1.
President of Indonesia
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The President of the Republic of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Indonesia. The President leads the executive branch of the Indonesian government and is the commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, on 20 October 2014, Joko Widodo became the 7th and current President of Indonesia. The Indonesian presidency was established during the formulation of the 1945 Constitution by the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence, on 16 October 1945, Vice-President Mohammad Hatta announced a vice-presidential decree which turned the Central National Committee of Indonesia equal status with that of the president. On 11 November 1945, the KNIP made the decision to separate the role of Head of State with that of Head of Government, during the Indonesian National Revolution, both Sukarno and Hatta were captured by the Dutch in Yogyakarta on 18 December 1948. Sukarno then gave a mandate for Sjafruddin Prawiranegara to form an emergency Government and this was done and the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia was formed in Sumatra with Prawiranegara as its Chairman. Prawiranegara handed back his mandate to Sukarno on 13 July 1949, on 17 December 1949, Sukarno was elected president of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia and presidential mandate passed to Assaat. When it became clear that RIS was going to be replaced by a state, Asaat stepped down from the presidency. Indonesia now adopted the constitution that had been intended for RIS, officially known as the Provisional Constitution, the document confirmed the presidents role as the Head of State, but limited him to a mostly ceremonial role. He appointed a Prime Minister on the advice of formateurs, despite his limited constitutional role, Sukarno commanded great moral authority. Nonetheless, he was never content with the role of ceremonial Head of State, the rest of the decade saw a series of unstable governments. Taking advantage of the situation, Sukarno made a speech in April 1959, the People reacted enthusiastically and there was strong pressure on the Constituante, the body responsible for formulating a new constitution, to adopt the 1945 Constitution. When the Constituante did not budge, Sukarno issued a Presidential Decree on 5 July 1959 declaring that Indonesia was returning to the 1945 Constitution and that document made the president head of government as well as head of state. In 1963, Sukarno declared himself president for Life, although Indonesia had re-adopted the 1945 Constitution, it did not mean that it was strictly adhered to. The MPR, which at this stage was still on a basis, was subservient to the president despite its status of the Nations highest Governing Body. It was only in 1966, when the tide began to turn against Sukarno that the MPRS nominally regained its rightful constitutional status. All throughout his rise to power, General Suharto seemed determined to do things constitutionally, Suharto allowed the MPR to execute its constitutional duty of formulating the Broad Outlines of State Policy whilst he as the president would be responsible for implementing GBHN. Suharto also made it an obligation to deliver accountability speeches towards the end of his terms. During the speech, Suharto outlined the achievements that his administration had made, despite the constitutional and democratic façade, Suharto made sure that the MPR was also subservient to him
2.
Vice President of Indonesia
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The Vice-President of the Republic of Indonesia is the first in the line of succession in the Republic of Indonesia. The Indonesian Vice Presidency was established during the formulation of the 1945 constitution by the Researching Body for the Preparation of the Indonesian Independence, the office was first filled on 18 August 1945 when Mohammad Hatta was elected by acclamation. In the early days of the Republic, the office of Vice-President showed how important it can be, on 16 October 1945, Hatta announced a Vice-Presidential decree which turned the Central National Committee of Indonesia equal status with that of the President. As a result of decree, the KNIP was able to separate the role of Head of State. Although a new constitution had not been set up yet, Indonesia was now a de facto Parliamentary Democracy, during the Indonesian National Revolution, both Hatta and Sukarno were captured by the Dutch in Yogyakarta on 18 December 1948. Together with Sukarno, Hatta gave mandate for Syafruddin Prawiranegara to form an emergency Government and this was done and the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia was formed in Sumatra with Prawiranegara as Chairman. Prawiranegara handed back his mandate to Sukarno and consequently, to Hatta on 13 July 1949, although the Vice Presidency continued to exist, the form of Government was now officially a Parliamentary Democracy and there was not a significant role for the Vice-President to play. On 1 December 1956, partly because of his differences with Sukarno, for the next 17 years, the Vice Presidency remain vacant. In December 1965, there were calls for a Vice-President to be named to assist President Sukarno during the times of uncertainty, the idea did not gain momentum and the Vice Presidency continued to remain vacant as the Presidency passed over from Sukarno to General Suharto. In March 1973, the Vice Presidency vacancy was filled by Hamengkubuwono IX when he was elected by the MPR, after Hamengkubuwono IX and throughout the New Order, the Vice Presidency were successively held by Adam Malik, Umar Wirahadikusumah, Sudharmono, Try Sutrisno, and BJ Habibie. During his time as President, Suharto would reduce the Vice Presidency to a sinecure, a Vice-President was reduced to making sure that Government policy was being implemented and attending ceremonies. The Vice-President did not even take on Presidential duties when Suharto was either out of the country or ill, the office would derogatorily be known as Ban Serep. With Suhartos fall in May 1998 and Habibies accession to the Presidency, in October 1999, Megawati Sukarnoputri was elected as Vice-President and the office began to gain significance. Megawati was delegated genuine tasks to do and in 2000, she became responsible for the day-to-day running of the Government. During the 2001 MPR Annual Session, it was decided that from 2004 onwards. The substantial role that the Vice Presidency is now going to have was evident in the way in which the 2004 Presidential Candidates chose their running mates, at the end, Jusuf Kalla became Indonesias first directly elected Vice-President. The 1945 Constitution, The Vice-Presidential candidate has to be of Indonesian origins, the Provisional Constitution, The Vice-Presidential candidate has to be an Indonesian citizen aged at least 30 years old. He cannot be someone who is deemed to be undesirable or has had his right to part in elections stripped
3.
Megawati Sukarnoputri
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Megawati is the leader of the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, one of Indonesias largest political parties. She is the daughter of Indonesias first president, Sukarno, Megawati has been Indonesias only female president and the sixth woman to lead a Muslim-majority country. She is also the first Indonesian leader to be born after Indonesia proclaimed independence, after serving as vice-president to Abdurrahman Wahid, Megawati became president when Wahid was removed from office in 2001. She ran for re-election in the 2004 presidential election, but was defeated by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and she sought a rematch in the 2009 presidential election, losing again to Yudhoyono. Megawati was born in Yogyakarta to Sukarno, who had declared Indonesias independence from the Netherlands in 1945 and Fatmawati, Megawati was Sukarnos second child and first daughter. She grew up in her fathers Merdeka Palace and she danced for her fathers guests and developed a gardening hobby. Megawati was 19 when her father relinquished power in 1966 and was succeeded by a government which came to be led by President Suharto. Sukarnos family was pushed into the background by the new government, Megawati attended Padjadjaran University in Bandung to study agriculture but dropped out in 1967 to be with her father following his fall. In 1970, the year her father died, Megawati went to the University of Indonesia to study psychology and she is a practising Muslim but also follows traditional Javanese beliefs. Sukarnoputri is a patronymic, not a name, Javanese often do not have family names. She is often referred to as simply Megawati or Mega, derived from Sanskrit meaning cloud goddess, in a speech to the students of the Sri Sathya Sai Primary School, she mentioned that Biju Patnaik, former Chief minister of Odisha, India, named her at Sukarnos request. In 1986, Suharto gave the status of Proclamation Hero to Sukarno in a ceremony attended by Megawati, Suhartos acknowledgment enabled the Indonesian Democratic Party, a government-sanctioned party, to campaign on Sukarno nostalgia in the lead-up to the 1987 legislative elections. Up to that time, Megawati had seen herself as a housewife, PDI accepted Megawati to boost their own image. Megawati quickly became popular, her status as Sukarnos daughter offsetting her lack of oratorical skills, although PDI came last in the elections, Megawati was elected to the DPR. Like all members of the DPR she also became a member of the Peoples Consultative Assembly, Megawati was not reelected, but continued as a PDI member. In December 1993, PDI held a National Congress, as was always the case when New Order opposition parties held their congresses, the Government actively interfered. As the Congress approached, three individuals contended for the Chair of PDI, the incumbent, Suryadi, had become critical of the Government. The second was Budi Harjono a Government-friendly figure whom the Government backed and her candidacy received such overwhelming support that her election at the Congress became a formality
4.
