1.
Welsh language
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Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
2.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
3.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
4.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
5.
Aberystwyth
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Aberystwyth is a historic market town, administrative centre, and holiday resort within Ceredigion, West Wales, often colloquially known as Aber. It is located near the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, historically part of Cardiganshire, since the late 19th century, Aberystwyth has also been a major Welsh educational centre, with the establishment of a university college there in 1872. At the 2001 census, the population was 15,935. During nine months of the year, there is an influx of students—to a total number of 10,400 as of September 2012, including the suburbs of Llanbadarn Fawr, the population is 16,420. The town is situated near the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, although the name may seem to suggest otherwise, only the River Rheidol passes through the town, following the reconstruction of the harbour, the River Ystwyth skirts the town. Today, it comprises a number of different areas, Aberystwyth town, Llanbadarn Fawr, Waunfawr, Llanbadarn, Trefechan. Aberystwyth is a town, considering the population density of the United Kingdom. The Welsh capital, Cardiff, is over 100 miles away, London is 210 miles distant from Aberystwyth. Aberystwyth experiences a climate similar to almost all of the United Kingdom. This is particularly pronounced due to its west coast location facing the Irish Sea, air undergoes little land moderation and so temperatures closely reflect the sea temperature when winds are coming from the predominant onshore direction. The nearest Met Office weather station is Gogerddan,3 miles to the northeast, the absolute maximum temperature is 34.6 °C, set during July 2006. Typically the warmest day will average 28.0 °C and 5.6 days will achieve a maximum of 25.1 °C or above, the absolute minimum temperature is −13.5 °C, set in January 2010. Typically 39.8 days will register an air frost, rainfall averages 1,112 mm a year, with over 1mm recorded on 161 days. All averages refer to the 1971–2000 period, Aberystwyth is a tourist destination, and forms a cultural link between North Wales and South Wales. Constitution Hill, scaled by the Aberystwyth Cliff Railway, gives access to views and to other attractions at the summit. Scenic Mid Wales landscape within easy reach of the town includes the wilderness of the Cambrian Mountains, whose valleys contain forests, a convenient way to access the interior is by the preserved narrow-gauge Vale of Rheidol Railway. Although the town is modern, there are a number of historic buildings, including the remains of the castle. The Old College was originally built and opened in 1865 as a hotel, the new university campus overlooks Aberystwyth from Penglais Hill to the east of the town centre
6.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
7.
University of Wales
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The University of Wales was a confederal university based in Cardiff, Wales, UK. The university was the second largest university in the UK, a federal university similar to the University of London, the University of Wales, UK was in charge of examining students, while its colleges were in charge of teaching. Historically, the University of Wales was the university in Wales until the establishment of the University of Glamorgan in 1992. In recent years, it announced its intention to merge with the University of Wales, Lampeter, Trinity University College, in 2007, the University of Wales changed from a federal structure to a confederal one and many of the constituent colleges became independent universities. As a result of a number of controversies in the late 2000s involving overseas affiliates and student visas and this process is projected to be completed in 2017. Prior to the foundation of the university, these three colleges had prepared students for the examinations of the University of London. A fourth college, Swansea, was added in 1920 and in 1931 the Welsh National School of Medicine was incorporated, in 1967 the Welsh College of Advanced Technology entered the federal university as the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology, also in Cardiff. In 1971 St Davids College, Wales oldest degree-awarding institution, suspended its own degree-awarding powers, a financial crisis in the late eighties caused UWIST and University College Cardiff to merge in 1988, forming the University of Wales College of Cardiff. In 1992 the university lost its position as the university in Wales when the Polytechnic of Wales became the University of Glamorgan. The existing colleges became constituent institutions and the two new member institutions became university colleges, in 2003, both of these colleges became full constituent institutions and in 2004 UWCN received permission from the Privy Council to change its name to the University of Wales, Newport. Cardiff University and the University of Wales College of Medicine merged on 1 August 2004, the merged institution, known as Cardiff University, ceased to be a constituent institution and joined a new category of Affiliated/Linked Institutions. At the same time, the university admitted four new institutions, the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama subsequently left the university in January 2007. In November 2008, Aberystwyth, Bangor and Swansea Universities decided to exercise their right to students to study for their own awarded degrees. In October, the University announced that it would cease validating courses and this led to calls from the vice chancellors of the universities of Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, Glamorgan and Swansea for the University of Wales to be wound up. It was announced later in October that the University of Wales would be effectively abolished, which itself merged with Swansea Metropolitan University on 1 August 2013. At present, the University of Wales is still functioning in its own right, the administrative office of the University of Wales is located in Cardiffs Civic Centre. It runs a highly rated research centre, the Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies, the first edition of Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, which has the same status for Welsh as the OED does for English, was completed in 2002, eighty-two years after it had been started. The University of Wales Press was founded in 1922 and publishes around seventy books a year in both English and Welsh, the university also has a study and conference centre at Gregynog, near Newtown
8.
