Islamic Republic of The Gambia in December 2015. On 29 January 2017 the new President Adama Barrow said the name will go back to Republic of The Gambia. Arab traders provided the first written accounts of the Gambia area in the ninth and tenth centuries, during the tenth century, Muslim merchants and scholars established communities in several West African commercial centres. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to an export trade in slaves, gold and ivory. At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called Gambia was part of the Mali Empire, the Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and began to dominate overseas trade. In 1588, the claimant to the Portuguese throne, António, Prior of Crato, letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I confirmed the grant. In 1618, King James I of England granted a charter to an English company for trade with the Gambia, between 1651 and 1661, some parts of the Gambia were under the rule of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, and were bought by Prince Jacob Kettler. The British Empire occupied the Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River and this was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856. As many as three million slaves may have taken from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade operated
26.
Mauritania
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Mauritania /mɔːrɪˈteɪniə/, officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country in the Maghreb region of western Africa. The country derives its name from the ancient Berber Kingdom of Mauretania, approximately 90% of Mauritanias land is within the Sahara and consequently the population is concentrated in the south, where precipitation is slightly higher. The capital and largest city is Nouakchott, located on the Atlantic coast, the government was overthrown on 6 August 2008, in a military coup détat led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz. On 16 April 2009, Aziz resigned from the military to run for president in the 19 July elections, about 20% of Mauritanians live on less than US$1.25 per day. Mauritania suffers from several human rights issues, including slavery, as at least 4% of the population are enslaved against their will, the Bafours were primarily agriculturalist, and among the first Saharan people to abandon their historically nomadic lifestyle. With the gradual desiccation of the Sahara, they headed south, many of the Berber tribes claimed Yemeni origins. There is little evidence to such claims, but a 2000 DNA study of Yemeni people suggested there might be some ancient connection between the peoples. Other peoples also migrated south past the Sahara to West Africa, in 1076, Moorish Islamic warrior monks attacked and conquered the large area of the ancient Ghana Empire. Over the next 500 years, Arabs overcame fierce resistance from the population to dominate Mauritania. The Char Bouba war was the final effort of the peoples to repel the Yemeni Maqil Arab invaders. The invaders were led by the Beni Hassan tribe, the descendants of the Beni Hassan warriors became the upper stratum of Moorish society. Hassaniya, a Berber-influenced Arabic dialect that derives its name from the Beni Hassan, berbers retained a niche influence by producing the majority of the regions marabouts, those who preserve and teach Islamic tradition. Imperial France gradually absorbed the territories of present-day Mauritania from the Senegal River area and upwards, in 1901, Xavier Coppolani took charge of the imperial mission. Through a combination of strategic alliances with Zawiya tribes, and military pressure on the Hassane warrior nomads, he managed to extend French rule over the Mauritanian emirates. Trarza, Brakna and Tagant quickly submitted to treaties with the colonial power, Adrar was finally defeated militarily in 1912, and incorporated into the territory of Mauritania, which had been drawn up and planned in 1904. Mauritania was part of French West Africa from 1920, French rule brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to inter-clan warfare. During the colonial period, 90% of the population remained nomadic, many sedentary peoples, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier, began to trickle back into Mauritania. After gaining independence, larger numbers of indigenous Sub-Saharan African peoples entered Mauritania, educated in French language and customs, many of these recent arrivals became clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state
27.
Christian
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
28.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
29.
Nobel Peace Prize
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Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
30.
Ousmane Tanor Dieng
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Ousmane Tanor Dieng is the First Secretary of the Socialist Party of Senegal. He has been vice-president of the Socialist International since 1996, born in 1948 in Ngueniéne, Senegal, Dieng attended the Koranic school between the ages of 3–7. He hails from the Sérére ethnic group constitutes about 15 per cent of the Senegalese population. He began his education in 1955, in Ngueniene. In 1961, he attended the Andre Peytavin secondary school, St. Louis and he studied law at the Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar where he majored in International Relations. He obtained a Bachelors degree in Public Law as well as a Masters degree in Political Sciences and he had a direct entry into the Ecole Nationale d’Administration et de Magistrature at a period the school was not very competitive because of very few prospectives. He chose Diplomacy and spent 2 years to qualify for ENAM, in 1976, he finished his studies at the ENAM and was thereafter posted to the foreign office where he performed various functions being in charge of the International Affairs until 1978. In October 1978, he was appointed as the Diplomatic Advisor of Leopold Sedar Senghor who was in search of somebody with an international background who can write, for Ousmane Tanor Dieng, it was a privilege to work with Senghor who was one of his idols. He handled the scientific and literary domain, in 1988, still in the Presidency, he became Director of departmental staff until 1993. And in 1993 he was appointed minister in charge of presidential services, parallel to this administrative career, he had a political career. Since 1988, he developed interest in politics as a result of being the Presidents speech writer, thus and he then became the Secretary General of coordination in the authorities of the party. Consequently, he was chosen by President Abdou Diouf as the First Secretary of the Socialist Party of Senegal. He became responsible for the management of the party. He took advantage of his position in the Party, and came tops in the list of candidate for the elections and was consequently elected Representative. However, he subsequently had to resign because the function of Minister was conflicting with the function of Representative, currently a vice-president of the Socialist International, Dieng thinks that without integration, Africa has no future. He believes Africa has to become integrated, or else it will perish, although integration is difficult, Dieng seems optimistic, and has been encouraged by the theory of the concentrated circles, an idea of Leopold Sedar Senghor. In a sense, he feels that Africans have no choice on the question of integration, the Socialist International encourages international participation in conflict resolution in Africa, as well as promoting and strengthening democracy in the continent. Dieng ran for President of Senegal in the February 2007 election and his platform included, Promoting good governance
31.