B. J. Habibie
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Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie pronunciation is an Indonesian engineer who was President of Indonesia from 1998 to 1999. He succeeded Suharto, who resigned in 1998 and his presidency is seen as a transition to the post-Suharto era. Upon becoming president, he liberalized Indonesias press and political party laws, and held an early election in 1999. His presidency was the third, and the shortest, after independence, Habibie was born in Parepare, South Sulawesi Province to Alwi Abdul Jalil Habibie and R. A. Tuti Marini Puspowardojo. His father was an agriculturist from Gorontalo descent and his mother was a Javanese noblewoman from Yogyakarta and his parents met while studying in Bogor. Habibies father died when he was 14 years old, in 1960, Habibie received a engineers degree in Germany with the title Diplom-Ingenieur. He remained in Germany as an assistant under Hans Ebner at the Lehrstuhl und Institut für Leichtbau. In 1962, Habibie returned to Indonesia for three months on sick leave, during this time, he was reacquainted with Hasri Ainun, the daughter of R. Mohamad Besari. Habibie had known Hasri Ainun in childhood, junior school and in senior high school at SMA Kristen Dago. The two married on 12 May 1962, returning to Germany shortly afterwards, Habibie and his wife settled in Aachen for a short period before moving to Oberforstbach. In May 1963 they had a son, Ilham Akbar Habibie, when Habibies minimum wage salary forced him into part-time work, he found employment with the automotive marque Talbot, where he became an advisor. Habibie worked on two projects received funding from Deutsche Bundesbahn. Due to his work with Makosh, the head of train constructions offered his position to Habibie upon retirement three years later, but Habibie refused. In 1965, Habibie delivered his thesis in engineering and received the grade of very good for his dissertation. During the same year, he accepted Hans Ebners offer to continue his research on Thermoelastisitas and work toward his Habilitation and his thesis about light construction for supersonic or hypersonic states also attracted offers of employment from companies such as Boeing and Airbus, which Habibie again declined. Habibie did accept a position with Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm in Hamburg, there, he developed theories on thermodynamics, construction, and aerodynamics known as the Habibie Factor, Habibie Theorem, and Habibie Method, respectively. He worked for Messerschmit on the development of the Airbus A-300B aircraft, in 1974, he was promoted to vice president of the company. In 1974, Suharto recruited Habibie to return to Indonesia as part of Suhartos drive to industrialize, Habibie initially served as a special assistant to Ibnu Sutowo, the CEO of state oil company Pertamina
5.
Jombang Regency
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Jombang Regency is a regency of East Java, Indonesia, situated to the southwest of Surabaya. The capital of the regency is the town of Jombang, the regency has an area of 1,159.09 km² and population of 1,202,407 at the 2010 Census, the latest official estimate is 1,236,184. It became a regency in 1910, the regency is divided into 21 districts. Jombang Regency located between 5. 20° -5. 30° E and 7.20 -7.45 S with an area of 115,950 Ha or about 2. 4% area of East Java. Its 500 meters above sea level with the rainfall about 1750 –2500 mm per year and this regency has a tropical climate, consist of two season. The wet season runs from November to June, while the dry season runs from July to October
6.
East Java
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East Java is a province of Indonesia. Its capital is Surabaya, the second largest city in Indonesia, the Dinoyo inscriptions found near the city of Malang is the oldest written sources in East Java, written in the year AD760. This inscription tells many political and cultural events in the Kingdom of Dinoyo, Malang name itself is estimated to come from the name of a sacred building called Malangkuseswara. This name is contained in at least one inscription, namely, in 1222, Ken Arok founded the Kingdom of Singhasari. He ruled the kingdom until 1292, before coming to power, Ken Arok seize power in Tumapel, Kediri from Tungul Ametung. Ken Arok dynastys descendants became kings of Singhasari and Majapahit in the 13th century until the 15th century, in 1227, Anusapati kill Ken Arok. Anusapati power only lasted 20 years, three years later, Tohjaya killed in the uprising led by Jaya Wisnuwardhana, son of Anusapati. In 1268, Wisnuwardhana died, his throne as the king of Singasari was replaced by Kertanegara, in 1292 knowledge, Kertanegara defeated by a rebel named Jayakatwang, it ended Kertanegara power, ending the history of Singhasari. In 1294, the Kingdom of Majapahit was founded, Majapahit reached its peak during the reign of Hayam Wuruk. He was accompanied by the mahapatih Gajah Mada, together they managed to unite the vast territory under the name Dwipantara. In 1357, the Bubat event occurred, the war between the King of Sunda and the Majapahit Patih Gajah Mada and this event stems from the desire to take the king Hayam Wuruk Sundanese princess named Dyah Pitaloka as queen. However, because of a misunderstanding about the procedure of marriage, Majapahit troops, under the command of Gajah Mada conquered Pajajaran in the Bubat war. This era is the beginning of the collapse of Majapahit, one of them due to their disappointment Hayam Wuruk other children, namely Wirabumi. After that period, began the spread of Islam in Java, other developments, the Europeans started coming to the archipelago and trying to build strength. In the end they implement colonialism, at the beginning of the 20th century, the royal government system was abolished, replaced by a system of residency. During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, there is persistent resistance against the Japanese rule, in Blitar, an uprising by PETA occurred in early 1945. The uprising was led by Supriyadi, Moeradi, Halir Mangkudijoyo, although at the end the uprising was crushed by the Japanese, the uprising is able to rekindle the spirit of rebellion for independence to the entire people of East Java. Two weeks after the proclamation of independence, Surabaya has established its own government in shape of a resident, the first resident is R. Sudirman
7.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
8.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
9.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
10.
National Awakening Party
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The National Awakening Party is a moderate Islamic and a conservative political party in Indonesia. The party is led by Muhaimin Iskandar, the PKB was established on May 11,1998. The Kyai, held a meeting at Pesantren Langitan to discuss several problems facing Indonesia deemed as critical and they developed an official statement, which Kyai members Muchid Muzadi of Jember and Gus Yusuf Muhammad, were sent to deliver to Soeharto, the. Before they were able to deliver the statement, however, Soeharto resigned on May 23,1998, on May 30,1998, the Kyai held a grand Istighosah in the office of the East Java Nahdlatul Ulama. The meeting resulted in KH Cholil Bisri being urged to form a party based on the NUs political aspirations, after initially resisting their request, due to his desire to continue his work with boarding schools, Bisri eventually relented and accepted the leadership role. A week later, on June 6, Bisri met the Kyai in order to discuss the formation of the new party. Invitations had been sent via telephone, and more than 200 Kyai attended the meeting and this meeting resulted in the formation of the Standing Committee, consisting of 11 people, with Bisri as chairman and Gus Yus as secretary. In turn, this worked in a marathon session, preparing a platform and party components. The logos were created by KH A. Mustofa Bisri, the Standing Committee and representatives of the NU held a major conference in Bandung, on July 4,1998, which was attended by 27 regional representatives. In a discussion regarding the name of the organization, the names were the National Awakening Party, the Party Kebangkitan Nahdlatul Ummah. The name chosen was Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa meaning National Awakening Party, the 72 founders signed the Party’s Platform and its components. Subsequent to this, however, the PBNU decided that five people could become the party’s declaratory. Those five were Kyai Munasir Ali, Kyai Ilyas Ruchiyat, Kyai Muchid Muzadi, KH A. Mustofa Bisri and KH Abddurahman Wahid, the 72 names of the party’s original declaratory were erased by the PBNU. The partys base of support is strongest in Java Island and draws from the constituency that formerly supported the conservative Muslim organization NU. The PKB differs from Nahdlatul Ulama in that while it supports a role for Islam in government, the National Awakening Party stood in the 1999 elections, winning 13 percent of the votes. In the 2004 elections, the party gained 10. 57% of votes and 52 seats in the Peoples Representative Council, however, the party won only 4.9 percent of the votes in the 2009 legislative election, and 27 seats in the legislature
11.