Association of MBAs
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The Association of MBAs is a global organisation founded in 1967 which focuses primarily on international business school accreditation and membership. Based in London, AMBA is one of the three main global accreditation bodies in business education and styles itself as the worlds authority on postgraduate management education. It differs from AACSB in the US and EQUIS in Brussels as it accredits a schools portfolio of postgraduate management programmes but does not accredit undergraduate programmes, all MBA students and alumni of the 245 accredited member schools join AMBA as individual members free of charge. AMBA also accredits generalist MBM programmes and DBA programmes, and admits as members students, AMBAs long-serving president is Sir Paul Judge, the founding benefactor of Cambridge Judge Business School. AMBAs current Chief Executive is Andrew Main Wilson, who joined the organisation from the Institute of Directors in 2013, len Jones was elected Chairman of the AMBA Board of Trustees in 2014. The founders saw a lack of awareness in Europe of the value of the MBA degree and they decided to form a lobby and membership group to promote the benefits of postgraduate business education, under the name of Business Graduates Association. The Associations first Director General was Vice-Admiral David Clutterbuck who assumed this position in 1969, in 1983 BGA began to accredit the growing number of MBA programmes, while preserving its functions as a membership organization. BGA was renamed Association of MBAs in 1987, the Associations current president is Sir Paul Judge, who helped establish Cambridge Judge Business School in 1990 and whose name the school continues to carry. The Association of MBAs accredits MBA, MBM and DBA degree programmes, the Associations process of accrediting a schools MBA programmes portfolio includes reviewing compliance AMBAs MBA criteria, most of them qualitative rather than quantitative. AMBA holds three annual conferences for business school deans and directors, a Global Conference, an Asia Pacific Conference. Participation is open to both accredited and non-accredited schools, AMBA also hosts an annual Gala Dinner in London, which is open only to accredited schools. AMBA also organizes webinars, lectures and networking events on a regular basis catering to MBA alumni, current MBA students, prospective MBA students and these on-campus events are held at accredited business schools and often feature distinguished speakers and practitioners in fields such as leadership, entrepreneurship and innovation
9.
Association of Commonwealth Universities
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The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the worlds first and oldest international university network, established in 1913, a UK-registered charity, the ACU has over 500 member institutions in developed and developing countries across the Commonwealth. Drawing on the experience and expertise, the ACU seeks to address issues in international higher education through a range of projects, networks. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is governed by its member institutions through an elected Council, as the ACU is a UK-registered charity, Council members also act as its Trustees. The ACU Council comprises up to 23 members,20 elected Council members, in 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire. They decided they needed a bureau of information and its affairs would be handled by a committee representing universities at home and abroad. In 1913 the office opened as the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, in 1948 the name was changed to Association of Universities of the British Commonwealth, and in 1963 it changed to its current name. Dr Anastasios Christodoulou was the Secretary General of the Association of Commonwealth Universities from 1980 to 1996, in 1986, Queen Elizabeth II became patron of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Currently 37 countries from the Commonwealth are represented in the Association
10.
