1.
Vice President of Afghanistan
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The Vice President of Afghanistan is the second highest political position obtainable in Afghanistan. Vice Presidents are currently elected on the ticket as the President. A Presidential candidate nominates two candidates for Vice President before the election, the current Vice Presidents are Abdul Rashid Dostum and Sarwar Danish. The deputy head of state was the Vice Chairman of the Revolutionary Council between April 1978 and April 1988, Vice presidents were appointed after the new constitution and elections took place. Four vice presidents were appointed by president and approved by the National Assembly, Vice presidents were appointed by the president. After 2004, Vice Presidents are elected on the ticket as the President. Vice Presidents of Afghanistan List of current Vice Presidents
2.
Ashraf Ghani
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Ashraf Ghani Ahmadzai is the current President of Afghanistan, elected on 21 September 2014. An anthropologist by education, he served as finance minister. Before returning to Afghanistan in 2002, President Ghani worked with the World Bank, as the Finance Minister of Afghanistan between July 2002 and December 2004, he led Afghanistans attempted economic recovery after the collapse of the Taliban government. He is the co-founder of the Institute for State Effectiveness, a set up in 2005 to improve the ability of states to serve their citizens. In 2005 he gave a TED talk, in which he discussed how to rebuild a state such as Afghanistan. President Ghani is a member of the Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor, in 2013 he was ranked 50th in an online poll to name the worlds top 100 intellectuals conducted by Foreign Policy magazine and second in a similar poll run by Prospect magazine. Ghani came in fourth in the 2009 presidential election, behind Hamid Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah, in the first round of the 2014 presidential election, Ghani won 32% of the vote, second to Abdullah who secured 45% of the votes cast. Both candidates went on to contest an election, which was held on 14 June 2014 with Ghani winning 55. 27% of the votes with a lead of a million votes over Abdullah. Ghani was born on 19 May 1949 in the Logar Province of Afghanistan and he belongs to the Ahmadzai Pashtun tribe. He attended the American University in Beirut, where he earned his bachelors degree in 1973 and he met his future wife, Rula, while studying there. He initially wanted to study Law at Columbia University but then changed his major to Cultural Anthropology and he was invited to teach at University of California, Berkeley in 1983, and then at Johns Hopkins University from 1983 to 1991. He has also attended the Harvard-INSEAD and World Bank-Stanford Graduate School of Businesss leadership training program and he served on the faculty of Kabul University, Aarhus University in Denmark, University of California, Berkeley, and Johns Hopkins University. His academic research was on state-building and social transformation, in 1985, he completed a year of fieldwork researching on Pakistani madrassas as a Fulbright Scholar. He joined the World Bank in 1991, working on projects in East, after leaving Kabul University, Ghani co-founded the Institute for State Effectiveness with Clare Lockhart, of which he was Chairman. The Institute put forward a framework proposing that the state should perform ten functions in order to serve its citizens and this framework was discussed by leaders and managers of post-conflict transitions at a meeting sponsored by the UN and World Bank in September 2005. Carlos Pascual of the Brookings Institution was also quoted, praising Ghanis tremendous intellect, talent and he contributed to the Financial Times, International Herald Tribune, Los Angeles Times, New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington Post. Ghani was recognized as the best finance minister of Asia in 2003 by Emerging Markets, poverty eradication through wealth creation and the establishment of citizens rights is the heart of Ghanis development approach. The National Solidarity Program covers 13,000 of the countrys estimated 20,000 villages, in January 2009 an article by Ahmad Majidyar of the American Enterprise Institute included Ghani on a list of fifteen possible candidates in the 2009 Afghan presidential election
3.
Yunus Qanuni
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Yunus Qanuni is an Afghan politician who was Vice President of Afghanistan. An ethnic Tajik from the Panjshir Valley in Afghanistan, Qanuni is the leader of the Afghanistan e Naween political party, following the Soviet Intervention of Afghanistan in 1979, Qanuni joined with the mujahideen force led by Ahmad Shah Massoud based in his native Panjshir Valley. A protégé of Massoud, he was involved in the creation of the Afghan Northern Alliance, in 2001, Qanuni served as chief negotiator for the Afghan Northern Alliance delegation to the Bonn conference on Afghanistan in Bonn, Germany. Immediately after the fall of the Taliban government, Qanuni was interior minister in an interim administration and he was eventually made the education minister in the Afghan Transitional Administration, and served as a security advisor to interim President Hamid Karzai. Along with Fahim and Abdullah, Qanuni was seen as one of the dominant figures of the Transitional Administration Elections for a permanent government were scheduled for 2004. When Qanunis ally Mohammed Fahim was passed over as vice-presidential running mate of Karzai, on October 5,2004, Qanunis campaign supporter, Abdul Aziz, was assassinated while in Shindand, Afghanistan. In the election, held October 9,2004, he placed second to Karzai, on December 23,2004, the newly inaugurated Karzai announced his administration, and both Qanuni and Fahim were dropped from their Ministerial posts. Qanuni was elected in the 2005 Afghan Parliamentary elections, placing second in the Kabul province, biography, Mohammad Yunis Qanuni Profile, Yunus Qanuni, BBC, 9/10/2004
4.
Jowzjan Province
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Jowzjan, sometimes spelled as Jawzjan or Jozjan, is one of the thirty-four provinces of Afghanistan, located in the north of the country bordering neighboring Turkmenistan. The province is divided into 11 districts and contains hundreds of villages and it has a population of about 512,100, which is multi-ethnic and mostly agriculturers. Sheberghan is the capital of Jozjan province, the province is named after the early medieval region and principality of Juzjan. Between the early 16th century and mid-18th century, the area was ruled by the Khanate of Bukhara and it was conquered by Ahmad Shah Durrani and became part of the Durrani Empire in or about 1750, which formed to the modern state of Afghanistan. The area was untouched by the British during the three Anglo-Afghan wars that were fought in the 19th and 20th centuries, Security situation in the province has rapidly deteriorated in 2009 and 2010. A new Turkish PRT has also established in the province in the summer of 2010. The Afghan National Security Forces began expanding in the last decade, the Afghanistan-Turkmenistan border is maintained by the Afghan Border Police while law and order for the rest of the province is provided by the NATO-trained Afghan National Police. The Mazar-e-Sharif-Sheberghan highway has turned into a dangerous traveling route because of carrying out attacks against government forces, NGO workers. Initial work on the $390 million project had already been completed, Turkmenistan will install power pylons over a distance of 374 kilometres on its soil toward the Afghanistan border and the project will take a year to complete. The network would supply electricity to areas in Jozjan, Balkh, Sar-e Pol, Faryab. The Governor of the province is Murad Quenili, who replaced Mohammad Aleem Sayee in July 2013, Quenili was previously a senator representing his province Jozjan in the National Assembly of Afghanistan. All law enforcement activities throughout the province are managed by the Afghan National Police, the police chief represents the Ministry of the Interior in Kabul. The ANP is backed by other Afghan National Security Forces, including the NATO-led forces, the percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 24% in 2005 to 44% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a birth attendant increased from 9% in 2005 to 21% in 2011. The overall literacy rate fell from 31% in 2005 to 16% in 2011, the overall net enrolment rate increased from 40% in 2005 to 46% in 2011. Jozjan is situated in the part of Afghanistan, bordering Turkmenistan in the north, Balkh province in the east, Sar-e Pol province in the south. Jozjan province covers an area of 10,326 km², more than one quarter of the province is mountainous or semi mountainous terrain, while more than two thirds of the area is made up of flat land. It is one of the known to contain petroleum and natural gas
5.