Yenny Wahid
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Zannuba Ariffah Chafsoh Rahman Wahid, or more popularly known as Yenny Wahid is an Indonesian Islamic activist and politician. She is currently the direction of the The Wahid Institute, an Islamic research center founded by her father and she is the second daughter of the late President of Indonesia Abdurrahman Wahid. As a journalist, she covered stories from East Timor. For her stories in post-referendum East Timor, she and her team won a Walkley Award for journalism. When her father was elected as the countrys fourth President, she had to leave her career in journalism in order to assist her father in his new post, upon Wahids impeachment, she went to pursue a masters degree in Harvards Kennedy School of Government as Mason Fellow. She is also involved in the National Awakening Party as Secretary General. She is married to Dhohir Farisi
12.
Wahid Hasyim
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Abdul Wahid Hasyim was the first Minister of Religious Affairs in the government of President Sukarno of Indonesia, a post he held in 1945, and from 1949 to 1952. He was the son of Nahdlatul Ulama founder Hasyim Asyari and went on to lead the organization, in the future his son, Abdurrahman Wahid, also held the same office in NU, and later was elected as President of Indonesia in 1999. Abdurrahman Wahid, President of the Republic of Indonesia
13.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
14.
Karachi Grammar School
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Karachi Grammar School is an independent, English-medium school in Saddar, Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. It is a selective, coeducational day school serving approximately 2,400 students aged between three and nineteen years. Karachi Grammar School was founded as the best Anglo-Indian School in 1847 and it remained the only non-native school in the town until the founding of St Patricks High School was founded in 1861, followed by St. Josephs Convent School, Karachi in 1862 and Manora School in 1866. It was the newly appointed managing committee decided to purchase the Mess House of Her Majestys 64th Regiment at No.24 Depot Lines. The reorganized school was opened on 1 November 1854 as The Kurrachee European and Indo-European School. The school continued on its course with a small student body of around 40 children. Streeton, then Chaplain of Karachi and Hon. Streeton raised Rs,47,918, which enabled his plan to go ahead. Captain Thomas F Dowden of the Royal Bombay Engineers was commissioned to make the drawings for the new building. The new school building was opened for boarders on 27 February 1875 by Sir William Merewether, the roll of children was 75 in 1875 and 90 children in 1876 with six teachers, implying a pupil-teacher ratio of 15,1. During the following years, the school flourished and it was endowed with a library in memory of a local doctor. In 1879, the school was renamed from The Kurrachee European and Indo-European School to Karachi Grammar School, Taylor opened his own school named Taylor High School. In 1902 Taylor returned along with the pupils from his private school, during the next three years the school improved academically, however, it struggled financially, barely affording the employees. In 1910 the school received a grant of Rs.2000, in 1912, Bernard Tobin was the first pupil to take, and pass, the Cambridge School Certificate Examination. Additionally, this marked the first scouts enrolled from the school. Towards the end of 1914, construction began on the third storey of the school, and students were taught in a building on Mereweather Road. The total count of students had reached 151, Karachi Grammar School gives its students 15 years of education on its three different sites. Children spend three years in Classes 7–9 in the Middle School located on the Old Saddar site, on the senior level, KGS is geared towards preparing students for GCE Ordinary Level, Advanced Subsidiary Level, and Advanced Level examinations. The senior section or the College Section is also located in Clifton, in the Junior Section, extra-curricular activities available include sports, music, swimming, a school choir, scouts and girl guides, community service, etc
15.
Al-Azhar University
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Al-Azhar University is a university in Cairo, Egypt. Associated with Al-Azhar Mosque in Islamic Cairo, it is Egypts oldest degree-granting university and is renowned as Sunni Islam’s most prestigious university, in addition to higher education, Al-Azhar oversees a national network of schools with approximately two million students. As of 1996, over 4000 teaching institutes in Egypt were affiliated with the University and it was one of the first universities in the world, and the only one in the Arabic world to survive as a modern university including secular subjects in the curriculum. Today it is the centre of Arabic literature and Islamic learning in the world. In 1961 additional non-religious subjects were added to its curriculum and its mission is to propagate Islam and Islamic culture. To this end, its Islamic scholars render edicts on disputes submitted to them all over the Sunni Islamic world regarding proper conduct for Muslim individuals. Al-Azhar also trains Egyptian government-appointed preachers in proselytization and its library is considered second in importance in Egypt only to the Egyptian National Library and Archives. Fatimah, was called Al-Zahra, and it was named in her honor and it was founded as mosque by the Fatimid commander Jawhar at the orders of the Caliph and Ismaili Imam Al-Muizz as he founded the city for Cairo. It was in Jamadi al-Awwal in the year 359 A. H and its building was completed on the 9th of Ramadan in the year 361 A. H. Both Al-Aziz Billah and Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah added to its premises and it was further repaired, renovated and extended by Al-Mustansir Billah and Al-Hafiz Li-Din-illah. Studies began at Al-Azhar in the month of Ramadan,975, according to Syed Farid Alatas, the Jamiah had faculties in Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, Islamic philosophy, and logic. The Fatimids gave attention to the studies at the time when rulers in other countries declared those who were engaged in philosophical pursuits as apostates. The Greek thought found a reception with the Fatimids who expanded the boundaries of such studies. They paid much attention to philosophy and gave support to everyone who was known for being engaged in the study of any branch of philosophy and these books were destroyed by Salah-ud-Din Ayyubi. An Islamic womens faculty was added in the same year. Al-Azhar has a membership that represents the schools of Al-Ashari and Al-Maturidi, the four schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence. Al-Azhar has had a relationship with Wahhabism and Salafism. Although al-Azhar is not monolithic, its identity has been associated with Sufism
16.
Islamic studies
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Islamic studies is the academic study of Islam and Islamic culture. Islamic studies can be seen under at least two perspectives, From a secular or neutral point of view, Islamic studies do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture independent of faith. In this respect, Islamic studies neither engage in shaping Muslim faith by making Islamic theology, from a Muslim point of view, Islamic studies also do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture, but from a faithful perspective. Historically, both perspectives had been separated by the separation of the Western and Islamic worlds. They differed in their understanding of academia and were organized either in universities or madrasas, scholars of Islamic studies are called by their special field of study, as e. g. historian, sociologist, or political scientist, or in general a scholar of Islamic studies. The professional title Islamicist is dated, scholars of Islamic studies from a faithful point of view can be historians etc. too, yet they also can be called Muslim scholar, teacher of religion, cleric, or Ulama. In a Muslim context, Islamic studies is the term for the Islamic sciences. Specialists in the discipline apply methods adapted from several fields, ranging from Biblical studies and classical philology to modern history, legal history. Scholars in the field of academic Islamic studies are often referred to as Islamicists, in fact, some of the more traditional Western universities still confer degrees in Arabic and Islamic studies under the primary title of Oriental studies. This is the case, for example, at the University of Oxford, the first attempt to understand Islam as a topic of modern scholarship was within the context of 19th-century Christian European Oriental studies. Some orientalists praised the tolerance of Islamic countries in contrast with the Christian West. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, philological and historical approaches were predominant, leading in the field were German researchers like Theodore Nöldeke s study on the history of the Quran, or Ignaz Goldziher s work on the prophetic tradition. Western orientalists and Muslim scholars alike preferred to interpret the history of Islam in a conservative way and they did not question the traditional account of the early time of Islam, of Muhammad and how the Quran was written. To understand the history of Islam provides the basis to understand all aspects of Islam. Themes of special interest are, Historiography of early Islam History of the Quran Historicity of Muhammad Early Muslim conquests Kalam is one of the sciences of Islam. In Arabic, the word means discussion and refers to the Islamic tradition of seeking theological principles through dialectic, a scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim. Islamic eschatology Sufism is a tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart. It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism, while other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love
17.
