1.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
2.
Aberdeen, Maryland
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Aberdeen is a city in Harford County, Maryland,26 miles from Baltimore. The population was 14,959 at the 2010 United States Census, Aberdeen is the largest municipality in Harford County. Aberdeen is part of the Baltimore-Towson Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is the 20th-largest United States metropolitan area, the nearest city to Aberdeen is Havre de Grace, Maryland,4.8 miles to the northeast. Aberdeen was named after Aberdeen, Scotland, by immigrating Scots, Baker House, Chestnut Ridge, Griffith House, Poplar Hill, Sophias Dairy, and Swansbury are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Village of Aberdeen was a development by Edmund Law Rogers around 1800, when incorporated as a Town, Aberdeen government was led by a board of commissioners. The first Mayor of the City of Aberdeen was Ruth Elliot, the second Mayor was Doug Wilson was elected Mayor in Fred Simmons was elected Mayor in 2005. Michael Bennett elected in 2007-2015 In 2015, Patrick McGrady was elected as the Mayor of Aberdeen and is serving a 4-year term. 1892–1894 Charles W. Baker 1894–1896 George Walker 1896–1899 John Finney Wells 1899–1900 George H. Irvins 1900–1905 John Finney Wells 1905–1906 James A, hause 1975–1977 Kent F. Stewart 1977–1978 William B. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 6.81 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Aberdeen has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2000, there were 13,842 people,5,475 households, the population density was 2,166.2 people per square mile. There were 5,894 housing units at a density of 922.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 64. 90% White,27. 38% African American,0. 25% Native American,2. 48% Asian,0. 09% Pacific Islander,1. 42% from other races, and 3. 47% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 45% of the population,26. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the family size was 3.02. In the city, the population was out with 26. 4% under the age of 18,8. 7% from 18 to 24,28. 6% from 25 to 44,23. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 90.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.8 males, the median income for a household in the city was $39,190, and the median income for a family was $48,357
3.
U.S. Route 40 in Maryland
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U. S. Route 40 in the U. S. state of Maryland runs from western Maryland to Cecil County in the states northeastern corner. With a total length of over 200 miles, it is the longest numbered highway in Maryland. Almost half of the overlaps with Interstate 68 or Interstate 70, while the old alignment is generally known as U. S. Route 40 Alternate, U. S. Route 40 Scenic. West of Baltimore, the portions where it does not overlap an Interstate highway are mostly two-lane roads, the portion east of Baltimore is a four-lane divided highway, known as the Pulaski Highway. From Cumberland west to Pennsylvania, US40 is the successor to the historic National Road, east of Cumberland, towards Baltimore, US40 follows several former turnpikes, most notably the Cumberland Turnpike and Baltimore and Frederick-town Turnpike. The route from Baltimore northeast to the Delaware state line follows another historic corridor towards Philadelphia, including the old Baltimore, U. S. Route 40 enters Maryland from Pennsylvania in far western Marylands Garrett County, carrying the name National Pike. It passes through farmland on this side of the state. U. S. Route 40 shares the roadway with U. S. Route 219 until it joins I-68 traveling eastward towards Cumberland, U. S. 40/I-68 passes into Allegany County just west of Frostburg. The highway traverses historic Cumberland Narrows mountain gap to the county seat, the previous alignments of US40, carrying the name National Pike, are either U. S. Also several significant histories and guide books have been published throughout the 20th Century to describe its features, hazards, at the Sideling Hill Creek Bridge, I-68/US40 passes into Washington County, just west of Bellegrove, Maryland. The I-68/US40 roadway later passes through a 340-foot massive deep cut in Sideling Hill. Just to the east of the cut is the site of the former Sideling Hill Exhibit Center, US40 then defaults onto Interstate 70 at Exit 1 of the latter route, coming down from the northwest at the large truck stop plazas at Breezewood, Pennsylvania. U. S. Route 522 is also carried by I-70, heading southeast out of Hagerstown, US40 diverges into two separate routes, US40 and US40 Alt. US40 parallels Interstate 70, its longtime, cross-country travel partner, lee held back oncoming Union armies under General George B. McClellan just prior to the horrific Battle of Antietam in September 1862. US40 enters Frederick County in Myersville, Maryland, the road passes through South Mountain, and goes underneath I-70 with no access. US40 continues traveling in a direction, running through the towns of Myersville. In Frederick, US40 uses Patrick Street, before merging back onto the US15 north-south expressway for a short distance and it leaves US15 and rejoins I-70 on the southern and eastern outskirts of Frederick. Old MD144 on the 19th Centurys Old National Road once again takes over along the old 1920s era alignment of US40, i-70/US40 runs shortly through Carroll County in Mount Airy, Maryland, interchanging with Maryland Route 27
4.
Major general
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Major general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the rank of sergeant major general. In the Commonwealth, major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral. In some countries, including much of Eastern Europe, major general is the lowest of the officer ranks. In the old Austro-Hungarian Army, the general was called a Generalmajor. Todays Austrian Federal Army still uses the same term, see also Rank insignias of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces General de Brigade is the lowest rank amongst general officers in the Brazilian Army. AGeneral de Brigada wears two-stars as this is the level for general officers in the Brazilian Army. In tha Brazilian Air Force, the two-star, three-star and four-star rank are known as Brigadeiro, Major-Brigadeiro, see Military ranks of Brazil and Brigadier for more information. In the Canadian Armed Forces, the rank of major-general is both a Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force rank equivalent to the Royal Canadian Navys rank of rear-admiral, a major-general is a general officer, the equivalent of a naval flag officer. The major-general rank is senior to the ranks of brigadier-general and commodore, prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal, instead. In the Canadian Army, the insignia is a wide braid on the cuff. It is worn on the straps of the service dress tunic. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Major-generals are initially addressed as general and name, as are all general officers, major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars. In the Estonian military, the general rank is called kindralmajor. The Finnish military equivalent is kenraalimajuri in Finnish, and generalmajor in Swedish and Danish, the French equivalent to the rank of major general is général de division. In the French military, major général is not a rank but an appointment conferred on some generals, usually of général de corps darmée rank, the position of major général can be considered the equivalent of a deputy chief of staff. In the French Army, Major General is a position and the general is normally of the rank of corps general
5.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
6.
Harford County, Maryland
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Harford County is a county in the U. S. state of Maryland. As of the 2010 census, the population was 244,826 and its county seat is Bel Air. Harford County is included in the Baltimore-Columbia-Towson, MD Metropolitan Statistical Area, Harford County was formed in 1773 from the eastern part of Baltimore County. It contains Tudor Hall, birthplace of Abraham Lincolns assassin, John Wilkes Booth, Harford County also hosted the signers of the Bush Declaration, a precursor document to the American Revolution. The county was named for Henry Harford, the son of Frederick Calvert. Henry Harford was born to Calverts mistress, Hester Whelan, whose residence still stands as part of a residence on Jarretsville Pike, in Phoenix. Harford served as the last Proprietary Governor of Maryland but, because of his illegitimacy, Havre de Grace, an incorporated city in Harford County, was once under consideration to be the capital of the United States rather than Washington, D. C. It was favored for its location at the top of the Chesapeake Bay. Today, the waterways around Havre de Grace have become affected by silt runoff. The county has a number of properties on the National Register of Historic Places, Harford County has environmental issues in three major areas, land use, water pollution/urban runoff, and soil contamination/groundwater contamination. The countys past, present, and future population booms and land development activities have created conflicts between farmers and developers/homeowners wishing to create subdivisions. The county was one of the first in the country to implement a development envelope plan, the county has had to balance the needs of land owners to practice agriculture and/or pave land with effects of runoff into the bay. Harford County has been burdened by soil contamination and groundwater contamination since the creation of the Aberdeen Proving Ground, the military installation performs research for the U. S. Army and has released various chemical agents into soil and groundwater, including mustard gas and perchlorate. The bordering towns of Aberdeen, Edgewood and Joppatowne have been affected by this contamination, Aberdeen Proving Ground contains three Superfund priority sites as of 2006. Groundwater contamination by MTBE, a gasoline additive, has also affected Fallston. Harford County also faces controversy from residents living near Scarboro Landfill and Harford Waste Disposal Center, Harford County was granted a charter form of government in 1972. This means that the county is run by a County Executive and Council President, currently, there are six districts in Harford County. Also elected at large is the Sheriff, who runs the Harford County Sheriffs Office, the Harford County Executive is Barry Glassman
7.