Organisation of African Unity
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The Organisation of African Unity was established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa, with 32 signatory governments. It was disbanded on 9 July 2002 by its last chairperson, South African President Thabo Mbeki, the OAU had the following primary aims, To co-ordinate and intensify the co-operation of African states in order to achieve a better life for the people of Africa. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states, South Africa and Angola were two such countries. The OAU proposed two ways of ridding the continent of colonialism and white minority rule, firstly, it would defend the interests of independent countries and help to pursue the independence those of still-colonised ones. Secondly, it would remain neutral in terms of world affairs, a Liberation Committee was established to aid independence movements and look after the interests of already-independent states. The OAU also aimed to stay neutral in terms of global politics, the OAU had other aims, too, Ensure that all Africans enjoyed human rights. Raise the living standards of all Africans, settle arguments and disputes between members – not through fighting but rather peaceful and diplomatic negotiation. Soon after achieving independence, a number of African states expressed a desire for more unity within the continent. Aside from Ghana, it comprised also Algeria, Guinea, Morocco, Egypt, Mali, founded in 1961, its members were described as progressive states. The Monrovian bloc, led by Senghor of Senegal, felt that unity should be achieved gradually and it did not support the notion of a political federation. Its other members were Nigeria, Liberia, Ethiopia and most of the former French colonies, some of the initial discussions took place at Sanniquellie, Liberia. The dispute was resolved when Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie I invited the two groups to Addis Ababa, where the OAU and its headquarters were subsequently established. The Charter of the Organisation was signed by 32 independent African states, the organisation was widely derided as a bureaucratic talking shop with little power. It struggled to enforce its decisions, and its lack of armed force made intervention exceedingly difficult, civil wars in Nigeria and Angola continued unabated for years, and the OAU could do nothing to stop them. The policy of non-interference in the affairs of member states also limited the effectiveness of the OAU, thus, when human rights were violated, as in Uganda under Idi Amin in the 1970s, the OAU was powerless to stop them. The Organisation was praised by Ghanaian former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan for bringing Africans together, the OAU was, however, successful in some respects. Many of its members were members of the UN, too and its pursuit of African unity, therefore, was in some ways successful. Total unity was difficult to achieve, however, as the OAU was largely divided, the pro-Socialist faction was led by Kwame Nkrumah, while Félix Houphouët-Boigny of the Ivory Coast led the pro-capitalists
32.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
33.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
34.
Beirut
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Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. No recent population census has been done but in 2007 estimates ranged from more than 1 million to slightly less than 2 million as part of Greater Beirut. Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanons Mediterranean coast, Beirut is the countrys largest and it is one of the oldest cities in the world, inhabited more than 5,000 years ago. The first historical mention of Beirut is found in the ancient Egyptian Tell el Amarna letters dating from the 15th century BC, the Beirut River runs south to north on the eastern edge of the city. Beirut is Lebanons seat of government and plays a role in the Lebanese economy, with most banks and corporations based in its Central District, Badaro, Rue Verdun, Hamra. Following the destructive Lebanese Civil War, Beiruts cultural landscape underwent major reconstruction, identified and graded for accountancy, advertising, banking/finance and law, Beirut is ranked as a Beta World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. In May 2015, Beirut was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, Durban, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, and La Paz. Beirut I, or Minet el Hosn, was listed as Beyrouth ville by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orent, the site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900. The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon, Beirut II, or Umm el Khatib, was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P. E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around 100 metres above sea level, the site had been built on and destroyed by 1948. Beirut III, Furn esh Shebbak or Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland, P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were found at this site. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces, the site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen, Raoul Describes and Auguste Bergy. Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, a large number of Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings. Levallois flints and bones and similar material were found amongst brecciated deposits. The area has now built on
35.