University of Baghdad
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The University of Baghdad is the largest university in Iraq and the second largest Arab university, behind the University of Cairo. The building is constructed by an Indian based construction company NBCC, both University of Baghdad and Baghdad University are used interchangeably. The College of Islamic Sciences claims that it originated in 1067 A. D. as Abu-Haneefa, however, the College of Law, the earliest of the modern institutions that were to become the first constituent Colleges of the University of Baghdad, was founded in 1908. In 1942, the first higher institution for girls, Queen Alia College, was established. In 1943, proposals for further new Colleges appeared, leading to the foundation of the College of Arts and the College of Science in 1949, and Abu Ghraib College of Agriculture in 1950. In 1922, a scheme had been initiated by the King for the organisation of a university at Bab al-Mu’azzam, nonetheless, a start was made on the creation of the university with the building of the Theological College. In January 1925, however, the Engineering School was transferred to the vacant upper floor of the Theological College building. In 1935, the Monroe Commission had argued that Iraq was not ready for a university, then the ‘Morgan Report’ was prepared for the Iraqi government in 1947 by a senior member of the British Council’s staff. In 1948, however, the British Council’s proposals were rejected in favour of a plan drawn up by the Ministry, but no action followed. In May 1953, the British Council sponsored a visit to Baghdad by a group of British university professors to give encouragement, once again. However, the first university in the country, Al-Hikma University, was founded by the American Roman Catholic Fathers in 1956. In the same year, the government announced plans to amalgamate the existing state funded Colleges and its first President was appointed by Royal decree in 1957, and it commenced operations in 1958. Following the Ba’athist coup, in autumn 1968, Al Hikma University was taken over by the state, a new university campus was commissioned by the Royal Government of Iraq in the late 1950s and situated near the Tigris river. The campus was expanded in 1982 to accommodate 20,000 students plus support facilities, architect Hisham N. Ashkouri and Robert Owen developed the full academic space program for the entire campus
18.
Nahdlatul Ulama
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Nahdlatul Ulama is a traditionalist Sunni Islam movement in Indonesia following the Shafii school of jurisprudence. NU was established on January 31,1926 in Surabaya as a response to the rise of Wahabism in Saudi Arabia, the NU is the largest independent Islamic organization in the world with membership of 40 million in 2003. NU also as a charitable body funding schools and hospitals as well as organizing communities to alleviate poverty. Nahdatul Ulama follows the ideology of Ahl as-Sunna Wa al-Jamaah, which takes the middle sect between extreme aqli with the extreme naqli, because it is a source of ideas for not only the Quran, the Sunnah, but also the ability of the mind coupled with empirical reality. It referred to this way of thinking of earlier thinkers, such as Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari, then in the following four schools of jurisprudence, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali. While in the field of Sufism, it follows path of Al-Ghazali and it has been described by the media as a progressive, liberal and pluralistic Islamic movement. The Nahdlatul Ulama was established in 1926 as an organization for orthodox Muslims opposed to the modernist policies of the Muhammadiyah organization, the organization was established after The Committee of Hijaz had fulfilled its duty and about to be dissolved. The organization was established by Hasjim Asjari, the head of an Islamic religious school in East Java, the organization expanded, but the base of its support remained in East Java. By 1928, the NU was using the Javanese language in its sermons, in 1937, despite poor relations between the NU and Muhammidayah, the two organizations established the Supreme Islamic Council of Indonesia as a discussion forum. They were joined by most of the other Islamic organizations in existence at the time, in 1942, the Japanese occupied Indonesia and in September a conference of Islamic leaders was held in Jakarta. Just over a year later, the MIAI was dissolved and replaced by the Japanese-sponsored Masyumi, Hasjim Asjari was the notional chairman, but in practice the new organization was led by his son, Wahid Hasyim. Other NU and Muhammadiyah figures held leadership positions, in 1945, Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence. During the Indonesian war of independence, the NU declared that the fight against the Dutch colonial forces was a holy war, among the guerrilla groups fighting for independence were Hizbullah and Sabillilah, which were led by the NU. Following the recognition of Indonesian independence, a new party called Masyumi was established with the NU as a component of it. The NU leadership at the time had no skills, and was awarded few influential cabinet positions, with the exception of chairman Wahid Hasyim. Two years later, a dispute over the organization of the Haj pilgrimage led to Prime Minister Natsirs opposition to the reappointment of Hasyim as religious affairs minister in the next cabinet. In the ensuing crisis, the NU made a series of demands, including the retention of Hasyim. On 5 April 1952, a few days after the announcement of a new cabinet without Hasyim, the NU decided in principle to leave Masyumi
19.
Fall of Suharto
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Suharto resigned as president of Indonesia in May 1998 following the collapse of support for his three-decade long presidency. The resignation followed severe economic and political crises in the previous 6 to 12 months, B. J. Habibie continued at least a year of his remaining presidential years, followed by Abdurrahman Wahid in 1999. In 1970, corruption prompted student protests and an investigation by a government commission, Suharto responded by banning student protest, forcing the activists underground. Only token prosecution of cases recommended by the commission was pursued, the pattern of co-opting a few of his more powerful opponents while criminalizing the rest became a hallmark of Suhartos rule. In order to maintain a veneer of democracy, Suharto made a number of electoral reforms and he stood for election before electoral college votes every five years, beginning in 1973. All the previously existing political parties were forced to be part of either the PPP and PDI, in a political compromise with the powerful military, he banned its members from voting in elections, but set aside 100 seats in the electoral college for their representatives. As a result, he won election in which he stood, in 1978,1983,1988,1993. This authoritarianism became an issue in the 1980s, on 5 May 1980 a group Petition of Fifty demanded greater political freedoms. It was composed of military men, politicians, academics. The Indonesian media suppressed the news and the government placed restrictions on the signatories, after the groups 1984 accusation that Suharto was creating a one-party state, some of its leaders were jailed. In the same decade, it is believed by scholars that the Indonesian military split between a nationalist red and white faction and an Islamist green faction. As the 1980s closed, Suharto is said to have forced to shift his alliances from the former to the latter. After the 1990s brought end of the Cold War, Western concern over communism waned, in 1992, this attention resulted in the Congress of the United States passing limitations on IMET assistance to the Indonesian military, over the objections of President George H. W. Bush. In 1993, under President Bill Clinton, the U. S. delegation to the UN Human Rights Commission helped pass a resolution expressing concern over Indonesian human rights violations in East Timor. In response, Suharto attempted to foster a split over the leadership of PDI, after the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan 20–22 June, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and this led to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawatis supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized democracy forums with several speakers at the site, on 26 July, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums
20.
Javanese language
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Javanese /dʒɑːvəˈniːz/ is the language of the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, in Indonesia. There are also pockets of Javanese speakers in the northern coast of western Java and it is the native language of more than 98 million people. Javanese is one of the Austronesian languages, but it is not particularly close to other languages and is difficult to classify and its closest relatives are the neighbouring languages such as Sundanese, Madurese and Balinese. There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia and Singapore, some people of Javanese descent in Suriname speak a creole descendant of the language. The language is spoken in Yogyakarta, Central and East Java, in Suriname, creolized Javanese is spoken among descendants of plantation migrants brought by the Dutch during the 19th century. In Madura, Bali, Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java and it was the court language in Palembang, South Sumatra, until the palace was sacked by the Dutch in the late 18th century. Javanese is written with the Latin script, Javanese script, Javanese is the tenth largest language by native speakers and the largest language without official status. It is spoken or understood by approximately 100 million people, at least 45% of the total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. All seven Indonesian presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent and it is therefore not surprising that Javanese has had a deep influence on the development of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia. There are three dialects of the modern language, Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Javanese. These three dialects form a continuum from northern Banten in the extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi Regency in the eastern corner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less mutually intelligible, the phonemes of Modern Standard Javanese as shown below. In closed syllables the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced respectively, in open syllables, /e o/ are also when the following vowel is /i u/ in an open syllable, otherwise they are /ə/, or identical. In the standard dialect of Surakarta, /a/ is pronounced in open syllables. The Javanese voiced phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, the relevant distinction in phonation of the plosives is described as stiff voice versus slack voice. A Javanese syllable can have the form, CSVC, where C = consonant, S = sonorant. As with other Austronesian languages, native Javanese roots consist of two syllables, words consisting of more than three syllables are broken up into groups of words for pronunciation. In Modern Javanese, a root is of the following type
21.