2000 United States Census
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This was the twenty-second federal census and was at the time the largest civilly administered peacetime effort in the United States. Approximately 16 percent of households received a form of the 2000 census. Full documentation on the 2000 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Microdata from the 2000 census is available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2072. The U. S. resident population includes the number of people in the 50 states. The Bureau also enumerated the residents of the U. S. territory of Puerto Rico, its population was 3,808,610, the 2000 Census was the first time survey options for multiracial Americans were provided. S. Households had access to computers, 42% have Internet access, regionally, the South and West experienced the bulk of the nations population increase,14,790,890 and 10,411,850, respectively. This meant that the center of U. S. population moved to Phelps County. The Northeast grew by 2,785,149, the Midwest by 4,724,144, the results of the census are used to determine how many congressional districts each state is apportioned. Congress defines the formula, in accordance with Title 2 of the U. S. Code, each member of the House represents a population of about 647,000. The populations of the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico are excluded from the apportionment population because they do not have voting seats in the U. S, since the first census in 1790, the decennial count has been the basis for the United States representative form of government. Article I, Section II specifies that The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, in 1790, each member of the House represented about 34,000 residents. Since then, the House more than quadrupled in size, today, each member represents about 20 times as many constituents. This recommendation was followed by the Secretary of Commerce, after the census was tabulated, Utah challenged the results in two different ways. Utah was extremely close to gaining a fourth seat, falling 857 people short. The margin was later shortened to 80 people, after the government discovered that it overcounted the population of North Carolina by 2,673 residents. Utah claimed that individuals traveling abroad as religious missionaries should be counted as residents, almost half of all Mormon missionaries, more than 11,000 individuals, were from Utah, only 102 came from North Carolina
8.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
9.
Proving ground
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While these types of facilities are usually military or government establishments, some civilian industries have their own proving grounds for testing prototypes and new technologies. Seetaler Alpen, Styria There are five proving grounds in the Czech Republic with the area of 1296 km2. Rovajärvi proving ground near Rovaniemi in Lapland is the largest proving ground in Northern Europe, the Artillery Brigade in Niinisalo, currently houses the Finnish ordnance R&D center. Bergen-Hohne Training Area, Lower Saxony, NATO facility, largest training area in Germany, grafenwöhr, Bavaria a US facility Hammelburg, Bavaria. Hammelburg features a complete village for training purposes of the German Army Hohenfels, Bavaria Hohenfels Training Area Heuberg Training Area. Sennelager Training Area, North Rhine-Westphalia, managed by the British Army, glen of Imaal, an Irish Army artillery, live fire and tactical training area. Salto di Quirra, an Italian interforce proving ground located on Sardinia that has recently been the object of many controversies, Drawsko Pomorskie belongs to the Polish Army and Air Force, and has also been used by NATO since 1996. This facility is known as DPTA - Drawsko Pomorskie Training Area. It is also an important site of archeological excavations, ośrodek Szkolenia Poligonowego Wojsk Lądowych Żagań in Żagań County and Bolesławiec County, belongs to Polish Land Forces also used by NATO Alcochete - artillery and air bombing range. Established in 1904, it was managed by the Portuguese Army until 1993 and it is the largest closed military facility in Europe. In 2008, it was chosen to be the site of the future New Lisbon International Airport and it was created so that design and testing of ordnance materiel could be carried out in proximity to the nations industrial and shipping centers at the time. Dugway Proving Ground in a facility operated by the United States Army Test. Dugways mission is to test U. S. and Allied biological and chemical defense systems. Fort Belvoir Proving ground, in Fairfax County, Virginia, pacific Proving Ground is an inactive U. S. Department of Energy area in the Marshall Islands that were established by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission in 1946 for detonation of nuclear devices for testing weapon design and it mainly consists of Bikini Atoll, Enewetak Atoll & the surrounding area. The facility was ordered closed in 1989 as part of the Base Realignment, Sandy Hook Proving Ground, at Sandy Hook, New Jersey was the nations first such facility. It was created in 1874 and was used as a proving ground until 1919, Scituate Proving Ground, a former proving ground in Scituate, Massachusetts, operational from 1918 to 1921. Yuma Proving Ground is a United States Army facility situated in southwestern La Paz County and western Yuma County in southwestern Arizona, the proving ground is used for testing military equipment and encompasses 1,307.8 square miles in the Sonoran Desert
10.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
11.
Materiel
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Materiel, more commonly matériel in US English but also listed as the only spelling in some UK dictionaries, is military technology and supplies in military and commercial supply chain management. In a military context, materiel relates to the needs of a force to complete a specific mission. The term is often used in a general sense to describe the needs of a functioning army. It includes provisioning, cataloging, requirements determination, acquisition, distribution, maintenance, the terms materiel management, materiel control, inventory control, inventory management, and supply management are synonymous. Military materiel is often shipped to and used in severe climates without controlled warehouses, packaging and labeling often needs to meet stringent technical specifications to help ensure proper delivery and final use. Matériel Inventory Military acquisition Military logistics Military supply chain management Supply chain Anti-materiel rifle The dictionary definition of materiel at Wiktionary
12.
Sandy Hook Proving Ground
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The facility was located at Sandy Hook, a narrow coastal spit of land, approximately 6 miles in length and 0.5 miles wide, in Middletown Township in Monmouth County. The facility was operated in conjunction with the adjoining Fort Hancock, essentially abandoned in 1919 for a larger facility, the area was left to degrade and most of the structures still remain today. The proving ground and parts of Fort Hancock are now property of the National Park Service, the Civil War, just ten years earlier, had introduced several new innovations in weaponry. Rifled cannon fired pointed-nosed projectiles farther and faster than cannonballs and ironclad warships with mounted guns that could destroy the walls of a traditional fort, the Army needed a place to test its own new weapons. The Sandy Hook Peninsula met the Armys needs for a testing area for heavy ordnance and was on land that was already government owned. Sandy Hook was distant enough to be far from towns but close enough to large cities, in 1874, most of Sandy Hook was covered with holly and cedar forests and tidal marshes which still cover a large percentage of it today. Most of the Federal development of the Hook was concentrated on the northern end, a huge granite five-bastioned fort near the northern end of the Hook, dominated the area, even though it was still incomplete and was destined never to be completed. It was decided to lay out the Proving Ground on the margin of the Hook. After its formal establishment in 1874, it was two years before facilities were completed that allowed staffing and testing to reach its potential. Because of the period of time involved, the bulk of the designed, built. Over time, several red brick buildings, including structures used as maintenance buildings, when Fort Hancock was commissioned in 1895 as a Coast Artillery Post, it shared the peninsula with the Proving Ground. The Proof Battery, where new and converted guns would be fired, was built at the end of Sandy Hook along the ocean side. The firing range extended 3,000 yards south along the beach and for long range test firing, the first test firing took place in October 1874, when a 10-inch Rodman smoothbore cannon, converted into an 8-inch rifled gun, was fired. After firing 700 rounds, the Ordnance Board found the gun to still be sound, to test the guns striking power, armor-piercing projectiles were fired at large, thick iron plates, similar to those used in making warships. These tests proved that rifled Rodman guns could penetrate the armor, in the 1880s, new high- powered, breech-loading rifled cannons made of steel were introduced. They had greater ranges and more striking power, when new models of guns and mortars passed their ordnance tests, they were mass-produced at gun foundries around the country and then sent to Sandy Hook for testing before being issued for use. Many new types of gunpowder, artillery shells, fuses and primers used to explode projectiles were also tested, in 1900, Proof Battery was relocated because of Fort Hancocks need for the location to build a gun battery. The new Battery was built southeast of its old location, in the middle were mounted a variety of guns from 1-to-12-inch caliber
13.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
14.
Poison gas
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Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. None of these fall under the conventional weapons which are primarily effective due to their destructive potential. With proper protective equipment, training, and decontamination measures, the effects of chemical weapons can be overcome. Many nations possess vast stockpiles of weaponized agents in preparation for wartime use, the threat and the perceived threat have become strategic tools in planning both measures and counter-measures. Chemical warfare is different from the use of weapons or nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force. Under this Convention, any chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited. About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled as chemical agents during the 20th century. The entire class known as Lethal Unitary Chemical Agents and Munitions have been scheduled for elimination by the CWC and these may only be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes. Examples include nerve agents, ricin, lewisite and mustard gas, any production over 100 g must be reported to the OPCW and a country can have a stockpile of no more than one tonne of these chemicals. Schedule 2 – Have no large-scale industrial uses, but may have legitimate small-scale uses, schedule 3 – Have legitimate large-scale industrial uses. Both have been used as weapons but phosgene is an important precursor in the manufacture of plastics. The OPCW must be notified of, and may inspect, any plant producing more than 30 tonnes per year, Ancient Greek myths about Hercules poisoning his arrows with the venom of the Hydra monster are the earliest references to toxic weapons in western literature. Homers epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, allude to poisoned arrows used by both sides in the legendary Trojan War, some of the earliest surviving references to toxic warfare appear in the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Laws of Manu, a Hindu treatise on statecraft forbids the use of poison and fire arrows, kautilyas Arthashastra, a statecraft manual of the same era, contains hundreds of recipes for creating poison weapons, toxic smokes, and other chemical weapons. Ancient Greek historians recount that Alexander the Great encountered poison arrows, arsenical smokes were known to the Chinese as far back as c.1000 BC and Sun Tzus Art of War advises the use of fire weapons. Other Chinese writings dating around the same period contain hundreds of recipes for the production of poisonous or irritating smokes for use in war along with accounts of their use. These accounts describe an arsenic-containing soul-hunting fog, and the use of finely divided lime dispersed into the air to suppress a peasant revolt in 178 AD. The earliest recorded use of gas warfare in the West dates back to the fifth century BC, There is archaeological evidence that the Sassanians deployed chemical weapons against the Roman army in the Siege of Dura Europos in the third century AD
15.