Kingdom of Afghanistan
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The Kingdom of Afghanistan was a constitutional monarchy in southern and central Asia established in 1926 as a successor state to the Emirate of Afghanistan. It was proclaimed by its first king, Amanullah Khan, seven years after his accession to the throne, Amanullah Khan was keen on modernizing the country, resulting in conservative forces causing social upheaval on a number of occasions. When he was visiting Europe in 1927, rebellion broke out again and he abdicated in favour of his brother Inayatullah Khan who only ruled for three days before the leader of the tribal rebellion Habibullah Kalakani took power and reinstated the Emirate. After 10 months, Amanullah Khans Minister of War, Mohammed Nadir and his British-supported armies sacked Kabul, forcing Habibullah Kalakani to discuss a truce. Instead, Mohammed Nadirs forces apprehended and subsequently executed Kalakani, Mohammed Nadir reinstated the kingdom, was proclaimed King of Afghanistan in October 1929, and went on to revert the reformist path of the last king, Amanullah Khan. He was succeeded by his son, Mohammed Zahir Shah, whose rule started in 1933 and it was under the leadership of Zahir Shah that the Afghan government sought relationships with the outside world, most notably with the Soviet Union, United Kingdom and the United States. On 27 September 1934, during the reign of Zahir Shah, during World War II, Afghanistan remained neutral and pursued a diplomatic policy of non-alignment. Mohammed Daoud Khan, Prime Minister of Afghanistan at the time, worked hard for development of modern industries, barakzai Dynasty European influence in Afghanistan List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war
6.
Uzbeks
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The Uzbeks are a Turkic ethnic group, the largest Turkic ethnic group in Central Asia. They comprise the majority population of Uzbekistan but are found as a minority group in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Russia. Uzbek diaspora communities also exist in Turkey, Saudi Arabia, the origin of the word Uzbek remains disputed. One view holds that it is named after Oghuz Khagan, also known as Oghuz Beg. Another states that the name means independent or the lord itself, from Oʻz, before, 5th century, what is todays Uzbekistan was part of Sogdia, mainly inhabited by Sogdians, an Indo-Iranian people. It was part of the Achaemenid Empire and later part of Sasanian Empire, from 5th to 6th century, what is todays Uzbekistan was part of the Hephthalite Empire. From 6th to 8th century, what is todays Uzbekistan was under the rule of Göktürk Khanate, Turkic and Chinese migration into central Asia occurred during the Chinese Tang Dynasty, and Chinese armies commanded by Turkic generals stationed in large parts of central Asia. But Chinese influence ended with the An Lushan rebellion, from the 9th century on, Transoxania was under the rule of Turkic Kara-Khanid Khanate, their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia. Kara-Khanid ruler Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan was the first Turkic ruler to convert Islam, in the 12th century, Transoxania was conquered by Qara Khitai, a sinicized Khitan dynasty, they brought to Central Asia the Chinese system of government. In the 13th century, Kara-Khanid Khanate was destroyed by the Turkic Khwarazmian dynasty, the language-shift from Middle Iranian to Turkic and New Persian was predominantly the result of an elite dominance process. This process was boosted during the Mongol conquest when millions were either killed or pushed further south to the Pamir region. The modern Uzbek language is derived from the Chagatai language which gained prominence in the Timurid Empire. The modern Uzbek population represents varying degrees of diversity derived from the high traffic routes through Central Asia. Once populated by Iranian tribes and other Indo-European people, Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out of Mongolia that would affect the region. According to recent genetic genealogy testing from a University of Oxford study, high levels of haplogroup 10 and its derivative, haplogroup 36, are found in most of the Altaic-speaking populations and are a good indicator of the genetic impact of these nomadic groups. The difference could be due to the density of the different geographical areas. Eastern regions of Central Asia must have had a low density at the time. Thus, the estimate from North-East Asia is high in the east
7.
Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
8.
Afghan National Army
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The Afghan National Army is the main branch of the Afghan Armed Forces, responsible for ground warfare. It is under the Ministry of Defense in Kabul and is trained by NATO forces, primarily the United States. The ANA is divided into six regional Corps, with the 201st in Kabul followed by the 203rd in Gardez, 205th in Kandahar, 207th in Herat, 209th in Mazar-i-Sharif, the current Chief of Staff of the ANA is General Qadam Shah Shahim. Afghanistans army traces its roots to the early 18th-century when the Hotaki dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by Ahmad Shah Durranis rise to power and it was reorganized in 1880 during Emir Abdur Rahman Khans reign. Afghanistan remained neutral during the First and Second World Wars, from the 1960s to the early 1990s, the Afghan army was equipped by the Soviet Union. After the collapse of Mohammad Najibullahs government in 1992, the army fragmented into militias under various regional warlords, after the removal of the Taliban regime in late 2001, NATO nations revived the Afghan army. In 2010, there were more than 4,000 United States Armed Forces trainers, by 2014, most of Afghanistan became under government control with ISAF playing a training and supporting role. The majority of training of the ANA is to be undertaken in the newly established Afghan National Security University, NATO expanded the Afghan armed forces to 183,000 active personnel by 2016. Historically, Afghans have served in the army of the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Delhi Sultanate, and the Mughals. The current Afghan army traces its origin to the early 18th century when the Hotaki dynasty rose to power in Kandahar and defeated the Persian Safavid Empire at the Battle of Gulnabad in 1722. When Ahmad Shah Durrani formed the Durrani Empire in 1747, the Afghan army fought a number of battles in the Punjab region of India during the 18th to the 19th century. One of the battles was the 1761 Battle of Panipat in which the Afghan army decisively defeated the Hindu Maratha Empire. The Afghans then fought with the Sikh Empire, until finally, in 1842, The British unsuccessfully tried to conquer Afghanistan, resulting in the massacre of Elphinstones army. In 1880 Amir Abdur Rahman Khan established a newly equipped Afghan Army with help from the British, the Library of Congress Country Study for Afghanistan states, When came to the throne, the army was virtually nonexistent. Further improvements to the army were made by King Amanullah Khan in the early 20th century just before the Third Anglo-Afghan War, King Amanullah fought against the British in 1919, resulting in Afghanistan becoming fully independent after the Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed. The Afghan Army was expanded during King Zahir Shahs reign, starting in 1933, periodic border clashes with Pakistan seem to have taken place between 1950 and 1961. From the 1960s to the early 1990s, the Afghan Army received training, in February - March 1957, the first group of Soviet military specialists was sent to Kabul to train Afghan officers and non-commissioned officers. At the time, there seems to have been significant Turkish influence in the Afghan armed forces, in the early 1970s, Soviet military assistance was increased
9.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
10.
Warlord
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A warlord is a leader able to exercise military, economic, and political control over a subnational territory within a sovereign state due to his ability to mobilize loyal armed forces. These armed forces, usually considered militias, are loyal to the rather than to the state regime. Warlords have existed throughout much of history, albeit in a variety of different capacities within the political, economic, and social structure of states or ungoverned territories. The first non-English usage of warlord appeared in Germany in 1861, with the translation as Kriegsherr, there is also a divergence of opinion within the field of political science as to what specifically constitutes warlordism, particularly in the context of the historical setting. There are two major functional distinctions when considering warlords vis-à-vis their relationship with the state and this can be viewed as cooperative warlord politics. The other is one in which the warlord is operating independently of the state and is viewed as a rebel and this is commonly viewed as ungoverned warlordism. The other major consideration in categorizing warlords is through the lens of history, Warlordism was a widespread, dominant political framework that ordered many of the worlds societies until the modern state became globally ubiquitous. Often warlord governance in pre-modern state history was constructed along tribal or kinship lines and was congruent with early perceptions of nation, in colonial empires warlords served in both cooperative political capacities and as leaders of rebellions. In modern states the presence of warlords is often seen as an indicator of state weakness or failure, American historian David G. Herrmann noted, Warlordism is the default condition of humanity. In both cases there is an inherent inefficiency in the model, as resources are wasted on unproductive arming and fighting, however, the functionality is often sustainable because it presents citizens with no choice but to accept rent payments in exchange for protection. Charles Tilly, an American political scientist and sociologist, theorized that organized crime can function as a means for war and he argues that the monopoly of crime by the state--in this case being the warlords--is in order to receive protection from external rivals as well as internal political rivals. As noted French philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville and political scientists such as E. J, within political science there is a growing body of research and analysis on warlordism that has emerged within weak states that have gained independence as a result of the collapse of empire. Warlord states are disproportionately concentrated within two regions--the former European colonies of Africa and the former Soviet republics of Eurasia, the warlords, with their established militias, are able to maintain a monopoly of violence within certain territories. By limiting access to these privileges, members of the dominant warlord coalition create credible incentives to cooperate rather than fight among themselves, Driscoll termed this warlordism Militia Coalition Politics. As Driscoll observed, the warlords colluded to create a state, one political theory, pioneered by American economist Mancur Olson, posits that warlords can function as stationary bandits. In some African states warlord politics can be a product of endowment-rich, some nations, including Liberia and Sierra Leone, have had stationary bandits who use extraction of resources such as diamonds, cobalt and timber in order to increase their political power. They often enforce their right to resources by claiming to be protecting the people. These warlords, or stationary bandits, often partner with compliant foreign firms and create symbiotic relationships to yield greater power for the warlords and a source of wealth for external firms
11.