Bucharest
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Bucharest is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the country, at 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E, on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, less than 60 km north of the Danube River, Bucharest was first mentioned in documents in 1459. It became the capital of Romania in 1862 and is the centre of Romanian media, culture and its architecture is a mix of historical, interbellum, communist-era and modern. In the period between the two World Wars, the citys elegant architecture and the sophistication of its elite earned Bucharest the nickname of Little Paris. Although buildings and districts in the city centre were heavily damaged or destroyed by war, earthquakes. In recent years, the city has been experiencing an economic, in 2016, the historical city centre was listed as endangered by the World Monuments Watch. According to the 2011 census,1,883,425 inhabitants live within the city limits, the urban area extends beyond the limits of Bucharest proper and has a population of about 1.9 million people. Adding the satellite towns around the area, the proposed metropolitan area of Bucharest would have a population of 2.27 million people. According to Eurostat, Bucharest has an urban zone of 2,183,091 residents. According to unofficial data, the population is more than 3 million, Bucharest is the sixth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits, after London, Berlin, Madrid, Rome, and Paris. Economically, Bucharest is the most prosperous city in Romania and is one of the industrial centres. The city has big convention facilities, educational institutes, cultural venues, traditional shopping arcades, the Romanian name București has an uncertain origin. Tradition connects the founding of Bucharest with the name of Bucur, who was a prince, an outlaw, a fisherman, in Romanian, the word stem bucurie means joy, and it is believed to be of Dacian origin. Other etymologies are given by scholars, including the one of an Ottoman traveler, Evliya Çelebi. A native or resident of Bucharest is called a Bucharester, Bucharests history alternated periods of development and decline from the early settlements in antiquity until its consolidation as the national capital of Romania late in the 19th century. First mentioned as the Citadel of București in 1459, it became the residence of the famous Wallachian prince Vlad III the Impaler, the Ottomans appointed Greek administrators to run the town from the 18th century. A short-lived revolt initiated by Tudor Vladimirescu in 1821 led to the end of the rule of Constantinople Greeks in Bucharest, the Old Princely Court was erected by Mircea Ciobanul in the mid-16th century. Under subsequent rulers, Bucharest was established as the residence of the royal court
36.
Fondation Chirac
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The Fondation Chirac was launched by former French President Jacques Chirac, after having served two terms in office between 1995 and 2007. The Fondation Chirac has also awarded the Prize for Conflict Prevention every year since 2009, the foundations stated priorities include combating falsified medicines, deforestation and desertification, and helping to preserve endangered languages and cultures. The Sorosoro programme took its name from an Araki word for breath, speech, andrés Pastrana Arango, former President of Colombia. Abdou Diouf, former President of Senegal, ely Ould Mohamed Vall, former President of Mauritania. Rajendra Kumar Pachauri, former chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Rigoberta Menchu, Guatemalan Nobel Peace Prize. Youssou NDour, artist, Minister of Tourism and Culture of Senegal, Jacques Chirac, President Jean-Pierre Lafon, Vice-President Bernard Vatier, Vice-President and legal advisor. Valérie Terranova, Council Secretary Marie-Hélène Bérard, Treasurer Yann Arthus-Bertrand, Photographer, journalist, writer, Marie-Hélène Bérard, President and CEO of MHB SA. Michel Camdessus, Director of the Treasury, Governor of the Bank of France, catherine Colonna, Ambassador of France to UNESCO until 2010. Geneviève Ferone, Director of Sustainable Development at Veolia Environnement, marc Gentilini, President of the Pan-African Organization against AIDS and Honorary President and Member of the French National Academy of Medicine. Tristan Lecomte, Founder and President of Fair Trade importers Alter Eco, stéphane Martin, President of the public establishment of the Quai Branly Museum. Fahi Nahas, Ecuadorian Honorary Consul General in Turkey and Chairman of NA Plus SA, rené Ricol, President of Ricol Lasteyrie. Jean-Michel Severino, Director of the French Development Agency from 2001 to 2010, Bernard Vatier, Lawyer, former President of the Paris bar. Fernando Henrique Cardoso, President of thé Federal Republic of Brazil, françois Cheng, Member of the Académie française. Joaquim Alberto Chissano, President of the Republic of Mozambique, President of the “Chissano Foundation”, jean Chrétien, Prime Minister of Canada. Abdou Diouf, President of the Republic of Senegal, Secretary General of the International Organization of French-speaking communities, vigdís Finnbogadóttir, President of the Republic of Iceland, UNESCO’s Goodwill Ambassador for languages. Enrique V. Iglesias, President of the InterAmerican Development Bank, lee Kuan Yew, Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore. Rigoberta Menchu Tum, Nobel Peace Prize 1992, President of Rigoberta Menchu Tum Foundation, louis Michel, Member of the Federal Parliament of Belgium, former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Belgium and Vice Prime Minister. Youssou N’Dour, artist, goodwill ambassador for UNICEF, the FAO, rajendra Kumar Pachauri, Economist and Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
listen) AHB-doo dee-OOF; Serer: Abdu Juuf; born September 7, 1935[1]) is a Senegalese politician who was the second President of Senegal from 1981 to 2000. Diouf is notable both for coming to power by peaceful succession, and leaving willingly after losing the 2000 presidential election to Abdoulaye Wade, he was also the second Secretary-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie from January 2003 to December 2014.
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