Sulfur mustard
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Sulfur mustard, commonly known as mustard gas, is a cytotoxic and vesicant chemical warfare agent with the ability to form large blisters on exposed skin and in the lungs. Related chemical compounds with chemical structure and similar properties form a class of compounds known collectively as sulfur mustards or mustard agents. Pure sulfur mustards are colorless, viscous liquids at room temperature, when used in impure form, such as warfare agents, they are usually yellow-brown in color and have an odor resembling mustard plants, garlic, or horseradish, hence the name. Sulfur mustard was originally assigned the name LOST, after the scientists Wilhelm Lommel and Wilhelm Steinkopf, Mustard agents are regulated under the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention. Three classes of chemicals are monitored under this Convention, with sulfur and nitrogen mustard grouped in Schedule 1, Mustard agents could be deployed on the battlefield by means of artillery shells, aerial bombs, rockets, or by spraying from warplanes. Sulfur mustard is the compound with formula 2S. Sulfur mustard is a liquid at normal temperatures. The pure compound has a point of 14 °C and decomposes before boiling at 218 °C. The compound readily eliminates a chloride ion by intramolecular nucleophilic substitution to form a cyclic sulfonium ion, oxidative stress would be another pathology involved in sulfur mustard toxicity. Sulfur mustard is not very soluble in water but is soluble in fat. In the wider sense, compounds with the structural element BCH2CH2X, where X is any leaving group, such compounds can form cyclic onium ions that are good alkylating agents. Examples are bisether, the amines, and sulfur sesquimustard, which has two α-chloroethyl thioether groups connected by an ethylene group and these compounds have a similar ability to alkylate DNA, but their physical properties, e. g. melting points, may vary. Mustard agent has extremely powerful vesicant effects on its victims, in addition, it is strongly mutagenic and carcinogenic, due to its alkylating properties. Because people exposed to mustard agent rarely suffer immediate symptoms, and mustard-contaminated areas may appear completely normal and these are chemical burns and are very debilitating. Mustard agent vapor easily penetrates clothing fabrics such as wool or cotton, if the victims eyes were exposed then they become sore, starting with conjunctivitis, after which the eyelids swell, resulting in temporary blindness. In rare cases of extreme exposure to sulfur mustard vapors, corneal ulceration, anterior chamber scarring. In these severe and infrequent cases, corneal transplantation has been used as a treatment option, miosis may also occur, which is probably the result from the cholinomimetic activity of mustard. At very high concentrations, if inhaled, mustard agent causes bleeding and blistering within the system, damaging mucous membranes
16.
Chloropicrin
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Chloropicrin, also known as PS and nitrochloroform, is a chemical compound currently used as a broad-spectrum antimicrobial, fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, and nematicide. Its chemical structural formula is Cl3CNO2, chloropicrin was discovered in 1848 by Scottish chemist John Stenhouse. Chloropicrin’s chemical formula is CCl3NO2 and its weight is 164.38 grams/mole. Pure chloropicrin is a liquid, with a boiling point of 112 °C. Chloropicrin is sparingly soluble in water solubility of 2000 mg/L at 25 °C. It is volatile, with a pressure of 23.2 millimeters of mercury at 25 °C. The octanol-water partition coefficient of chloropicrin is estimated to be 269 and its soil adsorption coefficient is 25 cm3/g. Chloropicrin was manufactured for use as poison gas in World War I, in agriculture, chloropicrin is injected into soil prior to planting a crop in order to fumigate soil. Chloropicrin affects a broad spectrum of fungi, microbes, insects and it is commonly used as a stand alone treatment or in combination / co-formulation with methyl bromide and 1, 3-Dichloropropene. Chloropicrin is used as an indicator and repellent while fumigating residences for insects with sulfuryl fluoride which is an odorless gas, at the national level, chloropicrin is regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a restricted use pesticide. In the US, occupational exposure limits have been set at 0.1 ppm over an eight-hour time-weighted average, in 2008 the US EPA re-approved chloropicrin as safe for use in agricultural settings, stating that treatments can provide benefits to both food consumers and growers. For consumers, it means more fresh fruits and vegetables can be produced domestically year-round because several severe pest problems can be efficiently controlled. To ensure chloropicrin is used safely, the EPA requires a set of protections for handlers, workers. EPA protections were increased in both 2011 and 2012, reducing fumigant exposures and significantly improving safety and it can be absorbed systemically through inhalation, ingestion, and the skin. At high concentrations it is irritating to the lungs, eyes. In World War I German forces used concentrated chloropicrin against Allied forces as a tear gas, chloropicrin is manufactured by the reaction of nitromethane with sodium hypochlorite, H3CNO2 +3 NaOCl → Cl3CNO2 +3 NaOH
17.
Phosgene
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Phosgene is the chemical compound with the formula COCl2. This colorless gas gained infamy as a weapon during World War I where it was responsible for about 85% of the 100,000 deaths caused by chemical weapons. It is also a valued industrial reagent and building block in synthesis of pharmaceuticals, in low concentrations, its odor resembles freshly cut hay or grass. In addition to its production, small amounts occur from the breakdown. The chemical was named by combining the Greek words phos and genesis, Phosgene is a planar molecule as predicted by VSEPR theory. The C=O distance is 1.18 Å, the C−Cl distance is 1.74 Å and it is one of the simplest acid chlorides, being formally derived from carbonic acid. Typically, the reaction is conducted between 50 and 150 °C, above 200 °C, phosgene reverts to carbon monoxide and chlorine, Keq =0.05. World production of this compound was estimated to be 2.74 million tonnes in 1989, because of safety issues, phosgene is often produced and consumed within the same plant, and extraordinary measures are made to contain this toxic gas. It is listed on schedule 3 of the Chemical Weapons Convention, upon ultraviolet radiation in the presence of oxygen, chloroform slowly converts into phosgene by a radical reaction. To suppress this photodegradation, chloroform is often stored in brown-tinted glass containers, chlorinated compounds used to remove oil from metals, such as automotive brake cleaners, are converted to phosgene by the UV rays of arc welding processes. Phosgene may also be produced during testing for leaks of older-style refrigerant gases, chloromethanes were formerly leak-tested in situ by employing a small gas torch with a sniffer tube and a copper reaction plate in the flame nozzle of the torch. If any refrigerant gas was leaking from a pipe or joint, in the process, phosgene gas would be created due to the thermal reaction. Electronic sensing of refrigerant gases phased out the use of testing for leaks in the 1980s. Phosgene can be released during building fires, in one instance, a deputy fire chief was killed ten days after inhaling fumes that wafted down outside a burning restaurant. After a two-day hospitalization he had appeared to recover, but ultimately suffered cardiac arrest at home following from tracheobronchial inflammation, alveolar hemorrhage, the phosgene was produced by decomposing freon-22 after flames ducted up from a grease fire heated an air-conditioning unit on the roof and ruptured a hose. The great majority of phosgene is used in the production of isocyanates and these two isocyanates are precursors to polyurethanes. In the research laboratory phosgene still finds limited use in organic synthesis, a variety of substitutes have been developed, notably trichloromethyl chloroformate, a liquid at room temperature, and bis carbonate, a crystalline substance. Thionyl chloride is commonly and more safely employed for this application
18.