United States invasion of Afghanistan
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The war in Afghanistan followed the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan. Supported initially by the United Kingdom, the US was later joined by the rest of NATO and its public aims were to dismantle al-Qaeda and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power. Key allies, including the United Kingdom, supported the U. S. from the start to the end of the phase and this phase of the war is the longest war in United States history. In 2001, U. S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda, bin Laden had already been wanted by the United Nations since 1999. The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given evidence of his involvement in the September 11 attacks, the request for evidence was dismissed by the U. S. as a delaying tactic, and on 7 October 2001 it launched Operation Enduring Freedom with the United Kingdom. The two were joined by other forces, including the Northern Alliance which had been fighting the Taliban in the ongoing civil war since 1996. In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force, at the Bonn Conference the same month, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, NATO became involved in ISAF in August 2003, and later that year assumed leadership of it, with troops from 43 countries by this stage. NATO members provided the core of the force, one portion of U. S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command, the rest remained under direct U. S. command. The Taliban was reorganised by its leader Mullah Omar, and in 2003, launched an insurgency against the government, the Taliban exploited weaknesses in the Afghan government, among the most corrupt in the world, to reassert influence across rural areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. In the initial years there was fighting, but from 2006 the Taliban made significant gains. ISAF responded in 2006 by increasing troops for operations to clear and hold villages and nation building projects to win hearts. Violence sharply escalated from 2007 to 2009, while ISAF continued to battle the Taliban insurgency, fighting crossed into neighboring North-West Pakistan. On 2 May 2011, United States Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Abbotabad, in May 2012, NATO leaders endorsed an exit strategy for withdrawing their forces. UN-backed peace talks have taken place between the Afghan government and the Taliban. In May 2014, the United States announced that its combat operations would end in December 2014. In October 2014, British forces handed over the last bases in Helmand to the Afghan military, on 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. Tens of thousands of people were killed in the war, over 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian contractors as well as over 15,000 Afghan national security forces were killed, as well as nearly 20,000 civilians
12.
Dari language
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Dari or Dari Persian is the variety of the Persian language spoken in Afghanistan. Dari is the officially recognized and promoted since 1964 by the Afghan government for the Persian language. Hence, it is known as Afghan Persian in many Western sources. As defined in the Constitution of Afghanistan, it is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, the other is Pashto. Dari is the most widely spoken language in Afghanistan and the language of approximately 25–50% of the population. The Iranian and Afghan types of Persian are mutually intelligible, with differences found primarily in the vocabulary, in historical usage, Dari refers to the Middle Persian court language of the Sassanids. Dari is a given to the New Persian language since the 10th century, widely used in Arabic. Since 1964, it has been the name in Afghanistan for the Persian spoken there. In Afghanistan, Dari refers to a dialect form of Persian that is the standard language used in administration, government, radio, television. Because of a preponderance of Dari native speakers, who refer to the language as Fārsi. There are different opinions about the origin of the word Dari, the majority of scholars believes that Dari refers to the Persian word dar or darbār, meaning Court, as it was the formal language of the Sassanids. The original meaning of the word dari is given in a notice attributed to Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ, according to him, Pārsī was the language spoken by priests, scholars, and the like, it is the language of Fars. It is obvious that this refers to the Middle Persian. As for Dari, he says, it is the language of the cities of Madāen, is connected with presence at court. Among the languages of the people of Khorasan and the east, in general, Iranian languages are known from three periods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, and New periods. But it is thought that the first person in Europe to use the term Deri for Dari was Thomas Hyde, at Oxford, in his chief work, ferghana, Samarkand, and Bukhara were starting to be linguistically Darified in originally Khorezmian and Soghdian areas during Samanid rule. Dari Persian spread around the Oxus River region, Afghanistan, and Khorasan after the Arab conquests, the replacement of the Pahlavi script with the Arabic script in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirids in 9th century Khorasan. Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids, the role of lingua franca that Sogdian originally played was succeeded by Persian after the arrival of Islam
13.
Uzbek language
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Uzbek is a Turkic language and the official language of Uzbekistan. It has 27 million native speakers and is spoken by the Uzbeks in Uzbekistan, Uzbek belongs to the Eastern Turkic, or Karluk, branch of the Turkic language family. External influences include Persian, Arabic and Russian, one of the most noticeable distinctions of Uzbek from other Turkic languages is the rounding of the vowel /a/ to /ɒ/ or /ɔ/, a feature that was influenced by Persian. In the language itself, Uzbek is oʻzbek tili or oʻzbekcha, in Cyrillic, the same names are written ўзбек тили and ўзбекча, in Arabic script, ازبېک تیلی and ازبېجه. The first Turkic dynasty in the region was that of the Kara-Khanid Khanate in the 9th–12th centuries, the language was championed by Ali-Shir Navai in the 15th and 16th centuries. Navai was the greatest representative of Chagatai language literature and he significantly contributed to the development of the Chagatay language and its direct descendant Uzbek and is widely considered to be the founder of Uzbek literature. Ultimately based on the Karluk variant of the Turkic languages, Chagatay contained large numbers of Persian, by the 19th century it was rarely used for literary composition, but disappeared only in the early 20th century. The term Uzbek as applied to language has meant different things at different times, all three dialects continue to exist within modern spoken Uzbek. Edward A. Allworth argued that this badly distorted the history of the region and was used to give authors such as the 15th century author Ali-Shir Navai an Uzbek identity. Estimates of the number of speakers of Uzbek vary widely, the Swedish encyclopedia Nationalencyklopedin estimates the number of native speakers to be 26 million, and the CIA World Factbook estimates 25 million. The influence of Islam, and by extension, Arabic, is evident in Uzbek loanwords, there is also a residual influence of Russian, from the time when Uzbeks were under the rule of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. Uzbek vocabulary has also heavily influenced by Persian through its historic roots. The Uzbek language has many dialects, varying widely from region to region, however, there is a commonly understood dialect which is used in mass media and in most printed materials. Among the most-widespread dialects are the Tashkent dialect, Afghan dialect, the Ferghana dialect, the Khorezm dialect, the Chimkent-Turkestan dialect, 1928–1940, the Latin-based Yañalif used officially. 1940–1992, the Cyrillic script used officially, since 1992, Yañalif is official in Uzbekistan, although the Cyrillic script is still widely used. Despite the official status of the Latin script in Uzbekistan, the use of Cyrillic is still widespread, especially in advertisements, in newspapers, scripts may be mixed, with headlines in Latin and articles in Cyrillic. The Arabic script is no longer used in Uzbekistan except symbolically in limited texts or for the studies of Chagatai. In the western Chinese region of Xinjiang, where there is an Uzbek minority, however, the Uyghur Arabic alphabet is sometimes used
14.
Uzbek alphabet
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The Uzbek language has been written in various scripts, Arabic, Cyrillic and Latin. In Uzbekistan, it is now written in the Latin script officially, in the Xinjiang region of China, some Uzbek speakers write using Cyrillic, while others apply the Uyghur Arabic script for Uzbek. Uzbeks of Afghanistan also write Uzbek using the Arabic script, the Uzbek Arabic script is being taught at schools in Afghanistan. Like all Turkic languages in Central Asia, Uzbek was written in forms of the Arabic script by the literate population. The Latinization of Uzbek was carried out in the context of Latinization of all Turkic languages, in 1940, Uzbek was switched to the Cyrillic script under Joseph Stalin. The deadline in Uzbekistan for making this transition has been repeatedly changed, the latest deadline was 2005, but was shifted once again to provide a few more years. Already education in areas of Uzbekistan is in the Latin script. Since 2004 some official websites have switched over to using the Latin script when writing in Uzbek, most street signs are also in the new Latin script. The main national TV channel of Uzbekistan, Oʻzbekiston telekanali, has switched to the Latin script when writing in Uzbek. The modern Uzbek Latin alphabet has 29 letters, The symbol ⟨ʼ⟩ does not constitute a separate letter, below is a table of Uzbek Cyrillic and Latin alphabets with represented sounds. Notes When the Uzbek language is written using the Latin script, the modifier letter apostrophe is used to mark the phonetic glottal stop when it is put immediately before a vowel in borrowed words, as in sanʼat. The modifier letter apostrophe is used to mark a long vowel when placed immediately after a vowel. Since this character is absent from most keyboard layouts, many Uzbek websites use U+2019 ’ RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK instead. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
15.
Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
16.
Mujahideen
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Mujahideen is the plural form of mujahid, the term for one engaged in Jihad. Jihads literal meaning is to struggle, in its roots, Mujahideen refers to any person performing Jihad. Jihad was the used for the project of Islamic conquest in the early history of Islam. In its post-classical meaning, Jihad refers to an act which is comparable in reward to promoting Islam during the early 600s CE. These acts could be as simple as sharing a considerable amount of income with the poor. Some Islamic sects believe that armed-conflicts cannot be branded as Jihad unless it has ordered by Messiah. Although he died in battle, the sect he had created survived, during the Indian Mutiny of 1857, the Mujahideen were said to accept any fleeing Sepoys and recruit them into their ranks. As time went by the sect grew ever larger until it was raiding and controlling larger areas in Afghanistan, some volunteers committed themselves to hand-to-hand combat and probable death. In Spanish, these rebels were known as juramentados, or oath-takers. At the DRAs request, the Soviet Union brought forces into the country to aid the government from 1979, as warfare became more sophisticated, outside support and regional coordination grew. Eventually, the seven main mujahideen parties allied as the political bloc called Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen, many Muslims from other countries assisted the various mujahideen groups in Afghanistan. Some groups of these veterans became significant players in later conflicts in and these foreign fighters became known as Afghan Arabs and their efforts were coordinated by Abdullah Yusuf Azzam. Mujahideen forces caused serious casualties to the Soviet forces, and made the war very costly for the Soviet Union, in 1989 the Soviet Union withdrew its forces from Afghanistan. Many districts and cities fell to the mujahideen, in 1992 the DRAs last president. However, the mujahideen did not establish a government. After several years of devastating fighting, a village mullah named Mohammed Omar organized a new armed movement with the backing of Pakistan, veteran mujahideen confronted this radical splinter group in 1996. The group also took part in the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iran–Iraq War, another mujahideen was the Mujahedin-e Islam, an Islamic party led by Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani. It formed part of the National Front during the time of Mohammed Mosaddeqs oil nationalization, during the late 1950s and early 1960s, the mujahideen lost most of its momentum and support, resulting in most of them surrendering to government forces
17.
Mohammad Najibullah
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Mohammad Najibullah Ahmadzai, commonly known as Najibullah or Dr. Najib, was the President of Afghanistan from 1987 until 1992, when the mujahideen took over Kabul. He had previously held different careers under the Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan and was a graduate of Kabul University and he returned to Afghanistan following the Soviet invasion which toppled Amins rule and placed Babrak Karmal as head of state, party and government. During Karmals rule, Najibullah became head of the KHAD, the Afghan equivalent to the Soviet KGB and he was a member of the Parcham faction led by Karmal. During Najibullahs tenure as KHAD head, it one of the most brutally efficient governmental organs. Because of this, he gained the attention of several leading Soviet officials, such as Yuri Andropov, Dmitriy Ustinov, in 1981, Najibullah was appointed to the PDPA Politburo. In 1985 Najibullah stepped down as state security minister to focus on PDPA politics, Mikhail Gorbachev, the last Soviet leader, was able to get Karmal to step down as PDPA General Secretary in 1986, and replace him with Najibullah. For a number of months Najibullah was locked in a struggle against Karmal. Najibullah accused Karmal of trying to wreck his policy of National Reconciliation, during his tenure as leader of Afghanistan, the Soviets began their withdrawal, and from 1989 until 1992, his government tried to solve the ongoing civil war without Soviet troops on the ground. While direct Soviet assistance ended with the withdrawal, the Soviet Union still supported Najibullah with economic and military aid, throughout his tenure, he tried to build support for his government. Najibullah even tried to portray his government as Islamic, and in the 1990 constitution the country became an Islamic state. This change, coupled with others, did not win Najibullah any significant support, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, Najibullah was left without foreign aid. This, coupled with the collapse of his government, led to his ousting from power in April 1992. Najibullah lived in the United Nations headquarters in Kabul until 1996, Najibullah is said to have been castrated by the Taliban, and he was dragged behind a Toyota pick-up truck in the streets of Kabul before being publicly hanged with a piano wire noose from a tree. Najibullah was born in February 1947 in the city of Kabul and his ancestral village is located between the towns of Said Karam and Gardēz in Paktia Province, this place is known as Mehlan. He was educated at Habibia High School in Kabul, St. Josephs School in Baramulla, India and Kabul University and he belongs to the Ahmadzai sub-tribe of the Ghilzai Pashtun tribe in Gardiz. In 1965 Najibullah joined the Parcham faction of the Communist Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan, in 1977 he was elected to the Central Committee. In April 1978 the PDPA took power in Afghanistan, with Najibullah a member of the ruling Revolutionary Council. However, the Khalq faction of the PDPA gained supremacy over his own Parcham faction and he returned to Kabul after the Soviet intervention in 1979
18.
Ethnic groups in Afghanistan
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The population of the country is divided into a wide variety of ethnolinguistic groups. The ethnic groups of the country are as follow, Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Aimak, Turkmen, Baloch, Pashai, Nuristani, Gujjar, Arab, Brahui, Pamiri, the Afghan National Anthem mentions a total of 14 ethnic groups. It became prominent during the Khilji, Lodi, and Suri dynasties of Northern India, the name became the national identity of Afghanistan in modern times. Despite being of ethnic groups, in a research poll that was conducted in 2009, 72% of the population labelled their identity as Afghan first. While national culture of Afghanistan is not uniform, at the same time, additionally, ethnic groups are not racially homogenous. Even though all ethnic groups in Afghanistan share a similar culture, there are certain tradiditions and celebrations that each ethnic group has adopted from each other. For example, nowruz is the Persian New Year, which was celebrated by the Persians has now been adopted by some of the other groups. The attan which was originally a dance performed by Pashtuns, is now the national dance of Afghanistan, the Pashtuns make up the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, comprising between 42% and 60% of the countrys population. Their main territory, sometimes called Pashtunistan, is between the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and the Indus River in neighboring Pakistan, where they are the second largest ethnic group. After the rise of the Hotaki dynasty in 1709 and the Durrani Empire in 1747, Pashtuns expanded by forming communities north of the Hindu Kush, there are conflicting theories about the origin of the Pashtun people, both among historians and the Pashtun themselves. A variety of ancient groups with similar to Pukhtun have been hypothesized as possible ancestors of modern Pashtuns. The Greek historian Herodotus mentioned a people called Pactyans, living in the Achaemenids Arachosia Satrap as early as the 1st millennium BC. Since the 3rd century AD and onward they are referred to by the ethnonym Afghan. Some believe that ethnic Afghan is an adaptation of the Prakrit ethnonym Avagana and it was used to refer to a common legendary ancestor known as Afghana, propagated to be grandson of King Saul of Israel. According to scholars such as V. Minorsky and others, the name Afghan appears in the 982 CE Hudud-al-Alam geography book, according to other sources, some Pashtuns may be the Lost tribes of Israel who converted to Islam during the Arab Empire. Since the 13th century, some Pashtun tribes conquered areas outside their traditional Pashtun homeland by pushing deeper into South Asia, often forming kingdoms such as the Delhi Sultanate. The modern Afghan national identity developed in the mid 18th century under the rule of Ahmad Shah Durrani, Pashtuns are the traditional rulers of Afghanistan since the rise of the Hotaki dynasty in 1709 or more specifically when the Durrani Empire was created in 1747. They practice Sunni Islam and follow the Hanafi school of thought, the Karzai administration, which is led by Hamid Karzai, is dominated by Pashtun ministers
19.