Islamic calendar
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The Islamic, Muslim, or Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in many Muslim countries and it is also used by Muslims to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals, such as the annual period of fasting and the proper time for the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Islamic calendar employs the Hijri era whose epoch was retrospectively established as the Islamic New Year of AD622, during that year, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib and established the first Muslim community, an event commemorated as the Hijra. In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH in parallel with the Christian, in Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H from its Arabic form. In English, years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH, the current Islamic year is 1438 AH. In the Gregorian calendar,1438 AH runs from approximately 3 October 2016 to 21 September 2017, four of the twelve Hijri months are considered sacred, Rajab, and the three consecutive months of Dhū al-Qa‘dah, Dhu al-Ḥijjah and Muḥarram. As the lunar calendar lags behind the solar calendar by about ten days every gregorian year, the cycle repeats every 33 lunar years. Each month of the Islamic calendar commences on the birth of the new lunar cycle, traditionally this is based on actual observation of the crescent marking the end of the previous lunar cycle and hence the previous month, thereby beginning the new month. Consequently, each month can have 29 or 30 days depending on the visibility of the moon, astronomical positioning of the earth and weather conditions. However, certain sects and groups, most notably Dawoodi Bohra Muslims and Shia Ismaili Muslims, use a tabular Islamic calendar in which odd-numbered months have thirty days, in Arabic, the first day of the week corresponds with Sunday of the planetary week. The Islamic weekdays, like those in the Hebrew and Baháí calendars, the Christian liturgical day, kept in monasteries, begins with vespers, which is evening, in line with the other Abrahamic traditions. Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight, Muslims gather for worship at a mosque at noon on gathering day which corresponds with Friday. Thus gathering day is regarded as the weekly day of rest. A few others have adopted the Saturday-Sunday weekend while making Friday a working day with a midday break to allow time off for worship. Inscriptions of the ancient South Arabian calendars reveal the use of a number of local calendars, at least some of these calendars followed the lunisolar system. For Central Arabia, especially Mecca, there is a lack of epigraphical evidence, both al-Biruni and al-Masudi suggest that the Ancient Arabs used the same month names as the Muslims, though they also record other month names used by the pre-Islamic Arabs. Nevertheless, the Islamic position equating Nisan with Dhū al-Ḥijja has prevailed, for a comparison between the Islamic and pre-Islamic months, see Islamic and Jahili months. The Islamic tradition is unanimous in stating that Arabs of Tihamah, Hejaz, the forbidden months were four months during which fighting is forbidden, listed as Rajab and the three months around the pilgrimage season, Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Dhu al-Hijjah, and Muharram
22.
Abd al-Rahman I
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Abd al-Rahman I, more fully Abd al-Rahman ibn Muawiya ibn Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, was the founder of a Muslim dynasty that ruled the greater part of Iberia for nearly three centuries. At the time it was known by the Arabs as al-Andalus and he was also known by the surnames al-Dakhil, Saqr Quraish and the Falcon of Andalus. Variations of the spelling of his name include Abd ar-Rahman I, Abdul Rahman I, Abdar Rahman I, and Abderraman I. Born near Damascus in Syria, Abd al-Rahman was the son of the Umayyad prince Muawiya ibn Hisham and a Berber mother and he was twenty when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750. The family fled from Damascus to the River Euphrates, all along the way the path was filled with danger, as the Abbasids had dispatched horsemen across the region to try to find the Umayyad prince and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found, Abbasid agents closed in on Abd al-Rahman and his family while they were hiding in a small village. He left his son with his sisters and fled with Yahya. Accounts vary, but Bedr likely initially escaped with Abd ar-Rahman, some histories indicate that Bedr met up with Abd al-Rahman at a later date. Abd al-Rahman, Yahya and Bedr quit the village narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins, later, on the way south, Abbasid horsemen again caught up with the trio, Abd al-Rahman and his companions then threw themselves into the River Euphrates. The horsemen begged the escapers to return, promising that no harm would come to them, the 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd al-Rahmans reaction as he implored Yahya to keep going, O brother. Yahya returned to the shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen. They cut the head off their prize, leaving Yahyas body to rot, al-Maqqari quotes prior Muslim historians as having recorded that Abd al-Rahman said he was so overcome with fear at that moment, that once he made the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him. Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown, after barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Abd al-Rahman had to keep a low profile as he traveled and it may be assumed that he intended to go at least as far as northwestern Africa, the land of his mother, which had been partly conquered by his Umayyad predecessors. The journey across Egypt would prove perilous, at the time, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous governor of Ifriqiya and a former Umayyad client. The ambitious Ibn Habib, a member of the illustrious Fihrid family, had sought to carve out Ifriqiya as a private dominion for himself. Abd al-Rahman was only one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make their way to Ifriqiya at this time, but Ibn Habib soon changed his mind. He feared the presence of prominent Umayyad exiles in Ifriqiya, a more illustrious than his own
23.
Umayyad Caliphate
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The Umayyad Caliphate, also spelled Omayyad, was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. This caliphate was centred on the Umayyad dynasty, hailing from Mecca, Syria remained the Umayyads main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km2 and 62 million people, the Umayyad Caliphate was secular by nature. At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims, Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that Abrahamic religious groups, should be allowed to practice their own religion, provided that they paid the jizya taxation. The welfare state of both the Muslim and the poor started by Umar ibn al Khattab had also continued, financed by the zakat tax levied only on Muslims. Muawiyas wife Maysum was also a Christian, the relations between the Muslims and the Christians in the state were stable in this time. Prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments, the employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious assimilation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Muawiyas popularity and solidified Syria as his power base, the rivalries between the Arab tribes had caused unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of AD 680–692 and the Berber Revolt of 740–743. During the Second Civil War, leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwanid branch. A branch of the family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, according to tradition, the Umayyad family and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, and they originally came from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manāf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different son, Abd-Shams, the two families are therefore considered to be different clans of the same tribe. However Muslim Shia historians suspect that Umayya was a son of Abd Shams so he was not a blood relative of Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Umayya was later discarded from the noble family, Sunni historians disagree with this and view Shia claims as nothing more than outright polemics due to their hostility to the Umayyad family in general. While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan killed by Hashimites in a three-on-three melee and this fueled the opposition of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sufyan sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Badr and he did this to avenge the defeat at Badr. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans
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Javanese people
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The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, they form the largest ethnic group in Indonesia and they are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of the island. There are also significant numbers of people of Javanese descent in most Provinces of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, the Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups, such as the Mataram, Cirebonese, Osing, Tenggerese, Samin, Naganese, Banyumasan, etc. A majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Muslims, with a minority identifying as Christians, Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century, the Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy. The cradle of Javanese culture is described as being in Kedu. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their base there. The move was most likely caused by the eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya. The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century, the expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca, Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediris rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwangs reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegaras son-in-law, Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk. Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms and it was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan, Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Javas northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta, Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo, Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed, after this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free
25.
Chinese Indonesians
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Chinese Indonesians, are Indonesians descended from various Chinese ethnic groups, primarily the Han Chinese. Chinese came to Indonesia as workers both directly and through Maritime Southeast Asia and their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in southern China. Evidence of discrimination against Chinese Indonesians can be throughout the history of Indonesia. Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive, in some cases, government action only propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese-owned conglomerates were corrupt. The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars, clan associations, ethnic media, and Chinese-language schools, one group supported political reforms in mainland China, while others worked towards improved status in local politics. The New Order government dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of policies as a solution to the Chinese Problem. Patterns of assimilation and ethnic interaction can be found in Indonesias literature, architecture, the Chinese Indonesian population of Sumatra accounts for nearly half of the groups national population. Although they are more urbanized than Indonesias indigenous population, significant rural and agricultural communities exist throughout the country. Declining fertility rates have resulted in a shift in the population pyramid. Emigration has contributed to a population, and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century. Some have participated in programs to the Peoples Republic of China. Among the overseas residents, their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese, the first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293. The Mongols introduced Chinese technologies to the island, including shipbuilding and their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire. Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century. They were led by the mariner Zheng He, who commanded several expeditions to southeastern Asia between 1405 and 1430, in the book Yingya Shenglan, his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men. These traders settled along the northern coast of Java, but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century, the Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into the majority Muslim population. Between 1450 and 1520, the Ming Dynastys interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade, the Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century. Trade from the north was re-established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks a year, several years later silver began flowing into the region, from Japan, Mexico, and Europe, and trade flourished once again
26.