Shell (projectile)
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A shell is a payload-carrying projectile that, as opposed to shot, contains an explosive or other filling, though modern usage sometimes includes large solid projectiles properly termed shot. Solid shot may contain a pyrotechnic compound if a tracer or spotting charge is used, originally, it was called a bombshell, but shell has come to be unambiguous in a military context. Words cognate with grenade are still used for an artillery or mortar projectile in some European languages, shells are usually large-calibre projectiles fired by artillery, combat vehicles, and warships. Shells usually have the shape of a cylinder topped by a nose for good aerodynamic performance, possibly with a tapering base. Solid cannonballs did not need a fuse, but hollow munitions filled with something such as gunpowder to fragment the ball, needed a fuse, percussion fuses with a spherical projectile presented a challenge because there was no way of ensuring that the impact mechanism hit the target. Therefore, shells needed a fuse that was ignited before or during firing. The earliest record of shells being used in combat was by the Republic of Venice at Jadra in 1376, shells with fuses were used at the 1421 siege of St Boniface in Corsica. These were two hollowed hemispheres of stone or bronze held together by an iron hoop, as described in their book, these hollow, gunpowder-packed shells were made of cast iron. At least since the 16th Century grenades made of ceramics or glass were in use in Central Europe, a hoard of several hundred ceramic greandes were discovered during building works in front of a bastion of the Bavarian City of Ingolstadt, Germany dated to the 17th Century. Lots of the grenades obtained their orignal blackpowder loads and igniters, most probably the grenades were intentionally dumped the moat of the bastion before the year 1723. Early powder burning fuses had to be loaded fuse down to be ignited by firing or a portfire put down the barrel to light the fuse, other shells were wrapped in bitumen cloth, which would ignite during the firing and in turn ignite a powder fuse. Nevertheless, shells came into use in the 16th Century. By the 18th Century, it was known that the fuse towards the muzzle could be lit by the flash through the windage between the shell and the barrel, the use of exploding shells from field artillery became relatively commonplace from early in the 19th century. Until the mid 19th century, shells remained as simple exploding spheres that used gunpowder and they were usually made of cast iron, but bronze, lead, brass and even glass shell casings were experimented with. The word bomb encompassed them at the time, as heard in the lyrics of The Star-Spangled Banner, typically, the thickness of the metal body was about a sixth of their diameter and they were about two thirds the weight of solid shot of the same calibre. To ensure that shells were loaded with their fuses towards the muzzle, in 1819, a committee of British artillery officers recognised that they were essential stores and in 1830 Britain standardised sabot thickness as a half inch. The sabot was also intended to reduce jamming during loading, despite the use of exploding shell, the use of smoothbore cannons, firing spherical projectiles of shot, remained the dominant artillery method until the 1850s. By the late 18th century, artillery could use canister shot to defend itself from infantry or cavalry attack and this involved loading a tin or canvas container filled with small iron or lead balls instead of the usual cannonball
19.
Sarin
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Sarin, or GB, is a colorless, odorless liquid, used as a chemical weapon owing to its extreme potency as a nerve agent. It is generally considered a weapon of mass destruction, production and stockpiling of sarin was outlawed as of April 1997 by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993, and it is classified as a Schedule 1 substance. In June 1994, the UN Special Commission on Iraqi disarmament destroyed the nerve agent sarin under Security Council resolution 687 concerning the disposal of Iraqs weapons of mass destruction, Sarin is an organophosphorus compound with the formula CH3PF. People who absorb a non-lethal dose, but do not receive medical treatment. Sarin is a molecule because it has four chemically distinct substituents attached to the tetrahedral phosphorus center. The SP form is the active enantiomer due to its greater binding affinity to acetylcholinesterase. The P-F bond is broken by nucleophilic agents, such as water. At high pH, sarin decomposes rapidly to nontoxic phosphonic acid derivatives and it is usually manufactured and weaponized as a racemic mixture—an equal mixture of both enantiomeric forms, as this is a simpler process and provides an adequate weapon. A number of pathways can be used to create sarin. The final reaction typically involves attachment of the group to the phosphorus with an alcoholysis with isopropyl alcohol. Two variants of this process are common and this reaction also gives sarin, but hydrochloric acid as a byproduct instead. The Di-Di process was used by the United States for the production of its unitary sarin stockpile, the scheme below describes an example of Di-Di process. The selection of reagents is arbitrary and reaction conditions and product yield depend on the selected reagents, inert atmosphere and anhydrous conditions are used for synthesis of sarin and other organophosphates. As both reactions leave considerable acid in the product, bulk sarin produced without further treatment has a poor shelf life. Various methods have been tried to resolve these problems, triethylamine was added to UK sarin, with relatively poor success. The Aum Shinrikyo cult experimented with triethylamine as well, N, N-Diethylaniline was used by Aum Shinrikyo for acid reduction. N, N′-Diisopropylcarbodimide was added to sarin produced at Rocky Mountain Arsenal to combat corrosion, isopropylamine was included as part of the M687 155mm field artillery shell, which was a binary sarin weapon system developed by the US Army. Another byproduct of these two processes is diisopropyl methylphosphonate, formed when a second isopropyl alcohol reacts with the sarin itself
20.
Organophosphorus compound
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Organophosphorus compounds are organic compounds containing phosphorus. They are used primarily in pest control as an alternative to chlorinated hydrocarbons that persist in the environment, organophosphorus chemistry is the corresponding science of the properties and reactivity of organophosphorus compounds. Phosphorus, like nitrogen, is in group 15 of the periodic table and these compounds are highly effective insecticides, though some are also lethal to humans at minuscule doses and include some of the most toxic substances ever created by man. The definition of organophosphorus compounds is variable, which can lead to confusion, in industrial and environmental chemistry, an organophosphorus compound need contain only an organic substituent, but need not have a direct phosphorus-carbon bond. Thus a large proportion of pesticides, are included in this class of compounds. In a descriptive but only intermittently used nomenclature, phosphorus compounds are identified by their coordination number δ, in this system, a phosphine is a δ3λ3 compound. Phosphate esters have the general structure P3 feature P, such species are of technological importance as flame retardant agents, and plasticizers. Lacking a P−C bond, these compounds are in the technical sense not organophosphorus compounds, many derivatives are found in nature, such as phosphatidylcholine. Phosphate ester are synthesized by alcoholysis of phosphorus oxychloride, a variety of mixed amido-alkoxo derivatives are known, one medically significant example being the anti-cancer drug cyclophosphamide. Also derivatives containing the group include the pesticide malathion. The organophosphates prepared on the largest scale are the zinc dithiophosphates, several million kilograms of this coordination complex are produced annually by the reaction of phosphorus pentasulfide with alcohols. In the environment, these compounds break down via hydrolysis to eventually afford phosphate, phosphonates are esters of phosphonic acid and have the general formula RP2. Phosphonates have many applications, a well-known member being glyphosate. With the formula 2PCH2NHCH2CO2H, this derivative of glycine is one of the most widely used herbicides, bisphosphonates are a class of drugs to treat osteoporosis. The nerve gas agent sarin, containing both C–P and F–P bonds, is a phosphonate, phosphinates feature two P–C bonds, with the general formula R2P. A commercially significant member is the herbicide Glufosinate, similar to glyphosate mentioned above, it has the structure CH3PCH2CH2CHCO2H. The Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction is the method for the synthesis of these compounds. For example, dimethylmethylphosphonate arises from the rearrangement of trimethylphosphite, which is catalyzed by methyl iodide, in the Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction and the Seyferth–Gilbert homologation, phosphonates are used in reactions with carbonyl compounds
21.
Carbamate
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A carbamate is an organic compound derived from carbamic acid. A carbamate group, carbamate ester, and carbamic acids are functional groups that are inter-related structurally, carbamate esters are also called urethanes. Carbamic acids are derived from amines, R2NH + CO2 → R2NCO2H Carbamic acid is about as acidic as acetic acid, n-terminal amino groups of valine residues in the α- and β-chains of deoxyhemoglobin exist as carbamates. They help to stabilise the protein, when it becomes deoxyhemoglobin and this stabilizing effect should not be confused with the Bohr effect. The ε-amino groups of the residues in urease and phosphotriesterase also feature carbamate. The carbamate derived from aminoimidazole is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of inosine, carbamoyl phosphate is generated from carboxyphosphate rather than CO2. Perhaps the most important carbamate is the one involved in the capture of CO2 by plants since this process is necessary for their growth, the enzyme ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase fixes a molecule of carbon dioxide as phosphoglycerate in the Calvin cycle. At the active site of the enzyme, a Mg2+ ion is bound to glutamate and aspartate residues as well as a lysine carbamate. The carbamate is formed when an uncharged lysine side chain near the ion reacts with a carbon dioxide molecule from the air, which renders it charged. The so-called carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group, included in this group are aldicarb, carbofuran, carbaryl, ethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl, and methomyl. These insecticides kill insects by reversibly inactivating the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, the organophosphate pesticides also inhibit this enzyme, although irreversibly, and cause a more severe form of cholinergic poisoning. Fenoxycarb has a group but acts as a juvenile hormone mimic. The insect repellent icaridin is a substituted carbamate, polyurethanes contain multiple carbamate groups as part of their structure. The urethane in the name refers to these carbamate groups. In contrast, the commonly called urethane, ethyl carbamate, is neither a component of polyurethanes. Urethanes are usually formed by reaction of an alcohol with an isocyanate, commonly, urethanes made by a non-isocyanate route are called carbamates. Polyurethane polymers have a range of properties and are commercially available as foams, elastomers. Typically, polyurethane polymers are made by combining diisocyanates, e. g. Urethane was once produced commercially in the United States as an antineoplastic agent and it was found to be toxic and largely ineffective
22.