Mazar-i-Sharif
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Mazar-i-Sharif or Mazar-e-Sharif is the third-largest city of Afghanistan, with a 2015 UN—Habitat population estimate between 577,500 to 693,000. It is the capital of Balkh province and is linked by highways with Kunduz in the east, Kabul in the southeast, Herat in the west and Uzbekistan in the north. Mazar-e Sharif, along with Herat, Jalalabad in the east and Kandahar in the south, the city also serves as one of the many tourist attractions because of its famous shrines as well as the Muslim and Hellenistic archeological sites. In 2006, the discovery of new Hellenistic remains was announced, Mazar-i-Sharif is the Regional Hub located in the northern region in close proximity to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The Mazari Sharif Airport in the city has been used during the 1980s Soviet war. The name Mazar-e Sharif means Noble Shrine, a reference to the large, blue-tiled sanctuary, according to tradition, the city of Mazari Sharif owes its existence to a dream. The famous Jalal al-Din Rumi was born in area but like many historical figures his exact location of birth cannot be confirmed. His father Baha Walad was descended from the first caliph Abu Bakr and was influenced by the ideas of Ahmad Ghazali, Baha Walads sermons were published and still exist as Divine Sciences. Rumi completed six books of poetry and tales called Masnavi before he died in 1273. Although later rebuilt, Mazar stood in the shadow of its neighbor Balkh, thus the ruler of North Central Afghanistan decided to shift the capital of the city of Mazar-e-Sharif. The Mazar-i-Sharif means the noble shrine and this name represents the Blue Mosque which is widely known to be the grave of Hazrat Ali. In the late 1870s, Emir Sher Ali Khan ruled the area from his Tashkurgan Palace in Mazar-i Sharif and this northern part of Afghanistan was un-visited by the British-led Indian forces during the Anglo-Afghan wars of the 19th century. During the 1980s Soviet war, Mazar-i-Sharif was a base for the Soviet Army as they used its airport to launch air strikes on Afghan mujahideen. As a garrison for the Soviet-backed Afghan army, the city was under the command of Dostum, under Dostums 5 year rule from the early 1990s to early 1997, the city was relatively peaceful. The rest of the nation disintegrated and was taken over by the Taliban forces. He printed his own currency and established his own airline and he is widely believed to have been responsible for the brutal massacre of up to 3,000 Taliban prisoners after inviting them into Mazar-i-Sharif. Several of the Taliban escaped the slaughtering and reported what had happened, the Taliban retaliated in 1998 attacking the city and killing an estimated 8,000. More than 8000 noncombatants were reported killed in Mazar-i-Sharif and later in Bamiyan, in addition, the Taliban were criticized for forbidding anyone from burying the corpses for the first six days while the remains rotted in the summer heat and were eaten by dogs
20.
Uzbekistan
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Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, is one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world. Located in Central Asia, it is a unitary, constitutional, presidential republic, comprising twelve provinces, one autonomous republic and a capital city. Uzbekistan is bordered by five landlocked countries, Kazakhstan to the north, Tajikistan to the southeast, Kyrgyzstan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southwest. Once part of the Turkic Khaganate and later Timurid Empires, the region that includes the Republic of Uzbekistan was conquered in the early 16th century by Eastern Turkic-speaking nomads. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, it declared independence as the Republic of Uzbekistan on 31 August 1991, Uzbekistan is officially a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. The countrys official language is Uzbek, a Turkic language written in the Latin alphabet and spoken natively by approximately 85% of the population, however, Uzbeks constitute 81% of the population, followed by Russians, Tajiks, Kazakhs, and others. A majority of Uzbeks are non-denominational Muslims, Uzbekistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, UN, and the SCO. While officially a republic, non-governmental human rights organizations define Uzbekistan as an authoritarian state with limited civil rights. Uzbekistans economy relies mainly on commodity production, including cotton, gold, uranium, despite the declared objective of transition to a market economy, its government continues to maintain economic controls which imports in favour of domestic import substitution. Uzbekistan has an area of 447,400 square kilometres and it is the 56th largest country in the world by area and the 42nd by population. Among the CIS countries, it is the 4th largest by area, Uzbekistan lies between latitudes 37° and 46° N, and longitudes 56° and 74° E. It stretches 1,425 kilometres from west to east and 930 kilometres from north to south, Uzbekistan also shares a short border with Afghanistan to the south. Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country and it is one of two doubly landlocked countries in the world, the other being Liechtenstein. In addition, due to its location within a series of endorheic basins, less than 10% of its territory is intensively cultivated irrigated land in river valleys and oases. The rest is vast desert and mountains, the climate in the Republic of Uzbekistan is continental, with little precipitation expected annually. The average summer high temperature tends to be 40 °C, while the winter low temperature is around −23 °C. Uzbekistan has a rich and diverse natural environment, the Aral Sea used to be the fourth-largest inland sea on Earth, acting as an influencing factor in the air moisture and arid land use. Since the 1960s, the decade when the misuse of the Aral Sea water began, it has shrunk to less than 50% of its former area, reliable, or even approximate data, have not been collected, stored or provided by any organization or official agency
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Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
22.
Burhanuddin Rabbani
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Burhanuddin Rabbani was President of the Islamic State of Afghanistan from 1992 to 1996. Rabbani was also the leader of Jamiat-e Islami Afghanistan, which has ties to Pakistans Jamaat-e-Islami. He was one of the earliest founders and movement leaders of the Mujahideen in the early 1970s and he served as the political head of the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan, an alliance of various political groups who fought against the Taliban in Afghanistan. His government was recognized by countries, as well as the United Nations. He later became head of Afghanistan National Front, the largest political opposition to Hamid Karzais government, on 20 September 2011, Rabbani was assassinated by a suicide bomber entering his home in Kabul. As suggested by the Afghan parliament, Afghanistans President Hamid Karzai gave him the title of Martyr of Peace and his son Salahuddin Rabbani was chosen in April 2012 to lead efforts to forge peace in Afghanistan with the Taliban. Rabbani, son of Muhammed Yousuf, was born in the province of Badakhshan in 1940. He was a Persian-speaking ethnic Tajik, after finishing school in his native province, he went to Darul-uloom-e-Sharia, a religious school in Kabul. When he graduated from Abu-Hanifa, he attended Kabul University to study Islamic Law and Theology, soon after his graduation in 1963, he was hired as a professor at Kabul University. In order to enhance himself, Rabbani went to Egypt in 1966, in two years, he received his masters degree in Islamic Philosophy. Rabbani was one of the first Afghans to translate the works of Sayyid Qutb into Persian, later he returned to Egypt to complete his PhD in Islamic philosophy and his thesis was titled The Philosophy and Teachings of Abd al-Rahman Muhammad Jami. In 2004 he received Afghanistans highest academic and scientific title Academician from the Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan, Rabbani returned to Afghanistan in 1968, where the High Council of Jamiat-e Islami gave him the duty of organizing the University students. Jamiat-e Islami was primarily composed of Tajiks, Rabbani, along with his colleague, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, supported a universal caliphate and opposed Western doctrines including democracy and humanism. Their disciples at the university assaulted women who wore supposedly immodest clothing, in Pakistan, Rabbani gathered important people and established the party. Sayed Noorullah Emad, who was then a young Muslim in the University of Kabul, became the General Secretary of the party and, later, when the Soviets supported the 1979 coup, Rabbani helped lead Jamiat-e Islami in resistance to the Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan regime. Rabbanis forces were the first Mujahideen elements to enter Kabul in 1992 when the PDPA government fell from power and he took over as President from 1992 until the Talibans conquest of Kabul in 1996. For the next five years, he and the Northern Alliance were busy fighting the Taliban until the 2001 US-led Operation Enduring Freedom in which the Taliban government was toppled. Rabbani was head of Afghanistan’s High Peace Council, which had formed in 2010 to initiate peace talks with the Taliban and other groups in the insurgency
23.