Arab Indonesians
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Arab Indonesians, or Hadharem, informally known as Jamaah, are citizens of Indonesia of Arab, mainly Hadrami, descent. The group also includes those of Arab descent from other Middle Eastern Arabic speaking nations, restricted under Dutch East Indies law until 1919, the community elites later gained economic power through real estate investment and trading. Currently found mainly in Java, especially West Java, they are almost all Muslims, Indonesia has had contact with the Arab world for hundreds of years, prior to the emergence of Islam in Indonesia as well as since pre-Islamic times. The earliest Arabians to arrive into South East Asia were traders came from Southern Arabia, most of the earliest Arabians were Christian Arabians, Sabeans and other Pagan religions before the coming of Islam. These traders helped to connect the spice and silk markets of South East Asia and far east Asia with the Arabian kingdoms, Persian Empire, most contact was with spice traders, but the first Arab settlements in the archipelago may date from the fifth century. Some later founded dynasties, including the Sultanate of Pontianak, while others intermingled with existing kingdoms and these early communities adopted much of the local culture, and some disappeared entirely while others formed ethnically distinct communities. Modern Arab Indonesians are generally descended from Hadramis, although there are also coming from Arabs of Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait. As liaison and to lead the community, the Dutch government appointed some Captain Arabs in the districts and these laws were repealed in 1919. A few Arabs from other countries came to Indonesia during Dutch colonial rule. The community elites began to build power through trade and real estate acquisition, buying large amounts of real estate in Batavia, Singapore. Through charity work and conspicuous consumption, they built and protected their social capital, eventually, some Arab Indonesians joined the Volksraad, to unite with the native in war against the imperialist, To forbids self isolation, to fulfill their responsibility as a citizen. Eventually leading to a cultural reorientation, first generation immigrants are referred to as wulayātī or totok. They are a minority of the Arab Indonesian population. The majority, muwallad, were born in Indonesia and may be of mixed heritage, Indonesian critics of Arab influence in Indonesia point to the founding of the radical group Jemaah Islamiah and leadership of Laskar Jihad and Front Pembela Islam by Indonesian Arabs. Many Arabs from Hadramaut were Sayyids of the Ba Alawi Sada family and Sharifs and had special status, the majority of Arab Indonesians live in Java, primarily in West and East Java and Madura. A sizable minority live in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Ambon, the earliest census figures that indicate the number of Hadhramis living in Dutch East Indies date from 1859, when it was found that there were 4992 Arab Indonesians living in Java and Madura. The census of 1870 recorded a total of 12412 Arab Indonesians, in 1900, total number of Arab population 27399,44902 in 1920, and 71335 in 1930. Arab Indonesians are almost all Muslim, according to the 2000 census,98.27 percent of Arab Indonesians are Muslim, historically, most have lived in so called kauman villages, in the areas around mosques, but this has changed in recent years
27.
Hasyim Asy'ari
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Hadratusy Syaikh KH. Hasyim Asyari was an Indonesian ulama and founder of Nahdatul Ulama. Hasyim Asyari was born Muhammad Hasyim in Gedang, Jombang Regency on February 14,1871 and his parents were Asyari and Halimah. His grandfather, Kiai Usman was the founder of Pesantren Gedang and he was the third son of ten siblings. Hasyim Asyaris ancestry can be traced to Sultan Hadiwijaya of Pajang, and further, to Brawijaya VI, at the age of twenty, he married Khadijah, daughter of Pesantren Siwalan Panji leader. One year later, they went to Mecca, after seven months, his wife was dead and also his son, Abdullah two months later. In 1899, he founded Pesantren Tebuireng, which became the largest pesantren in Java in the early 20th century. The pesantren also became the center for the reform of traditional Islamic teaching, on January 31,1926 he and several traditional Islamic leaders founded Nahdatul Ulama. In Japanese occupation era, he was arrested, several months later he was released and he died suddenly on July 25,1947 due to hypertension, after hearing news that Dutch troops were winning a battle in Malang. He married seven times and all of his wives were daughters of ulama, four of his wives were Khadijah, Nafisah, Nafiqah and Masrurah. One of his son, Wahid Hasyim was one of Jakarta Charter formulator and later became Minister of Religious Affair, while his grandson Abdurrahman Wahid became President of Indonesia
28.
Masyumi Party
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Masyumi Party was a major Islamic political party in Indonesia during the Liberal Democracy Era in Indonesia. It was banned in 1960 by President Sukarno for supporting the PRRI rebellion, Masyumi was the name given to an organization established by the occupying Japanese in 1943 in an attempt to control Islam in Indonesia. Following the Indonesian Declaration of Independence, on 7 November 1945 a new organization called Masyumi was formed, in less than a year it became the largest political party in Indonesia. It included the Islamic organizations such as Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah, during the period of liberal democracy era, Masyumi members had seats in the Peoples Representative Council and the party supplied prime ministers such as Muhammad Natsir and Burhanuddin Harahap. Masyumi came second in the 1955 election and it won 7,903,886 votes, representing 20. 9% of the popular vote, resulting in 57 seats in parliament. Masyumi was popular in modernist Islamic regions such as West Sumatra, Jakarta, and Aceh. 51. 3% of Masyumis vote came from Java, but Masyumi was the dominant party for regions outside Java, in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi, Masyumi gained a significant share of the vote. In Sumatra,42. 8% voted for Masyumi, while the figure for Kalimantan was 32%, and for Sulawesi 33. 9%. In 1958, some Masyumi members joined the PRRI rebellion against Sukarno, as a result, in 1960 Masyumi were banned. Following the banning, Masyumi members and followers established the Crescent Star Family to campaign for Islamic shariah law, an attempt was made to reestablish the party following the transition to the New Order, but this was not permitted. C. A history of modern Indonesia since c.1200
29.
Imperial Japanese Army
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The Imperial Japanese Army or IJA, literally Army of the Greater Japanese Empire, was the official ground-based armed force of the Empire of Japan, from 1871 to 1945. Later an Inspectorate General of Military Aviation became the agency with oversight of the army. During the Meiji Restoration, the forces loyal to Emperor Meiji were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist daimyōs of Satsuma. This central army, the Imperial Japanese Army, became even more essential after the abolition of the han system in 1871. One of the differences between the samurai and the peasant class was the right to bear arms, this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. In 1878, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, based on the German General Staff, was established directly under the Emperor and was given broad powers for military planning and strategy. The Japanese invasion of Taiwan under Qing rule in 1874 was an expedition by Japanese military forces in response to the Mudan Incident of December 1871. The Paiwan people, who are indigenous peoples of Taiwan, murdered 54 crewmembers of a merchant vessel from the Ryukyu Kingdom on the southwestern tip of Taiwan. 12 men were rescued by the local Chinese-speaking community and were transferred to Miyako-jima in the Ryukyu Islands and it marked the first overseas deployment of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. Not surprisingly, the new led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the riots, led by Saigō Takamori, was the Satsuma Rebellion. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution, top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the Emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were mostly from the peasantry, tended to draw the military closer to the people. In time, most people came to look more for guidance in matters more to military than to political leaders. By the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia, well-trained, well-equipped, however, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. The Sino-Japanese War would come to symbolize the weakness of the military of the Qing dynasty and this was the result by Japans 120, 000-strong western-style conscript army of two armies and five divisions, which was well-equipped and well-trained when compared with their Qing counterparts. The Treaty of Shimonoseki made the Qing defeat official, with a shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan. In 1899–1900, Boxer attacks against foreigners in China intensified eventually resulting in the siege of the legations in Beijing
30.
Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
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The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at 10.00 a. m. on Friday,17 August 1945. In 2005, the Netherlands declared that they had decided to accept de facto 17 August 1945 as Indonesias independence date, in a 2013 interview the Indonesian historian Sukotjo, amongst others, asked the Dutch government to formally acknowledge the date of independence as 17 August 1945. The United Nations, who mediated in the conflict, formally acknowledge the date of independence as 27 December 1949, the document was signed by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, who were appointed president and vice-president respectively the following day. The draft was prepared only a few hours earlier, on the night of 16 August, by Sukarno, Hatta, the original Indonesian Declaration of Independence was typed by Sayuti Melik. Maeda himself was sleeping in his room upstairs and he was agreeable to the idea of Indonesias independence, and had lent his house for the drafting of the declaration. Marshal Terauchi, the highest-ranking Japanese leader in South East Asia and son of Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake, was however against Indonesias independence, the declaration was to be signed by the 27 members of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence symbolically representing the new nations diversity. The particular act was inspired by a similar spirit of the United States Declaration of Independence. Instead, the radical activists demanded that the signatures of six of them were to be put on the document. All parties involved in the moment finally agreed on a compromise solution which only included Sukarno. There was no evidence for the growing suspicions, as the Japanese had already surrendered to the Allies. An English translation of the proclamation was broadcast overseas, proklamasi Kami, bangsa Indonesia, dengan ini menjatakan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Hal2 jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l, 17-8-45, changed to hari 17, boelan 8, tahoen 05, Wakil-Wakil Bangsa Indonesia, changed to Atas nama bangsa Indonesia. P R O K L A M A S I Kami, bangsa Indonesia, hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l. Diselenggarakan dengan tjara saksama dan dalam tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja, djakarta, hari 17 boelan 8 tahoen 05 Atas nama bangsa Indonesia, Soekarno/Hatta. An English translation published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as of October 1948 included the speech as read by Sukarno. It incorporated remarks made immediately prior to and after the actual proclamation, PROCLAMATION WE THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA HEREBY DECLARE THE INDEPENDENCE OF INDONESIA. MATTERS WHICH CONCERN THE TRANSFER OF POWER AND OTHER THINGS WILL BE EXECUTED BY CAREFUL MEANS AND IN THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE TIME. DJAKARTA,17 AUGUST1945 IN THE NAME OF THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA SOEKARNO/HATTA This proclamation is printed in the front of the Rp.100,000 Indonesian banknote of the year 1999 and 2004 series, java in a Time of Revolution, Occupation and Resistance, 1944-1946
31.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
32.
Indonesian National Revolution
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It took place between Indonesias declaration of independence in 1945 and the Dutch recognition of Indonesias independence at the end of 1949. The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the Year of National Awakening, the struggle lasted for over four years and involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces were able to control the towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra. In 1949 international pressure on the Netherlands became such that, together with the existing partial military stalemate, the revolution marked the end of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, except for Netherlands New Guinea. It also significantly changed ethnic castes, as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers and it did not significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the majority of the population, although a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated Volksraad in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule, others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, the occupation of Indonesia by Japan for three and a half years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, in Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra, the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, on 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set. For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese, under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee elected Sukarno as President, PROCLAMATION We, the people of Indonesia, hereby declare the independence of Indonesia. Matters which concern the transfer of power and other things will be executed by careful means, as the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. External power had shifted, it would be weeks before Allied Forces entered Indonesia, the resulting power vacuums in the weeks following the Japanese surrender, created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans. Many pemuda joined pro-Republic struggle groups, the most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded Giyugun and Heiho groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit, in the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations. To spread the message, pemuda set up their own radio stations and newspapers. On most islands, struggle committees and militia were set up, Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment, some wanted passionate armed struggle, others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the idea that this was a struggle to be led
33.
Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)
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Ministry of Religious Affairs is an Indonesian ministry that administers religious affairs. It is responsible to the president, and is led by a minister, plans for the creation of a Ministry of Religious Affairs was proposed for first time in the meeting of Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence by Muhammad Yamin at 11 July 1945. He proposed to create special religion-related ministry, Ministry of Islamic Affairs, however, this proposal didnt gather much reception. For a second time the creation of a Ministry of Religious Affairs was proposed in session of Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence at 19 August 1945, the proposal was accepted by six from 27 members. Johannes Latuharhary, who rejected the proposal, proposed to handle religion affairs in Ministry of Education, iwa Kusumasumatri agreed that religious affairs should be handled by the ministry, however rejected the creation of special-religion ministry because of national scope of government. Ki Hadjar Dewantara proposed that religious affairs should be handled by Ministry of Home Affairs, the session rejected the creation of Ministry of Religious Affairs. Thus, Ministry of Religious Affairs had not been created until First Sjahrir Cabinet, creation of Ministry of Religious Affairs was re-proposed, for a 3rd time to Badan Pekerja Komite Nasional Indonesia Pusat at 11 November 1946 by K. H. Saleh Suaidy, and M. Sukoso Wirjosaputro and this proposal was also supported by Mohammad Natsir, Muwardi, Marzuki Mahdi, and Kartosudarmo. Haji Mohammad Rasjidi was State Minister at the time that handled Islamic affairs, some people hold view that Ministry of Religious Affairs is not a new creation. Ministry of Religious Affairs can be traced back to Japanese Colonial Period or Dutch Colonial Period, sometime, people traced it back to Islamic kingdoms period. Ministry of Religious Affairs is organized into 11 units
34.
Yogyakarta (city)
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Yogyakarta is a city on Java, Indonesia. It is renowned as a center of education, classical Javanese fine art and culture such as batik, ballet, drama, music, poetry and puppet shows. Yogyakarta is the capital of the Yogyakarta Special Region and was the Indonesian capital during the Indonesian National Revolution from 1945 to 1949, one of the districts in Yogyakarta, Kotagede, was the capital of the Mataram Sultanate between 1575 and 1640. The city is named after the Indian city of Ayodhya from the Ramayana epic, yogya means suitable, fit, proper, and karta, prosperous, flourishing. While urbanization sprawls, Yogyakarta-Magelang and Surakarta are being agglomerated in a few years, according to Canggal inscription dated 732, the area traditionally known as Mataram became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram established by King Sanjaya. Around the year 929, the centre of the kingdom was shifted to East Java by Mpu Sindok, the exact cause of the move is still uncertain, however, a severe eruption of Mount Merapi volcano or a power struggle probably caused the move. Historians suggest that, some time during the reign of King Wawa of Mataram, during the Majapahit era, the area surrounding modern Yogyakarta was identified again as Mataram and recognized as one of the twelve Majapahit provinces in Java ruled by a Duke titled Bhre Mataram. During the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the title of Bhre Mataram was held by kings nephew, Kotagede was established as the capital of the Mataram Sultanate. During the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo, the Sultanate Mataram reached its zenith as the greatest kingdom in Java, after two changes of capital, the capital of Mataram Sultanate moved to Kartasura. During the reign of Pakubuwono II, a war broke out in Mataram Sultanate. The civil war was fought between Prince Mangkubumi and his brother, Sunan Pakubuwono II. It started when Sunan Pakubuwono II agreed to cooperate with the VOC, ceded some Mataram territory to the Dutch and his younger brother, Prince Mangkubumi stood against the agreement due to concerns that his people would become slaves under Dutch rule. Prince Mangkubumi defeated the Pakubuwono forces and declared sovereignty in the Kingdom of Yogjakarta occupying the southern parts of the former Mataram Sultanate, the Yogyakarta Sultanate was established as a result of the Treaty of Giyanti by Prince Mangkubumi, who later ascended the throne as Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. Officially, the creation of Yogyakarta Sultanate is dated at 7 October 1756 as a result of war among the princes of The Mataram Sultanate. This civil war marked the end of the Mataram Sultanate and resulted in the birth of the Yogyakarta Sultanate, during the British occupation of Java, rumors of plans by the Javanese court to stage a rebellion caused uneasiness among the colonial authorities. On 20 June 1812, Stamford Raffles led a 1, 200-strong British force to attack the royal city, the Javanese were surprised by the attack and were easily subdued. In one day the city of Yogyakarta fell, with the city destroyed, the event completely stripped the sultanate of its remaining power and influence. The sack also left the court humiliated and fueled a rebellion which would be known as Java War, in 1942 the Japanese Empire invaded Dutch East Indies and ruled Java until they were defeated in 1945
35.