Hyoscine
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Hyoscine, also known as scopolamine, is a medication used to treat motion sickness and postoperative nausea and vomiting. It is also used before surgery to decrease saliva. When used by injection effects begin after about 20 minutes and last for up to 8 hours and it may also be used by mouth and as a skin patch. Common side effects include sleepiness, blurred vision, dilated pupils and it is not recommended in people with glaucoma or bowel obstruction. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe, however, hyoscine is in the antimuscarinic family of medications and works by blocking some of the effects of acetylcholine within the nervous system. Hyoscine was first written about in 1881 and came into use in 1947. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, hyoscine is produced from plants of the nightshade family. The name scopolamine is derived from one type of known as Scopolia while hyoscine is from another type known as Hyoscyamus niger. Scopolamine crosses the placenta and is a pregnancy category C medication, either studies in animals have revealed adverse effects on the fetus and no controlled studies in women have been made, or studies in women and animals are not available. Drugs should be only if the potential benefits justify the potential risk to the fetus. It may cause respiratory depression and/or neonatal hemorrhage when used during pregnancy, transdermal scopolamine has been used as an adjunct to epidural anesthesia for Caesarean delivery without adverse CNS effects on the newborn. Except when used prior to Caesarean section, it should only be used during pregnancy if the benefit to the mother outweighs the risk to the fetus. Scopolamine enters breast milk by secretion, although no human studies exist to document the safety of scopolamine while nursing, the manufacturer recommends that caution be taken if scopolamine is administered to a breastfeeding woman. The likelihood of experiencing adverse effects from scopolamine is increased in the relative to younger people. This phenomenon is true for older people who are also on several other medications. It is recommended that use should be avoided in this age group because of these potent anticholinergic adverse effects. Other than this treatment, gastric lavage and induced emesis are usually recommended as treatments for oral overdoses. In June 2008, more than 20 people were hospitalized with psychosis in Norway after ingesting counterfeit Rohypnol tablets containing scopolamine, due to interactions with metabolism of other drugs, scopolamine can cause significant unwanted side effects when taken with other medications
23.
Pralidoxime
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Pralidoxime or 2-PAM, usually as the chloride or iodide salts, belongs to a family of compounds called oximes that bind to organophosphate-inactivated acetylcholinesterase. It is used to combat poisoning by organophosphates or acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in conjunction with atropine, pralidoxime, 2-pyridinaldoxime methylchloride, is prepared by treating pyridine-2-carboxaldehyde with hydroxylamine. The resulting pyridine-2-aldoxime is alkylated with methyl iodide giving pralidoxime as the iodide salt, pralidoxime is typically used in cases of organophosphate poisoning. Organophosphates such as sarin bind to the component of the active site of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme. Pralidoxime binds to the half of the active site and then displaces the phosphate from the serine residue. The conjoined poison / antidote then unbinds from the site, some phosphate-acetylcholinesterase conjugate continue to react after the phosphate docks to the esteric site, evolving into a more recalcitrant state. This process is known as aging, aged phosphate-acetylcholinesterase conjugate are resistant to antidotes such as pralidoxime. Pralidoxime is often used with atropine to reduce the parasympathetic effects of organophosphate poisoning. Pralidoxime is only effective in organophosphate toxicity and it has no beneficial effects if the acetylcholinesterase enzyme is carbamylated, as occurs with neostigmine, physostigmine, or insecticides such as carbaryl. Atropine, which is choice of drug to antagonise the effects of organophosphates, is administered even before pralidoxime during the treatment of organophosphate poisoning. While the efficacy of atropine has been well-established, clinical experience with pralidoxime has led to doubt about its efficacy in treatment of organophosphorus poisoning. Adults,30 mg/kg, administered by intravenous therapy over 15–30 minutes or intramuscular injection or subcutaneous injection and it can also be given as a 500 mg/h continuous IV infusion. Children, 20–50 mg/kg followed by a maintenance infusion at 5–10 mg/kg/h, intravenous infusions can lead to respiratory or cardiac arrest if given too quickly. When atropine and pralidoxime are used together, the signs of atropinization may occur earlier than might be expected when atropine is used alone and this is especially true if the total dose of atropine has been large and the administration of pralidoxime has been delayed. There are no known absolute contraindications for the use of pralidoxime, relative contraindications include known hypersensitivity to the drug and other situations in which the risk of its use clearly outweighs possible benefit. Pyridostigmine Mark I NAAK Galantamine Drugs. com
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LSD
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Lysergic acid diethylamide, also known as acid, is a psychedelic drug known for its psychological effects. This may include altered awareness of the surroundings, perceptions, and feelings as well as sensations and it is used mainly as a recreational drug and for spiritual reasons. LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue and it is often sold on blotter paper, a sugar cube, or gelatin. However, adverse reactions such as anxiety, paranoia. LSD is in the ergoline family, LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine, though it may last for years if it is stored away from light and moisture at low temperature. In pure form it is odorless and clear or white in color, as little as 20–30 micrograms can produce an effect. LSD was first made by Albert Hofmann in Switzerland in 1938 from ergotamine, the laboratory name for the compound was the acronym for the German Lyserg-säure-diäthylamid, followed by a sequential number, LSD-25. Hofmann discovered its properties in 1943. LSD was introduced as a medication under the trade-name Delysid for various psychiatric uses in 1947. In the 1950s, officials at the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency thought the drug might be useful for mind control and chemical warfare and tested the drug on young servicemen and students, and others without their knowledge. The subsequent recreational use by youth culture in the Western world as part of 1960s counterculture resulted in its prohibition, LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine. LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug, LSD is considered an entheogen because it can catalyze intense spiritual experiences, during which users may feel they have come into contact with a greater spiritual or cosmic order. Users sometimes report out of body experiences, in 1966, Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament. LSD can cause pupil dilation, reduced appetite, and wakefulness, other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific, some of which may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD. The most common immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions, trips usually start within 20–30 minutes of taking LSD by mouth, peak three to four hours after ingestion, and last up to 12 hours. It is impossible to predict when a bad trip will occur, some users, including Albert Hofmann, report a strong metallic taste for the duration of the effects. LSD causes an animated experience of senses, emotions, memories, time. Generally beginning within 30 to 90 minutes after ingestion, the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts, changes in auditory and visual perception are typical
25.
Phencyclidine
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Phencyclidine, also known as angel dust and Sernyl among others, is a dissociative drug. PCP was brought to market in the 1950s as a pharmaceutical drug but was taken off the market in 1965 due to the high prevalence of dissociative hallucinogenic side effects. Moreover, the discovery of ketamine by Parke-Davis researchers was thought to represent an alternative for use as an anesthetic medication. Since this time a number of derivatives of PCP have been sold as dissociative drugs for recreational and non-medical use. In chemical structure, PCP is a member of the arylcyclohexylamine class, PCP works primarily as an NMDA receptor antagonist. As an addictive drug, PCP is associated with compulsive abuse, as a recreational drug, PCP may be ingested orally, smoked, insufflated or injected. PCP began to emerge as a drug in major cities in the United States in 1967. In 1978, People magazine and Mike Wallace of 60 Minutes called PCP the countrys number one drug problem, although recreational use of the drug had always been relatively low, it began declining significantly in the 1980s. In surveys, the number of school students admitting to trying PCP at least once fell from 13% in 1979 to less than 3% in 1990. PCP comes in powder and liquid forms, but typically it is sprayed onto leafy material such as cannabis, mint, oregano, tobacco, parsley, or ginger leaves. PCP is a Schedule II substance in the United States and its ACSCN is 7471 and its manufacturing quota for 2014 was 19 grams. It is a Schedule I drug by the Controlled Drugs and Substances act in Canada, a List I drug of the Opium Law in the Netherlands, PCP can be ingested through smoking. Fry is a term for marijuana or tobacco cigarettes that are dipped in PCP. PCP hydrochloride can be insufflated, depending upon the purity, the free base is quite hydrophobic and may be absorbed through skin and mucus membranes. Behavioral effects can vary by dosage, low doses produce a numbness in the extremities and intoxication, characterized by staggering, unsteady gait, slurred speech, bloodshot eyes, and loss of balance. Moderate doses will produce analgesia and anesthesia, high doses may lead to convulsions. Users frequently do not know how much of the drug they are taking due to the tendency of the drug to be produced illegally in uncontrolled conditions, psychological effects include severe changes in body image, loss of ego boundaries, paranoia, and depersonalization. Hallucinations, euphoria, and suicidal impulses are also reported, as well as aggressive behavior
26.