Universities UK
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Universities UK is an advocacy organisation for universities in the United Kingdom. The current president is Dame Julia Goodfellow, vice-chancellor of the University of Kent, the current Chief Executive is Nicola Dandridge. In 1918 the first consultative meeting of all vice-chancellors was held, at that time, the committee consisted of just twenty-two universities and university colleges. In the early 1980s, they commissioned the Jarratt report, published in 1985, on 1 December 2000, CVCP’s name, logo and identity were changed to Universities UK in order to reflect changes which had taken place in the organisation in recent years. Universities UKs task is to support the work of universities and promote their interests, there is also an additional group, Universities Scotland, whose membership comprises the Universities UK members in Scotland. Universities Scotland promotes and supports the work of Universities UK, the percentage of state educated school students at the prestigious Russell Group universities has been falling. State educated secondary school pupils eligible for school meals are very much less likely to go to Oxbridge than privately educated pupils. Overall more young people are entering university than previously and it is hoped this will improve social mobility, cutbacks in government funding for students may deter poorer potential students from going to university according to the education charity, Sutton Trust. Following comments by Prime Minister David Cameron that universities should not enforce gender segregation on audiences the case study which triggered this debate was withdrawn. The Efficiency and effectiveness in higher education, A report by the Universities UK Efficiency, in response to the report the Efficiency Exchange was set up to help higher education institutions to share ideas and good practice. The Exchange facilitates the sharing of resources, Universities UK health work programme addresses the NHS education reforms, research and innovation and AHSNs, healthcare employment and health education regulation. In 2012 A picture of health and education was published which depicts the vital connections between higher education and healthcare, in July 2015 UUK launched a campaign in support of the UKs continuing membership of the EU which generated wide media coverage. This was criticised by some Conservative and UKIP Members of the European Parliament who said such political activity undertaken by a registered charity which is largely state-funded was wrong
11.
Thomas Charles Edwards
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Thomas Charles Edwards was a Welsh minister, writer and academic who was the first Principal of the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Thomas Charles Edwards was born at Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire, Edwards was the son of Lewis Edwards, founder of the Bala Theological College. His mother was a granddaughter of Thomas Charles, the organiser of Welsh Calvinistic Methodism and he was educated at his fathers college in Bala, at St Alban Hall, Oxford and at Lincoln College, Oxford. At Oxford he was influenced by Mark Pattison and Benjamin Jowett. He began preaching with the Presbyterian Church of Wales in 1856 and he became minister of the Windsor Street chapel in Liverpool, and later of the Catherine Street chapel in the same city. He was accounted one of the preachers of his generation. In 1872 the new university at Aberystwyth was founded, and Edwards was appointed as the first Principal and he resigned from this post in 1891, partly for health reasons and partly to follow his father as head of the Bala Theological College. He was Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in 1887 and he married Mary Roberts in 1876, they had four children. He died at Bala on 22 March 1900, a commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians. US publication of second edition, New York City, A. C. Armstrong & Son —, memoir of his father, Lewis Edwards. Also published by, New York City, A. C. Armstrong & Son, Toronto, bywyd a Llythyrau y Diweddar Barch Lewis Edwards. A statue of Thomas Charles Edwards was unveiled in July 1922 in the forecourt of University College of Wales, dictionary of National Biography,1901 supplement. Works by Thomas Charles Edwards at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Thomas Charles Edwards at Internet Archive
12.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
13.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
14.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
15.
William Ewart Gladstone
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William Ewart Gladstone, FRS, FSS was a British Liberal and earlier conservative politician. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times, more than any other person, Gladstone was also Britains oldest Prime Minister, he resigned for the final time when he was 84 years old. Gladstone first entered Parliament in 1832, beginning as a High Tory, Gladstone served in the Cabinet of Sir Robert Peel. After the split of the Conservatives Gladstone was a Peelite – in 1859 the Peelites merged with the Whigs, as Chancellor Gladstone became committed to low public spending and to electoral reform, earning him the sobriquet The Peoples William. Gladstones first ministry saw many reforms including the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland, after his electoral defeat in 1874, Gladstone resigned as leader of the Liberal Party, but from 1876 began a comeback based on opposition to Turkeys reaction to the Bulgarian April Uprising. Gladstones Midlothian Campaign of 1879–80 was an example of many modern political campaigning techniques. The government also passed the Third Reform Act, Back in office in early 1886, Gladstone proposed Irish home rule but this was defeated in the House of Commons in July. The resulting split in the Liberal Party helped keep out of office, with one short break. In 1892 Gladstone formed his last government at the age of 82, the Second Home Rule Bill passed the Commons but was defeated in