Kabul
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Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan as well as its largest city, located in the eastern section of the country. According to a 2015 estimate, the population of the city was around 3,678,033 which includes all the ethnic groups. Rapid urbanization had made Kabul the worlds 64th largest city and the fifth fastest-growing city in the world, Kabul is said to be over 3,500 years old, mentioned since at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire. The city is at a location along the trade routes of South and Central Asia. It has been part of the Achaemenids, Seleucids, Mauryans, Kushans, Kabul Shahis, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Later, it was controlled by the Mughal Empire until finally becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747. The city is located high up in a valley between the Hindu Kush mountains. Kabul became the capital of Afghanistan during the reign of Timur Shah Durrani, in the early 19th century, the British occupied the city but were compelled to abandon it. Relations between Afghanistan and Great Britain were later established, the city was occupied by the Soviets in 1979 but they too abandoned it after the 1988 Geneva Accords were signed. A civil war in the 1990s between various rebel groups destroyed much of the city, resulting in many casualties, since the removal of the Taliban from power in late 2001, the city gradually began rebuilding itself with assistance by the international community. Despite the many terrorist attacks by elements, the city is growing and developing. The city is divided into about 18 districts, the Kabul International Airport is located in the Wazir Akbar Khan district a few miles from the foreign embassies. The Parliament of Afghanistan, built by India, is located in the Kārte Seh district, Kabul, also spelled Cabool, Caubul, Kabol, or Cabul. The word Kubhā is mentioned in the Rigveda, one of the four sacred texts of Hinduism, and the Avesta. The Rigveda praises it as a city, a vision of paradise set in the mountains. The area in which the Kabul valley sits was ruled by the Medes before falling to the Achaemenids, there is a reference to a settlement called Kabura by the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire, It became a center of Zoroastrianism followed by Buddhism and Hinduism. The region became part of the Seleucid Empire but was given to the Indian Maurya Empire. The Greco-Bactrians captured Kabul from the Mauryans in the early 2nd century BC, indo-Scythians expelled the Indo-Greeks by the mid 1st century BC, but lost the city to the Kushan Empire about 100 years later. Some historians ascribe Kabul the Sanskrit name of Kamboja and it is mentioned as Kophes or Kophene in some classical writings
24.
Gulbuddin Hekmatyar
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Gulbuddin Hekmatyar is an Afghan politician and warlord. He is the founder and current leader of the Hezb-e Islami political party, after escaping from prison in Afghanistan in 1973, he moved to Pakistan. When the Soviet occupation began in 1979, the CIA began funding his rapidly growing Hezb-e Islami mujahideen organization through the Pakistani ISI. Following the ouster of Afghan President Mohammad Najibullah in 1992, Hekmatyar and other warlords began a civil war, sometime after the Talibans fall in 2001 he went to Pakistan, leading his party militia to a new armed campaign against Hamid Karzais government and the international coalition in Afghanistan. He has also accused of spending more time fighting other Mujahideen than killing Soviets. In 2016, he signed a deal with the Afghan government. Gulbuddin Hekmatyar was born in 1947 in Imam Sahib District of the Kunduz province, northern Afghanistan and his father, Ghulam Qader, who migrated to Kunduz, is originally from the center of Ghazni province. From 1970 to 1972, Hekmatyar attended Kabul Universitys engineering department, though he did not complete his degree, his followers still wrongly address him as Engineer Hekmatyar. Within this moment of his life, Hekmatyar was affiliated with the rather influential Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan, in 1972 he was arrested for the murder of a rival Maoist student, Saydal Sokhandan, at Kabul University, but was released as part of an amnesty. He was released when the monarchy of Zahir Shah was overthrown by his cousin, Hekmatyars radicalism put him in confrontation with elements in the Muslim Youth surrounding Ahmad Shah Massoud, also an engineering student at Kabul University. In 1975, trying to murder a rival for the time in three years, Hekmatyar with Pakistani help tried to assassinate Massoud, then 22 years old. Akbarzadeh and Yasmeen describe Hekmatyars approach as radical and antagonistic as opposed to an inclusive, the arrival of Afghan opposition militants in Peshawar coincided with a period of diplomatic tension between Pakistan and Afghanistan, due to Daouds revival of the Pashtunistan issue. Rabbani advocated for the building of a widely based movement that would create popular support, the other movement, called Hezb-i Islami, was led by Hekmatyar, who favored a radical approach in the form of violent armed conflict. Pakistani support largely went to Hekmatyars group, who, in October 1975, without popular support, the rebellion ended in complete failure, and hundreds of militants were arrested. It had its base in the Nasir Bagh, Worsak. From 1976–1977 Afghan President Daoud made overtures to Pakistan which led to reconciliation with Pakistani leader Bhutto, bhuttos support to Hekmatyar, however, continued and when Bhutto was removed from power in Pakistan by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977, Zia continued supporting Hekmatyar. During the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Hekmatyar received large amounts of aid from Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Hekmatyar also gained the support of the British MI6 and even met Margaret Thatcher in Downing Street. According to the ISI, their decision to allocate the highest percentage of aid to Hekmatyar was based on his record as an effective anti-Soviet military commander in Afghanistan
25.
Taliban
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Until his death in 2013, Mullah Mohammed Omar was the supreme commander and spiritual leader of the Taliban. Mullah Akhtar Mansour was elected as his replacement in 2015, and following Mansours killing in a May 2016 U. S. drone strike, Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada became the groups leader. The Taliban emerged in 1994 as one of the prominent factions in the Afghan Civil War, under the leadership of Mohammed Omar, the movement spread throughout most of Afghanistan, sequestering power from the Mujahideen warlords, whose corruption and despotism Afghans had tired of. The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was established in 1996 and the Afghan capital transferred to Kandahar and it held control of most of the country until being overthrown by the American-led invasion of Afghanistan in December 2001 following the September 11 attacks. At its peak, formal recognition of the Talibans government was acknowledged by only three nations, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The group later regrouped as a movement to fight the American-backed Karzai administration. The Taliban have been condemned internationally for the enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic Sharia law. In its post-9/11 insurgency, the group has accused of using terrorism as a specific tactic to further their ideological and political goals. According to the United Nations, the Taliban and their allies were responsible for 76% of Afghan civilian casualties in 2010, 80% in 2011, Pakistan states that it dropped all support for the group after the September 11 attacks. Al-Qaeda also supported the Taliban with fighters from Arab countries and Central Asia, hundreds of thousands of people were forced to flee to United Front-controlled territory, Pakistan, and Iran. The word Taliban is Pashto, طالبان ṭālibān, meaning students and this is a loanword from Arabic طالب ṭālib, using the Persian plural ending -ān ان. In Arabic طالبان ṭālibān means not students but two students, as it is a form, the Arabic plural being طلاب ṭullāb—occasionally causing some confusion to Arabic speakers. Since becoming a loanword in English, Taliban, besides a plural noun referring to the group, has also used as a singular noun referring to an individual. For example, John Walker Lindh has been referred to as an American Taliban, in the English language newspapers of Pakistan, the word Talibans is often used when referring to more than one Taliban. The spelling Taliban has come to be predominant over Taleban in English, in the meantime, the United States and Saudi Arabia joined the struggle against the Soviet Union by providing all the funds. Zia-ul-Haq aligned himself with Pakistans Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam and later picked General Akhtar Abdur Rahman to lead the insurgency against the Soviet Union inside Afghanistan, about 90,000 Afghans, including Mohammed Omar, were trained by Pakistans ISI during the 1980s. After the fall of the Soviet-backed regime of Mohammad Najibullah in 1992, several Afghan political parties agreed on a peace and power-sharing agreement, the accord created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government for a transitional period. With the exception of Gulbuddin Hekmatyars Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties, were ostensibly unified under this government in April 1992
26.
Northern Alliance
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The United Front was assembled by key leaders of the Islamic State of Afghanistan, particularly president Burhanuddin Rabbani and former Defense Minister Ahmad Shah Massoud. Initially it included mostly Tajiks but by 2000, leaders of ethnic groups had joined the Northern Alliance. This included Abdul Rashid Dostum, Mohammad Mohaqiq, Abdul Qadir, Asif Mohseni, the Northern Alliance fought a defensive war against the Taliban government. They received support from Iran, Russia, Turkey, India, Tajikistan and others, while the Taliban were backed by al-Qaeda, the Northern Alliance was mostly made up of ethnic Tajiks, but later included Uzbeks and Hazaras. The Taliban government was dominated by Pashtuns with other groups being the minority, the US invaded Afghanistan providing support to Northern Alliance troops on the ground in a two-month war against the Taliban, which they won in December 2001. With the establishment of the Karzai administration, the Northern Alliance broke apart, the United Front was formed in late 1996 against the Taliban government by opposition factions. Massoud decided on the political line and the general military strategy of the alliance. The accords created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed a government for a transitional period to be followed by general elections. With the exception of Gulbuddin Hekmatyars Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties were unified under this government in April 1992. Hekmatyars Hezb-e Islami, for its part, refused to recognize the government for most of the period discussed in this report and launched attacks against government forces, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar received operational, financial and military support from Pakistan. Afghanistan expert Amin Saikal concludes in Modern Afghanistan, A History of Struggle and Survival, islamabad could not possibly expect the new Islamic government leaders to subordinate their own nationalist objectives in order to help Pakistan realize its regional ambitions. Had it not been for the ISIs logistic support and supply of a number of rockets, Hekmatyars forces would not have been able to target. In addition, Saudi Arabia and Iran as competitors for regional hegemony – supported Afghan militias hostile towards each other, according to Human Rights Watch, Iran was backing the Shia Hazara Hezb-i Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari in order to maximize Wahdats military power and influence. Saudi Arabia supported the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction, a publication by the George Washington University describes, utside forces saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas. Conflict between the two militias soon escalated into a full-scale war, because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over their commanders. Meanwhile, southern Afghanistan was under the control of local leaders not affiliated with the government in Kabul. In 1994, the Taliban - a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan - also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force. In late 1994, most of the factions which had been fighting in the battle for control of Kabul were defeated militarily by forces of the Islamic States Minister of Defense Ahmad Shah Massoud
27.
Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif
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The fall of Mazar-i-Sharif in November 2001 resulted from the first major offensive of the Afghanistan War after American intervention. After the fall of outlying villages, and an intensive bombardment, several hundred pro-Taliban fighters, including many Pakistani volunteers, were killed. Approximately 500 were captured, and approximately 1,000 reportedly defected, the capture of Mazar-i-Sharif was the first major defeat for the Taliban. The Taliban recaptured the city in 1997 and controlled it thereafter, in the days leading up to the battle, Northern Alliance troops advanced on population centers near the city, such as Shol Ghar, which is 25 kilometers from Mazar-i-Sharif. Phonelines into the city were severed, and American officials began reporting accounts of anti-Taliban forces charging Afghan tanks on horseback and it was seized two days later. Ethnic Hazara forces of Mohammad Mohaqiqs Hezbe Wahdat took part in the offensive, special Forces set up laser designators to serve as beacons for guided munitions, highlighting targets around the city. He claimed that with Mazar-i-Sharif on the brink of invasion, the US was responsible to ensure there were no reprisal killings of Taliban members by the Northern Alliance. He noted that when the city had been overrun, thousands had been murdered by both sides and this was one of the heaviest campaigns up to that point. Nevertheless, the Taliban claimed they had infiltrated 500 fighters into the city to prepare for the coming battle, initial rumors claimed that the Afghan fighters were unimpressed by the American bombardment and believed that their opponents refused to advance on the city. The ragtag non-uniformed Northern Alliance forces entered the city from the Balk Valley on begged, borrowed and confiscated transportation, by sunset, the Taliban forces had retreated to the north and east. Some feared that they were massing for a counter-offensive and it was later estimated that 400-600 people died in the battle, although it was not possible to separate civilian and combatant deaths. Approximately 1,500 Taliban were captured or defected, as many as 900 Pakistani volunteers reached Mazar-i-Sharif in the following days while the majority of the Taliban were evacuating. Many of these fighters were recruited by a Pakistani Mullah, Sufi Mohammed and those who go on jihad live forever, in paradise. When these volunteers reached the city in the days when the Taliban were evacuating, many of them were alone and confused. The group, chiefly consisting of boys, gathered in the Sultan Razia Girls School, where they began negotiating their surrender. All the while they fired at anyone who moved within the vicinity of the building, including civilian bystanders. After the envoys murder, the Northern Alliance began returning fire on the school with machine guns and this gun battle went on for hours. Inside the battered school, someone scrawled on the walls the words of their mullah, Die for Pakistan, Never surrender, at mid-afternoon, U. S. military advisers approved the building for a bombing run
28.
Hamid Karzai
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Hamid Karzai /ˈhæmᵻd ˈkɑːrˌzaɪ/ served as President of Afghanistan for almost ten years, from 7 December 2004 to 29 September 2014. He comes from an active family, Karzais father, uncle and grandfather were all active in Afghan politics. Karzai and his father before him, Abdul Ahad Karzai, were each head of the Popalzai tribe of the Durrani tribal confederation, in the 1980s Karzai was active as a fundraiser for the mujahideen who were fighting to expel Soviet Army troops during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. After the Soviet withdrawal, the Islamic State of Afghanistan was established and then it was replaced in 1996 when the Taliban came to power, in July 1999 Karzais father was assassinated and Karzai succeeded him as head of the Popalzai tribe. In October 2001 the US invasion of Afghanistan began and Karzai became a dominant political figure after the removal of the Taliban regime in late 2001 and he was then chosen for a two-year term as Interim President during the 2002 loya jirga that was held in Kabul, Afghanistan. After the 2004 presidential election, Karzai was declared winner and became President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and he won a second five-year term in the 2009 presidential election, this term ended in September 2014. Karzai was born on 24 December 1957 in the Karz area of Kandahar City in southern Afghanistan and he is an ethnic Pashtun of the Popalzai tribe. His father, Abdul Ahad Karzai, served as the Deputy Speaker of the Parliament during the 1960s and his grandfather, Khair Mohammad Khan, had fought in the 1919 Third Anglo-Afghan War and was the Deputy Speaker of the Senate. Karzais family were supporters of Zahir Shah, the last king of Afghanistan. Hamid Karzai attended Mahmood Hotaki Primary School in Kandahar and Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani School in Kabul and he graduated from Habibia High School in 1976. He obtained his masters degree in 1983, after the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Karzai moved to neighboring Pakistan to work as a fundraiser for the anti-communist mujahideen during the 1980s Soviet war in Afghanistan. The mujahideen were backed by the United States, Pakistan, following the withdrawal of Soviet forces, Hamid Karzai returned to Afghanistan in early October 1988 to assist in the mujahideen victory in Tarinkot. He assisted in rallying Popalzai and other Durrani tribes to oust the regime from the city as well as helped negotiate the defection of five hundred of Mohammad Najibullahs forces, Karzai accompanied the first mujahideen leaders into Kabul after President Najibullah stepped down in 1992. He served as Deputy Foreign Minister in the government of Burhanuddin Rabbani, Karzai was, however, arrested by Mohammad Fahim on charges of spying for Gulbuddin Hekmatyar in what Karzai claimed was an effort to mediate between Hekmatyars forces and Rabbanis government. Karzai fled from Kabul in a provided by Hekmatyar and driven by Gul Rahman. When the Taliban emerged in the mid-1990s, Karzai initially recognized them as a government because he thought that they would stop the violence. He was requested by the Taliban to serve as their ambassador but he refused and he lived in the Pakistani city of Quetta among the Afghan refugees, where he worked to reinstate former Afghan King Zahir Shah. In July 1999, Karzais father, Abdul Ahad Karzai, was gunned down early in the morning while coming home from a mosque in the city of Quetta, reports suggest that the Taliban carried out the assassination
29.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
30.
National Front of Afghanistan
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The National Front of Afghanistan or Jabh-e Melli was established in late 2011 by Ahmad Zia Massoud, Haji Mohammad Mohaqiq and Abdul Rashid Dostum. It is generally regarded as a reformation of parts of the wing of the United Front which with U. S. air support removed the Taliban from power in Afghanistan in late 2001. The National Front strongly opposes a return of the Taliban to power, the chairman of the National Front is Ahmad Zia Massoud, the younger brother of the Northern Alliance leader Ahmad Shah Massoud who was assassinated two days before the September 11 attacks in 2001. Many of its members are connected and organised within this political party. In January 2012, the National Front raised concerns about the possibility of a secretive, the Afghan people deserve and need a parliamentary form of democracy instead of a personality-centered Presidential system. We firmly believe that any negotiation with the Taliban can only be acceptable, the present form of discussions with the Taliban is flawed, as it excludes anti-Taliban Afghans. The present negotiations with the Taliban fail to take account the risks, sacrifices. We also support the election of Governors and empowerment of provincial councils, the Asia Times writes, This is the first time that the leadership of the Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara communities has come to a common line of thinking. In essence, the Northern Alliance is being resuscitated as a political entity and their strong show of unity in Berlin suggests that they will not roll over and give way to an exclusive US-Taliban-Pakistan settlement being imposed on their nation. Besides incorporating the political parties of the leaders, the National Front works in coordination with different Afghan political parties. The National Front has held major political rallies across different provinces in Afghanistan and these rallies were attended by thousands of Afghan citizens. The National Front announced it would have a candidate running for the elections in 2014 and emphasized the need for a transparent
31.