Cannabinoids
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A cannabinoid is one of a class of diverse chemical compounds that acts on cannabinoid receptors in cells that alter neurotransmitter release in the brain. Ligands for these proteins include the endocannabinoids, the phytocannabinoids. The most notable cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive compound in cannabis. Cannabidiol is another constituent of the plant. There are at least 113 different cannabinoids isolated from cannabis, exhibiting varied effects, the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate. These receptors are common in animals, and have found in mammals, birds, fish. At present, there are two types of cannabinoid receptors, termed CB1 and CB2, with mounting evidence of more. The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor type, CB1 receptors are found primarily in the brain, more specifically in the basal ganglia and in the limbic system, including the hippocampus. They are also found in the cerebellum and in male and female reproductive systems. CB1 receptors are absent in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brain responsible for respiratory. CB1 is also found in the anterior eye and retina. CB2 receptors are found in the immune system, or immune-derived cells with the greatest density in the spleen. While found only in the nervous system, a report does indicate that CB2 is expressed by a subpopulation of microglia in the human cerebellum. CB2 receptors appear to be responsible for the anti-inflammatory and possibly other therapeutic effects of cannabis seen in animal models, the classical cannabinoids are concentrated in a viscous resin produced in structures known as glandular trichomes. At least 113 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the Cannabis plant To the right, the best studied cannabinoids include tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol. All classes derive from cannabigerol-type compounds and differ mainly in the way this precursor is cyclized, the classical cannabinoids are derived from their respective 2-carboxylic acids by decarboxylation. CBG CBC CBL CBV THCV CBDV CBCV CBGV CBGM THC THCA CBD CBDA Tetrahydrocannabinol is the psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, mimic the actions of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol neurotransmitters produced naturally in the body and these cannabinoids produce the effects associated with cannabis by binding to the CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the brain
27.
Agent Orange
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Agent Orange is a herbicide and defoliant chemical. It is widely known for its use by the U. S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand and it was a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides,2,4, 5-T and 2, 4-D. The chemical damaged the health of people who came into contact with it as well as extensively contaminated the environment, the defoliant caused grievous health consequences for those who came in contact. Up to 4 million people in Vietnam were affected and 1 million people have illnesses, the chemical has damaged the genes, giving descendants with deformities. The US government has documented cases of leukemia, Hodgkins lymphoma as well as various kinds of cancer in veterans. Agent Orange caused enormous damage in Vietnam. Over 3,100,000 hectares of forest were defoliated, defoliants eroded tree cover and seedling forest stock, making reforestation difficult in numerous areas. Animal species diversity sharply reduced in contrast with unsprayed areas, the aftermath of the use of Agent Orange in Vietnam resulted in massive legal consequences. The United Nations ratified Resolution 31/72 and the Environmental Modification Convention, lawsuits filed on behalf of veterans as well as Vietnamese veterans sought compensation for damages. Agent Orange was to a lesser extent used outside Vietnam, some countries saw testing, while other countries such as Canada and Brazil used the herbicide to clear out sections of land for agriculture. Land in Laos and Cambodia was sprayed with Agent Orange because forests on the border with Vietnam were used by the Vietcong, the dioxin TCDD is significant contaminant of Agent Orange. TCDD is the most toxic of the dioxins, and is classified as a carcinogen by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Agent Orange dries quickly after spraying and breaks down within hours to days when exposed to sunlight and is no longer harmful, due to its fat-soluble nature, dioxin enters through physical contact or ingestion. Dioxin easily accumulates in the food chain, Dioxin enters the body by attaching to a protein called the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, a transcription factor. When dioxin binds to AhR, the moves to the nucleus. Several herbicides were discovered as part of efforts by the USA and these included 2, 4-D,2,4, 5-T, MCPA, and isopropyl phenylcarbamate. He discovered both that 2,3, 5-triiodobenzoic acid would speed up the flowering of soybeans and that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans, from these studies arose the concept of using aerial applications of herbicides to destroy enemy crops to disrupt their food supply. In early 1945, the U. S. Army ran tests of various 2, 4-D and 2,4, 5-T mixtures at the Bushnell Army Airfield in Florida
28.
Presbury Meetinghouse
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The Presbury Meetinghouse is a historic Methodist church located at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Harford County, Maryland, United States. The original portion of the building is a two story structure and was built about 1720. It is approximately 40.5 feet by 20.25 feet, the building consists of a central hall with a room on either side on both floors. It is frequently mentioned in journals of early Methodist preachers and was the site of 14 visits for preaching, the Presbury Meetinghouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. Presbury Meetinghouse, Harford County, including photo from 1991, at Maryland Historical Trust
29.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
30.
Edgewood Chemical Biological Center
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The U. S. Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Center is the United States’s principal research and development resource for non-medical chemical and biological defense. ECBC has full-time employees located at three different sites in the United States, Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md, pine Bluff, Arkansas, and Rock Island, Illinois. It is a research, development and engineering center under the U. S. Army Research, Development, since that time, the Center has expanded its mission to include biological materials and emerges today as the nations premier authority on chemical and biological defense. ECBC has a history of developing technologies in the areas of detection, protection and decontamination, CB Agent Spectroscopy/Algorithm Development, This capability includes critical research associated with detection of chemical and biological materials from a distance. Filtration Sciences, Scientific capabilities and research are applied to more efficient methods to protect from toxic airborne respiratory hazards. Single Small-Scale Facility, ECBC maintains the only declared facility under the CWC where chemical compounds regulated by the treaty can be produced for protective purposes, lifecycle CB Materiel Acquisition, ECBC drives technology transitions from research to engineering and development to production, fielding, and sustainment. Full-Service CB Testing, ECBC retains the expertise and cutting-edge infrastructure to test product performance in surety and non-surety environments, the Advanced Chemistry Laboratory, a chemistry laboratory built in 2005, is a facility designed for working with the most toxic known compounds. Highly instrumented and adaptable, the ACL is designed for flexibility so that it can address the requirements of scientific advancement. Safety in and outside the laboratory is a primary consideration, primary facilities within the ACL include advanced toxic agent laboratories, environmental chambers, and secure work spaces for classified materials. Chemical agent operations in this building include analytical chemistry, Chemical Weapons Convention treaty support, a central feature of the lab is a suite of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectrometers. S. The facility’s original mission was to perform toxicology research, mcNamara houses BSL 2/3 labs and has state-of-the-art equipment to safely conduct inhalation studies for chemical agents. The Bio Engineering Laboratory, a chemistry and biology laboratory built in 1991 is the full spectrum biotechnology capability within the Department of Defense. It is fully staffed for industrial-scale production of bio-molecules used in detection and decontamination systems fielded to the Warfighter, the BeL is an engineering facility with fermentation ranging from 5L to 1500L, along with matching scale downstream protein separation, purification lyophilization and spray drying. The BeL also houses a biosurety-compliant, secure, state-of-the-art cold storage capability, the lab and its specialized equipment are independently accredited by international organizations to ISO9001 and ISO Guide 25/17025. Toxic Test Chambers were built 1943, Chemical warfare agents and explosives may be tested simultaneously. An onsite surety lab is equipped with GC/MS, HPLC, Dynatherm, the Prototype Detonation Test and Destruction Facility is capable of testing technologies that require various site layouts. The facility is located at J-Field in the Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground, the PDTDF can accommodate the heaviest of the transportable systems that are currently in use. Some previous systems that have been tested include Large Item Transportable Access and Neutralization System, Explosive Destruction System, the environmentally controlled chamber is monitored by an onsite monitoring room and has the capability of providing supplied air and decontamination services
31.
Baltimore County, Maryland
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Baltimore County is a county in the U. S. state of Maryland. Since 1854, the county seat has been in Towson, Baltimore County is part of the Baltimore metropolitan area and Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area. The county is part of the Northeast Megalopolis stretching from Boston to Washington. As of 2009, the countys workforce totalled 410,100, with 25% employed in the fields of education, health, and human services, 10% in retailing, and less than 1% in agriculture. The county is home to the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Towson University, Goucher College, in 1674, a proclamation of the Proprietor, established the then extensive boundary lines for old Baltimore County. In 1674, a portion of northeastern Baltimore County, as well as a portion of northwestern Kent County, was split off to create Cecil County. In 1748, a portion of western Baltimore County, as well as a portion of Prince Georges County to the south, were split off to create Frederick County, in 1773, Harford County to the east was split off from Baltimore County. In 1837, another part of western Baltimore County was combined with a part of eastern Frederick County to create Carroll County, the Baltimore County court sessions had been held in private residences before 1674, with a small amount of documentary evidence. Since 1712, the seat had been located in old Joppa, later by 1724, the Assembly authorized Thomas Tolley, Capt. John Taylor, Daniel Scott, Lancelot Todd and John Stokes to purchase 20 acres from a tract named Taylors Choice after John Taylor who also held other parcels in the area. The Ordinance directed that the land be divided into 40 lots with streets and alleys to accompany the courthouse and jail which had already been previously erected. By 1750 there were some 50 houses, a church, courthouse,3 stone warehouses, inns, taverns, stores and these events have been commemorated ever since by Defenders Day on September 12th. A second city-county courthouse constructed in 1805–1809 was moved to the side of the Square at North Calvert. The first county seat of Baltimore County was known today as Old Baltimore and it was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County. In 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house, the site of the court house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House. The court house on the Bush River referenced in the 1683 Act was in all likelihood the one created by the 1674 Act, Old Baltimore was in existence as early as 1674, but we dont know what if anything happened on the site prior to that year. The exact location of Old Baltimore was lost for years and it was certain that the location was somewhere on the site of the present-day Aberdeen Proving Grounds, a U. S. Army weapons testing facility
32.