Magelang
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Magelang is one of six cities in Central Java, each of which is governed by a mayor rather than a bupati. It is located in the middle of the Magelang Regency, between Mount Merbabu and Mount Sumbing in Central Java Province, Indonesia, Magelang is located 43 km north of Yogyakarta,15 km north of Mungkid and 75 km south of Semarang, the capital of Central Java. Magelang City is a city which is located in a fertile agricultural area. The western border is Progo River and the Eastern Boones Elo River, the city is divided into three districts and several sub-districts. Magelang was then known as a village called Mantyasih, which is now known as Meteseh, there are three stele of historical importance in Magelang, namely Poh, Gilikan and Mantyasih, all of which are written on a plate of copper. Poh and Mantyasih were written under the rule of King Balitung of Mataram Kingdom, in those stele, the villages of Mantyasih and Glanggang were mentioned. They became Meteseh and Magelang respectively, the village Mantyasih was made by the king as tax-free village which was led by a patih. Also mentioned are Mount Susundara and Mount Wukir Sumbing which is now known as Mount Sindoro, when Britain colonised Magelang in the eighteenth century, Magelang became the seat of the government and was made to the same level as a regency with Mas Ngabehi Danukromo as its first leader. Mas Ngabehi Danukromo built Alun-Alun, bupati residence and a mosque, Magelang became the capital of Karesidenan Kedu in 1818. After the Dutch defeated the British, Magelang was made as the central of economy because its strategic location, the Dutch government built drinking water tower in 1918 which provides the city with water. The roads were remade using asphalt, the city has historically been a military post, dating back to the Dutch East Indies colonial era. It subsequently acted as a stronghold for Indonesian pro-independence movements against the Dutch government during the resistance period. Currently, it is a host of two landmarks, The National Military Academy, and the only military-associated school, Taruna Nusantara. After the independence of Indonesia, Magelang became kotapraja and then kotamadya, the composition of demography based on its religion and belief, Magelang people has varied and different belief and religion. Majority of Magelang citizen are Muslim, but there are minority groups such as Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, as of February 2010, Magelang has a total population of 118,227. Magelangs population was 58,311 men and 59,916 women, Magelang is the closest major town to Borobudur, a ninth-century Buddhist monument located about 40 km north west of Yogyakarta. The Canggal Temple, also located in the Magelang regency, has a Sanskrit transcription bearing the name of the first Mataram Kingdom ruler, there is white water rafting on the Elo River, located in the district of Magelang. Elo river disgorges from Mount Merbabu, Mount Telomoyo and Mount Ungaran, the river is ideal for white water rafting because the characters of flow and flooding are relatively stable, so it is relatively safe to be forded in both the dry and rainy seasons
36.
Pesantren
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Pesantren or Pondok Pesantren are Islamic boarding schools in Indonesia. Institutions much like them are found across the Islamic world and are called pondok in Malaysia and Southern Thailand and madrasa Islamia in India and Pakistan and much of the Arabic speaking world. Pesantren aim to deepen knowledge of the Koran, particularly through the study of Arabic, traditions of exegesis, the Sayings of the Prophet, law and logic. The term pesantren derives from the root word santri or student -- pe-santri-an or the place of the santri As social institutions and they emphasise cores values of sincerity, simplicity, individual autonomy, solidarity and self-control. Young men and women are separated from their families, which contributes to a sense of commitment to the faith. Most pesantren provide housing or dormitory living at low or no cost for the students, the two type of educations systems are conducted throughout the day. Students in pesantren have almost 20 hours activities starting from morning prayer starting at 4 am to midnight where they ended the evening with a study group in the dormitory. The traditional pattern was for students to work in the rice fields in exchange for food, shelter. All pesantren are led by a group of teachers and religious leaders known as Kyai, the Kyai is respected as teacher and devout man. Kyai also play important roles in the community as a religious leader, there are Kyai families that have a long history of serving in this role. Some contemporary Kyai are the grandsons and great-grandsons of famous figures who established well known pesantren. Starting in the half of the Twentieth Century, some pesantren started adding secular subjects to their curriculum as a way of negotiating Modernity. The addition of state recognized curricula has affected traditional pesantren in a number of ways and it has led to greater control by the national government. It has also restricted the number of available for the traditional subjects making for difficult decisions. Many pesantren leaders have decided that the training of leaders is not their sole purpose and are now satisfied to graduate young men and women who have the morality of Kyai. The reduction of available to now master two curricula has led to practical changes. While it is possible for the children of the poor to work in the Kyais economic ventures. The time that used to be spent working, is now spent in secular education, Pesantren curriculum has four possible components, traditional religious education, called ngaji, government recognized curricula, vocational skills training, character development
37.
Madrasa
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Madrasa is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious. The word is variously transliterated madrasah, medresa, madrassa, madraza, medrese, in the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the Islamic religion, though this may not be the only subject studied. In countries like India, not all students in madrasas are Muslims, the word madrasah derives from the triconsonantal Semitic root د-ر-س D-R-S to learn, study, through the wazn مفعل, mafʻal, meaning a place where something is done. Therefore, madrasah literally means a place where learning and studying take place, for example, in the Ottoman Empire during the Early Modern Period, madaris had lower schools and specialised schools where the students became known as danişmends. The usual Arabic word for a university, however, is جامعة, the Hebrew cognate midrasha also connotes the meaning of a place of learning, the related term midrash literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious connotations. However, in English, the term usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A regular curriculum includes courses in Arabic, tafsir, sharīʻah, hadiths, mantiq, in the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I. Depending on the demands, some madaris also offer additional advanced courses in Arabic literature, English and other foreign languages, as well as science. Ottoman madaris along with religious teachings also taught styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, people of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming imams. The certificate of an ʻālim, for example, requires approximately twelve years of study, a good number of the ḥuffāẓ are the product of the madaris. The madaris also resemble colleges, where people take evening classes, an important function of the madaris is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them with education and training. Madaris may enroll female students, however, they study separately from the men, the term Islamic education means education in the light of Islam itself, which is rooted in the teachings of the Quran - holy book of Muslims. Islamic education and Muslim education are not the same, because Islamic education has epistemological integration which is founded on Tawhid - Oneness or monotheism. The first institute of education was at the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Arkam near a hill called Safa, where Hazrat Muhammad was the teacher. After Hijrah the madrasa of Suffa was established in Madina on the east side of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi mosque, ubada ibn as-Samit was appointed there by Hazrat Muhammad as teacher and among the students. In the curriculum of the madrasa, there were teachings of The Quran, The Hadith, faraiz, tajweed, genealogy, treatises of first aid, there were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting and calligraphy, athletics and martial arts. The first part of madrasa based education is estimated from the first day of nabuwwat to the first portion of the Umaiya caliphate and it was founded by Fāṭimah al-Fihrī, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Muḥammad al-Fihrī. This was later followed by the establishment of al-Azhar in 959 in Cairo, niẓām al-Mulk, who would later be murdered by the Assassins, created a system of state madaris in various ʻAbbāsid cities at the end of the 11th century
38.
Cairo
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Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Cairo has long been a center of the political and cultural life. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab world, as well as the worlds second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city, with a population of 6.76 million spread over 453 square kilometers, Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live in proximity to the city. Cairo, like many other mega-cities, suffers from high levels of pollution, Cairos metro, one of only two in Africa, ranks among the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, Egyptians often refer to Cairo as Maṣr, the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the citys importance for the country. In Coptic the city is known as Kahire, meaning Place of the Sun, possibly referring to the ancient city of Heliopolis, the location of the ancient city is the suburb of Ain Shams. The ancient Egyptian name for the area is thought to be Khere-Ohe, The Place of Combat, sometimes the city is informally referred to as Kayro. The area around present-day Cairo, especially Memphis, had long been a point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location just upstream from the Nile Delta. However, the origins of the city are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium. Around the turn of the 4th century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance and this fortress, known as Babylon, remained the nucleus of the Roman, and, later, the Byzantine, city and is the oldest structure in the city today. It is also situated at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, many of Cairos oldest Coptic churches, including the Hanging Church, are located along the fortress walls in a section of the city known as Coptic Cairo. Following the Muslim conquest in 640 AD the conqueror Amr ibn As settled to the north of the Babylon in an area became known as al-Fustat. Originally a tented camp Fustat became a permanent settlement and the first capital of Islamic Egypt, in 750, following the overthrow of the Ummayad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became their capital. This was known as al-Askar as it was laid out like a military camp, a rebellion in 869 by Ahmad ibn Tulun led to the abandonment of Al Askar and the building of another settlement, which became the seat of government. This was al-Qattai, to the north of Fustat and closer to the river, Al Qattai was centred around a palace and ceremonial mosque, now known as the Mosque of ibn Tulun. In 905 the Abbasids re-asserted control of the country and their returned to Fustat
39.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
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