Ahmad Zia Massoud
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Ahmad Zia Massoud was the Vice President of Afghanistan in the first elected administration of President Hamid Karzai, from December 2004 to November 2009. He is a brother of the late Ahmad Shah Massoud. In late 2011, Ahmad Zia Massoud joined hands with major leaders in the National Front of Afghanistan, the National Front is generally regarded as a reformation of the United Front which with U. S. air support removed the Taliban from power in late 2001. Ahmad Zia Massoud was born on May 1,1956, in Muqur and he attended the Lycée Esteqlal in Kabul. In 1976, he was admitted to the Polytechnical University of Kabul where he studied for three years, from 1978 to 1981, Ahmad Zia directed the resistance forces of Paryan in Haut-Panjsher. During this period he maintained and increased contacts with leaders of all the Afghan resistance movement, including diplomatic circles. He also traveled abroad to make the case for the mujahideen, after the fall of the Soviet-backed communist regime, Burhanuddin Rabbani, his father-in-law, chose him to be an advisor and special representative of the Islamic State of Afghanistan. The Taliban eventually took power in Kabul and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, Ahmad Zia Massoud joined the anti-Taliban United Islamic Front led by his brother Ahmad Shah Massoud. In December 2001, after the fall of the Taliban regime, in February 2004 Ahmad Zias functions were extended to include the Republic of Armenia, and then in July of that year, Belarus, and Moldova as well. He is the First Deputy of Zalmai Rassoul in Afghanistan Presidential elections of 2014, on July 26,2004, Karzai announced that he had chosen Ahmad Zia Massoud as his running mate over Defense Minister Mohammad Qasim Fahim in the October 9,2004 presidential elections. While campaigning in the 2004 elections a bomb was detonated at a rally of Massoud in the northern Afghan city of Feyzabad. Two people were killed but Massoud emerged unscathed, after several political disputes between Ahmad Zia Massoud and Hamid Karzai, the two men parted ways. In the 2009 presidential elections Karzai ran on a ticket with Mohammad Qasim Fahim instead. In December 2009 another bomb blast is believed to have targeted Ahmad Zia Massoud and he emerged unharmed while 8 people were killed and 40 wounded. In late 2011, Ahmad Zia Massoud united major political leaders in the National Front of Afghanistan. The National Front retains significant military capabilities, the Afghan people deserve and need a parliamentary form of democracy instead of a personality-centered Presidential system. We firmly believe that any negotiation with the Taliban can only be acceptable, the present form of discussions with the Taliban is flawed, as it excludes anti-Taliban Afghans. The present negotiations with the Taliban fail to take account the risks, sacrifices
32.
Mohammad Mohaqiq
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Mohammad Mohaqiq is a politician in Afghanistan, serving as a member of the Afghan Parliament. He is also the founder and chairman of the Peoples Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan, during the 1980s, he served with the mujahideen rebel forces fighting against the Soviet-backed Afghan government. After the withdrawal of the Soviet Union in 1989, Mohaqiq was appointed as the leader of the Hezb-e Wahdat for northern Afghanistan, mohaqeq was born in 1955 and hails from Mazar-e-Sharif in Balkh Province. He is an ethnic Hazara, the son of Sarwar and he holds a bachelors degree in Islamic studies from Iran. Mohaqiq speaks Persian, Uzbeki and Arabic and he has been involved in mujahideen activities after the April 1978 Saur Revolution. During the Afghan civil war in the early 1990s, he was regarded as a prominent leader fighting for his Hazara people, in the late 1990s, Mohaqiq joined the Northern Alliance in their resistance and struggle against the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. After the fall of the Taliban, he was appointed as the Vice President, Mohaqiq ran as a candidate in the 2004 Afghan presidential election. He came in place with 11. 7% of the votes after Hamid Karzai. A January 2009 article by Ahmad Majidyar of the American Enterprise Institute included Mohaqiq on a list of fifteen candidates in the 2009 Afghan presidential election. In the end, however, Mohaqiq opted to support President Karzai against his main challenger Abdullah Abdullah in the election, in 2010, Mohaqiq stopped supporting President Karzai because of Karzais policy of appeasement towards the Taliban insurgents. In late 2011, Mohaqiq, Ahmad Zia Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum created the National Front of Afghanistan
33.
Hamid Karzai International Airport
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Hamid Karzai International Airport, is located 5 kilometers from the city center of Kabul in Afghanistan. It serves as one of the main international airports and as one of the largest military bases. The airport was given the new name in 2014 in honor of former President Hamid Karzai, the decision was made by the National Assembly of Afghanistan and the Cabinet of President Ashraf Ghani. It was previously named Kabul International Airport, the airport has been expanded and modernized in the last decade. A new international terminal was added and the terminal is now used for domestic flights. A number of bases were also built around the airport. The military of Afghanistan also has a base there, while the Afghan National Police provide security inside the passenger terminals. As of June 2016 the most frequently serviced destination from the airport was Dubai-International with no less than four passenger airlines flying the route, Kabul Airport was originally built in the early 1960s by Soviet engineers. Around this time in history, Afghanistan was becoming a modernized nation, many tourists from places such as North America, Europe, India and the Soviet Union started flocking to the country via Kabul International Airport. This era ended after the 1978 Saur Revolution, especially after the 1979 Soviet invasion, the airport was used by the Soviet Army during the Soviet War in Afghanistan, from 1979 to 1989. It was also used by the forces of the former President of Afghanistan, Mohammad Najibullah. By November 1996, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan governed by Mullah Muhammad Omar was in possession of the airport, due to international sanctions during the Taliban government, the airport was closed in the late 1990s, with very limited international flights. Following NATOs invasion of Afghanistan after the September 11,2001 attacks, Kabul International Airport was bombed by United States, after the International Security Assistance Force took over control, the airport began to be developed slowly over the years. A new radar system was installed in 2005, which was upgraded by the U. S. Federal Aviation Administration in 2010, a new $35 million terminal for international flights was added in 2009. Afghan President Hamid Karzai and other high-profile figures attended the inauguration ceremony, the new terminal was officially opened to international flights in June 2009. The existing terminal has been refurbished and is currently being used for domestic flights, passenger movements reached 100,000 per year by 2010 or 300 per day. In early 2012, the system was strengthened to cover Afghanistans entire air space. The construction work for a new runway began on 23 May 2012 at Kabul International Airport
34.
Natural gas field
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Natural gas originates by the same geological thermal cracking process that converts kerogen to petroleum. As a consequence, oil and natural gas are found together. In common usage, deposits rich in oil are known as oil fields, in general, organic sediments buried in depths of 1,000 m to 6,000 m generate oil, while sediments buried deeper and at higher temperatures generate natural gas. The deeper the source, the drier the gas, because both oil and natural gas are lighter than water, they tend to rise from their sources until they either seep to the surface or are trapped by a non-permeable stratigraphic trap. They can be extracted from the trap by drilling, the largest natural gas field is South Pars/Asalouyeh gas field, which is shared between Iran and Qatar. The second largest natural gas field is the Urengoy gas field in Russia, the gas field Haynesville Shale in Louisiana-Texas has been projected bigger than South Pars, but since this is a new well its size has not yet been officially recorded. Rising gas prices have encouraged drillers to revisit fields that, until now, were not considered economically viable, for example, McMoran Exploration has passed a drilling depth of over 32,000 feet at the Blackbeard site in the Gulf of Mexico. Exxon Mobils drill rig there had reached 30,000 feet by 2006 without finding gas, nontechnical guide to petroleum geology, exploration, drilling, and production. ISBN 0-87814-823-X Atlas of Gulf of Mexico Gas and Oil Sands
35.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
36.
Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
Afghanistan
listen) AHB-dəl rə-SHEED dohs-TOOM; Dari: عبدالرشید دوستم, Uzbek Latin: Abdul Rashid Do‘stum, Uzbek Cyrillic: Абдул Рашид Дўстум; born 1954) is an Afghan politician and general who has served as Vice President of Afghanistan since 2014. An ethnic Uzbek, he is a former communist general and warlord known for siding with winners during different wars in Afghanistan.[2] He is the chairman of his own political party, Junbish-e Milli (National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan).
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