Grade (slope)
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The grade of a physical feature, landform or constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle of that surface to the horizontal. It is a case of the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A larger number indicates higher or steeper degree of tilt, often slope is calculated as a ratio of rise to run, or as a fraction in which run is the horizontal distance and rise is the vertical distance. The grades or slopes of existing physical features such as canyons and hillsides, stream and river banks, grades are typically specified for new linear constructions. The grade may refer to the slope or the perpendicular cross slope. There are several ways to express slope, as an angle of inclination to the horizontal, as a percentage, the formula for which is 100 rise run which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 100. In the U. S. this percentage grade is the most commonly used unit for communicating slopes in transportation, surveying, construction, and civil engineering. As a per mille figure, the formula for which is 1000 rise run which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 1000 and this is commonly used in Europe to denote the incline of a railway. As a ratio of one part rise to so many parts run, for example, a slope that has a rise of 5 feet for every 100 feet of run would have a slope ratio of 1 in 20. This is generally the method used to describe railway grades in Australia, any of these may be used. Grade is usually expressed as a percentage, but this is converted to the angle α from horizontal or the other expressions. Slope may still be expressed when the run is not known. This is not the way to specify slope, it follows the sine function rather than the tangent function. But in practice the way to calculate slope is to measure the distance along the slope and the vertical rise. When the angle of inclination is small, using the slope length rather than the horizontal displacement makes only an insignificant difference, Railway gradients are usually expressed in terms of the rise in relation to the distance along the track as a practical measure. In cases where the difference between sin and tan is significant, the tangent is used. In any case, the identity holds for all inclinations up to 90 degrees, tan α = sin α1 − sin 2 α In Europe. Grades are related using the equations with symbols from the figure at top
33.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
34.
Powertrain
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In a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant describes the main components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, more recently in hybrid Powertrains the battery, the electric motor and the control algorithm are also seen as elements of the Powertrain. Usually powertrain is used to refer to simply the engine and transmission, a motor vehicles driveline or drivetrain consists of the parts of the powertrain excluding the engine and transmission. It is the portion of a vehicle, after the transmission, in a wider sense, the power-train includes all of its components used to transform stored energy into kinetic energy for propulsion purposes. This includes the utilization of power sources and non–wheel-based vehicles. The most recent developments in powertrain are driven by the electrification of it in multiple components, electrical energy needs to be provided, usually this leads to larger batteries. Electrical engines can be found as isolated component or as part of other elements, in hybrid Powertrains the torque generated by the combustion engine and the electric motor have to be brought together and distributed to the wheels. The control of process can be quite involved but the reward are greatly improved acceleration values as well as much better emissions. Powertrain development for diesel engines involves the following, exhaust gas recirculation, changes also include new fuel qualities to allow new combustion concepts. So-called combined combustion systems or diesotto cycles are based on synthetic fuels, bEVs, FCEVs and PHEV powertrains are expected to reach parity with ICE powertrains in 2025. The manufacturing of components and systems is important to industry, including the automotive. In turn these requirements have led to designs involving higher internal pressures, greater instantaneous forces, the resulting designs in turn impose significantly more severe requirements on parts shape and dimension, and material surface flatness, waviness, roughness, and porosity. Quality control over these parameters is achieved through metrology technology applied to all of the steps in powertrain manufacturing processes, in automotive manufacturing, the frame plus the running gear makes the chassis. Later, a body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. Commercial vehicle manufacturers may have only and cowl and chassis versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies. These include buses, motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, the frame plus the body makes a glider. The final drive is the last in the set of components which delivers torque to the drive wheels, in a road vehicle, it incorporates the differential. In a railway vehicle, it incorporates the reversing gear
35.
Suspension (vehicle)
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This article is primarily about four-wheeled vehicle suspension. For information on two-wheeled vehicles suspensions see the motorcycle suspension, motorcycle fork, bicycle suspension, Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two. Suspension systems must support both roadholding/handling and ride quality, which are at odds with each other, the tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage, the design of front and rear suspension of a car may be different. An early form of suspension on ox-drawn carts had the swing on iron chains attached to the wheeled frame of the carriage. This system remained the basis for all suspension systems until the turn of the 19th century, no modern automobiles use the strap suspension system. Automobiles were initially developed as self-propelled versions of horse-drawn vehicles, however, horse-drawn vehicles had been designed for relatively slow speeds, and their suspension was not well suited to the higher speeds permitted by the internal combustion engine. The first workable spring-suspension required advanced metallurgical knowledge and skill, within a decade, most British horse carriages were equipped with springs, wooden springs in the case of light one-horse vehicles to avoid taxation, and steel springs in larger vehicles. These were often made of steel and usually took the form of multiple layer leaf springs. Leaf springs have been around since the early Egyptians, ancient military engineers used leaf springs in the form of bows to power their siege engines, with little success at first. The use of springs in catapults was later refined and made to work years later. Springs were not only made of metal, a tree branch could be used as a spring. Horse-drawn carriages and the Ford Model T used this system, and it is used today in larger vehicles. This was the first modern system and, along with advances in the construction of roads. In 1901 Mors of Paris first fitted an automobile with shock absorbers, with the advantage of a damped suspension system on his Mors Machine, Henri Fournier won the prestigious Paris-to-Berlin race on 20 June 1901. Fourniers superior time was 11 hrs 46 min 10 sec, while the best competitor was Léonce Girardot in a Panhard with a time of 12 hrs 15 min 40 sec. Coil springs first appeared on a vehicle in 1906 in the Brush Runabout made by the Brush Motor Company. Today, coil springs are used in most cars, in 1920, Leyland Motors used torsion bars in a suspension system
36.
M1 Abrams
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The M1 Abrams is an American third-generation main battle tank. It is named after General Creighton Abrams, former Army chief of staff, highly mobile, designed for modern armored ground warfare, the M1 is well armed and heavily armored. Notable features include the use of a powerful multifuel turbine engine, the adoption of sophisticated composite armor, weighing nearly 68 short tons, it is one of the heaviest main battle tanks in service. The M1 Abrams entered U. S. service in 1980, the M1 remains the principal main battle tank of the United States Army and Marine Corps, and the armies of Egypt, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Australia and Iraq. Three main versions of the M1 Abrams have been deployed, the M1, M1A1, and M1A2, incorporating improved armament, protection and these improvements and other upgrades to in-service tanks have allowed this long-serving vehicle to remain in front-line service. In addition, development for the improved M1A3 version was reported in 2009, the M1 Abrams was developed during the Cold War as a successor to the canceled MBT-70. The M1 Abrams contract went to Chrysler Defense and was the first vehicle to adopt Chobham armor, adaptations before the Persian Gulf War gave the vehicle better firepower and NBC protection. Being vastly superior to Iraqi tanks, very few M1 tanks were hit by enemy fire, Upgrades after the war improved the tanks weapons sights and fire control unit. The Abrams participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, exposing vulnerabilities in urban combat that were addressed with the TUSK modification, the Marine Corps sent a company of M1A1 Abrams tanks to Afghanistan in 2010. The first attempt to replace the aging M60 tank was the MBT-70, the MBT-70 had advanced features such as a height-adjustable air suspension and a very low-profile chassis with the driver located in the turret. The MBT-70 ultimately proved to be too heavy, complex, as a result of the imminent failure of this project, the U. S. Army introduced the XM803, using some technologies from the MBT-70 but removing some of the more troublesome features. This succeeded only in producing a system with capabilities similar to the M60. Congress canceled the MBT-70 in November and XM803 December 1971, and redistributed the funds to the new XM815, prototypes were delivered in 1976 by Chrysler Defense and General Motors armed with the license-built version of the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun along with a Leopard 2 for comparison. The turbine-powered Chrysler Defense design was selected for development as the M1, in February 1982, General Dynamics Land Systems Division purchased Chrysler Defense, after Chrysler built over 1,000 M1s. A total of 3,273 M1 Abrams tanks were produced 1979–85, Production at the government-owned, GDLS-operated Lima Army Tank Plant in Lima, Ohio, was joined by vehicles built at the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant in Warren, Michigan from 1982 to 1996. The M1 was armed with the version of the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun. An improved model called the M1IP was produced briefly in 1984, the M1IP models were used in the Canadian Army Trophy NATO tank gunnery competition in 1985 and 1987. Production of M1 and M1A1 tanks totaled some 9,000 tanks at a cost of approximately $4.3 million per unit, by 1999, costs for the tank were upwards of US$5 million a vehicle
37.
Bradley Fighting Vehicle
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The Bradley Fighting Vehicle is an American fighting vehicle platform manufactured by BAE Systems Land and Armaments, formerly United Defense. The Bradley is designed to transport infantry or scouts with armor protection, while providing covering fire to enemy troops. There are several Bradley variants, including the M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicle, the M2 holds a crew of three along with six fully equipped soldiers. The M3 mainly conducts scout missions and carries two scouts in addition to the crew of three, with space for additional TOW missiles. The Red River Army Depot in Texarkana, Texas is the Center of Industrial Technical Excellence for the maintenance, the Bradley was developed largely in response to the Soviet BMP family of infantry fighting vehicles, and to serve as both an armored personnel carrier, and a tank-killer. One specific design requirement was that it should be as fast as the then new M1 Abrams main battle tank so that they could maintain formations while moving. The M2/M3s primary armament is a 25 mm cannon that fires up to 200 rounds per minute and is accurate up to 3000 m and it is also armed with a TOW missile launcher that is capable of carrying two loaded missiles. The missiles, capable of destroying most tanks to a range of 4,000 metres. The Bradley also carries a coaxial 7.62 mm medium machine gun, the Bradley is equipped with the M24225 mm chain gun as its main weapon. The M242 has a barrel with an integrated dual-feed mechanism. The gun has 300 rounds of ammunition in two boxes, with an extra 600 rounds in storage or 1200 stowed rounds. The two ready boxes allow a mix of rounds, such as the M791 APDS-T and M792 HEI-T rounds. The tungsten APDS-T rounds proved highly effective in Desert Storm, being capable of knocking out many Iraqi vehicles including several kills on T-55 tanks, there have even been reports of kills against Iraqi T-72 tanks at close range. Subsequent ammunition developments resulted in the M919 APFSDS-T round, which contains a finned depleted uranium penetrator similar in concept to armor-piercing munitions used in modern tanks, the M919 was used in combat during the 2003 invasion phase of Operation Iraqi Freedom. It is also armed with an M240C machine gun mounted coaxially to the M242, for engaging heavier targets, the Bradley has a TOW missile system on board, which was changed to fire TOW II missile from the M2A1 model onwards. Initial variants had six ports, but the ones were plated over with the new armor configuration on the A2 and A3 variants. The use of armor and the storage of large quantities of ammunition in the vehicle initially raised questions about its combat survivability. Spaced laminate belts and high hardness steel skirts have been added to improve the protection of later versions
38.
Humvee
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The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle, commonly known as the Humvee, is a four-wheel drive military light truck produced by AM General. Primarily used by the United States military, it is used by numerous other countries and organizations. The Humvees widespread use in the Gulf War of 1991, where it negotiated the treacherous desert terrain, since the WWII era Bantam Reconnaissance Car, the United States Army had relied on jeeps to transport small groups of soldiers. The jeep was built around a requirement for a vehicle with a folding windshield that was actually shorter than the Volkswagen Beetle. It seated three with a 660 lb payload and weighed just over one ton, by the 1970s, the U. S. Army had tried larger militarized civilian trucks, but even these no longer satisfied newer requirements. In 1977, Lamborghini developed the Cheetah model in an attempt to meet the Army contract specifications, the specification called for excellent on and off-road performance, the ability to carry a large payload, and improved survivability against indirect fire. Compared to the jeep, it was larger and had a wider track, with a 16 in ground clearance. The new truck was to climb a 60 percent incline and traverse a 40 percent slope, the radiator was to be mounted high, sloping over the engine on a forward-hinged hood. Out of 61 companies that showed interest, only three submitted prototypes, in July 1979, AM General, a subsidiary of American Motors Corporation began preliminary design work. Less than a later, the first prototype was in testing. Chrysler Defense and Teledyne Continental also produced competing designs, in June 1981, the Army awarded AM General a contract for development of several more prototype vehicles to be delivered to the government for another series of tests. The original M998 A0 series had a weight of 5,200 lb, a payload of 2,500 lb, a 6.2 L V-8 diesel engine. The three companies were chosen to design and build eleven HMMWV prototypes, which covered over 600,000 miles in trials which included courses in desert. Ft. Lewis, Washington and the 9th Infantry Division was the unit to employ HMMWV in the new concept of a motorized division. Yakima Training Center in Yakima, Washington was the testing grounds for HMMWVs from 1985 through December 1991, when the motorized concept was abandoned. HMMWVs first saw combat in Operation Just Cause, the U. S. invasion of Panama in 1989, the HMMWV was designed primarily for personnel and light cargo transport behind front lines, not as a front line fighting vehicle. Like the previous jeep, the basic HMMWV has no armor or protection against chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear threats, nevertheless, losses were relatively low in conventional operations, such as the Gulf War. Vehicles and crews suffered considerable damage and losses during the Battle of Mogadishu in 1993 due to the nature of the urban engagement
39.
Edgewood Chemical Activity
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The Edgewood Chemical Activity was a U. S. Army site located in Edgewood, Maryland that stored chemical weapons. Its construction was started by Ordnance Corps in November 1917 and completed in less than a year, the arsenal was to employ about 10,000 civilian and military personnel in fabrication of chemical weapons and filling gas shells with phosgene, chlorpicrin, chlorine and mustard gas. Since 1941, the U. S. Army stored approximately five percent of the original chemical agent in steel ton containers. Construction of the Aberdeen Chemical Agent Disposal Facility was completed in 2002, destruction was completed in February 2006, with 1,622 tons of agent destroyed. This facility used neutralization followed by bio-treatment to destroy mustard gas agent drained from ton containers, the facilitys permit was officially closed in June 2007. Edgewood Arsenal experiments United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense Official site
40.
Chemical weapon
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A chemical weapon is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans. Munitions or other devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves. Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of destruction, though they are distinct from nuclear weapons, biological weapons. All may be used in warfare and are known by the military acronym NBC, Weapons of mass destruction are distinct from conventional weapons, which are primarily effective due to their explosive, kinetic, or incendiary potential. Chemical weapons can be dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms. Nerve gas, tear gas and pepper spray are three examples of CW. Lethal, unitary, chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile, unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most dangerous of these are agents, GA, GB, GD, and VX as well as vesicant agents, which are formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT. They all are liquids at room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during the First World War, the effects of so-called mustard gas, phosgene gas and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming. As of 2016, CS gas and pepper spray remain in use for policing and riot control, while CS is considered a non-lethal weapon. Under the Chemical Weapons Convention, there is a binding, worldwide ban on the production, stockpiling. Notwithstanding, large stockpiles of CW continue to exist, usually justified as a precaution against putative use by an aggressor. A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers, the parties would abstain from using projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases. The Washington Naval Treaty, signed February 6,1922, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, aimed at banning CW, the subsequent failure to include CW has contributed to the resultant increase in stockpiles. It was signed at Geneva June 17,1925, and entered force on February 8,1928. 133 nations are listed as state parties to the treaty, ukraine is the newest signatory, acceding August 7,2003. This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are justly condemned by the opinion of the civilised world
41.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
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Eli D. Hoyle
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Eli DuBose Hoyle was a Brigadier General in the United States Army. He is most noted for his Command of the Port of Embarkation at Governors Island in New York Harbor during World War I, for which he received the Distinguished Service Medal and Soldiers Medal. Hoyle was born in Canton, Georgia on July 19,1851, Hoyle graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1875, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant of Field Artillery. His brother George S. Hoyle and he were notable as two of the first post-American Civil War West Point students from former Confederate states. During Hoyles early years in the Army his service included, instructor at West Point, the response to the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. Hoyle was promoted to, first lieutenant in 1883, captain in 1898, major in 1898, major in 1903, lieutenant colonel in 1907, colonel in 1911 and he retired in 1915, but was recalled to active duty for World War I. During his World War I recall to active duty he was assigned as commander of the Department of the East, Hoyle died in Washington, D. C. on July 27,1921. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Section South, Site Lot 4442, Hoyle was married to Fanny De Russy, the daughter of Brigadier General René Edward De Russy. Their son Rene Edward De Russy Hoyle was a career Army officer who attained the rank of Major General, fort Hoyle, an artillery post in Maryland which operated from 1922 to 1940, was named for him. Eli D. Hoyle at Arlington Cemetery. net Eli D. Hoyle at Military Times Hall of Valor
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