the Lords in 1893. Gladstone resigned in March 1894, in opposition to increased naval expenditure and he left Parliament in 1895 and died three years later aged 88. Gladstone was known affectionately by his supporters as The Peoples William or the G. O. M, Gladstone is consistently ranked as one of Britains greatest Prime Ministers. Born in 1809 in Liverpool, at 62 Rodney Street, William Ewart Gladstone was the son of the slave-owning merchant Sir John Gladstone. Although born and brought up in Liverpool, William Gladstone was of purely Scottish ancestry, in 1814 young Willy visited Scotland for the first time, as he and his brother John travelled with their father to Edinburgh, Biggar and Dingwall to visit their relatives. William and his brother were both made freemen of the burgh of Dingwall, in 1815 Gladstone also travelled to London and Cambridge for the first time with his parents. In London he attended a service of thanksgiving with his family at St Pauls Cathedral following the Battle of Waterloo, William Gladstone was educated from 1816 to 1821 at a preparatory school at the vicarage of St Thomass Church at Seaforth, close to his familys residence, Seaforth House. In December 1831 he achieved the double first-class degree he had long desired, Gladstone served as President of the Oxford Union debating society, where he developed a reputation as an orator, which followed him into the House of Commons. At university Gladstone was a Tory and denounced Whig proposals for parliamentary reform, following the success of his double first, William travelled with his brother John on a Grand Tour of Europe, visiting Belgium, France, Germany and Italy. On his return to England, William was elected to Parliament in 1832 as Tory Member of Parliament for Newark, partly through the influence of the local patron, the Duke of Newcastle
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Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
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Welsh Dragon
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The Welsh Dragon appears on the national flag of Wales. Its association with these leaders along with evidence from archaeology, literature. During the reigns of the Tudor monarchs, the red dragon was used as a supporter in the English Crowns coat of arms, the red dragon is often seen as symbolising all things Welsh, and is used by many public and private institutions. C. Newport Gwent Dragons, and London Welsh RFC, in the Mabinogion story Lludd and Llefelys, the red dragon fights with an invading White Dragon. His pained shrieks cause women to miscarry, animals to perish, Lludd, king of Britain, goes to his wise brother Llefelys in France. Llefelys tells him to dig a pit in the centre of Britain, fill it with mead, Lludd does this, and the dragons drink the mead and fall asleep. Lludd imprisons them, still wrapped in their cloth, in Dinas Emrys in Snowdonia, the tale is taken up in the Historia Brittonum. The dragons remain at Dinas Emrys for centuries until King Vortigern tries to build a castle there, every night the castle walls and foundations are demolished by unseen forces. Vortigern consults his advisers, who tell him to find a boy with no natural father, Vortigern finds such a boy who is supposed to be the wisest wizard ever to live. On hearing that he is to be put to death to end the demolition of the walls, the boy is dismissive of the advice, Vortigern excavates the hill, freeing the dragons. They continue their fight and the red dragon finally defeats the white dragon, the boy tells Vortigern that the white dragon symbolises the Saxons and that the red dragon symbolises the people of Vortigern. If Vortigern is accepted to have lived in the 5th century, then people are the British whom the Saxons failed to subdue. The same story is repeated in Geoffrey of Monmouths History of the Kings of Britain, note that Arthurs father was named Uther Pendragon. Owain Glyndŵrs banner known as Y Ddraig Aur or The Golden Dragon and it was famously raised over Caernarfon during the Battle of Tuthill in 1401 against the English. Henry Tudor flew the red dragon of Cadwaladr ap Cadwallon as his banner, overlaid on a green and white representing the Tudor House. After the battle the flag was carried in state to St. Pauls Cathedral to be blessed, in 1953, the red dragon badge of Henry VII was given an augmentation of honour. The badge was the basis of a flag of Wales in which it was placed on a background divided horizontally with the top half white, in 1959, Government use of this flag was dropped in favour of the current flag at the urging of the Gorsedd of Bards. The badge is used by the Wales Office and is printed on Statutory Instruments made by the National Assembly for Wales
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Eagle
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Eagle is a common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae, it belongs to several groups of genera that are not necessarily closely related to each other. Most of the 60 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa, outside this area, just 14 species can be found – two in North America, nine in Central and South America, and three in Australia. Eagles are large, powerfully built birds of prey, with heavy heads, most eagles are larger than any other raptors apart from some vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the South Nicobar serpent eagle, the largest species are discussed below. Like all birds of prey, eagles have large, hooked beaks for ripping flesh from their prey, strong, muscular legs. The beak is typically heavier than that of most other birds of prey, Eagles eyes are extremely powerful, having up to 3.6 times human acuity for the martial eagle, which enables them to spot potential prey from a very long distance. This keen eyesight is primarily attributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure minimal diffraction of the incoming light, the female of all known species of eagles is larger than the male. Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched, the dominant chick tends to be a female, as they are bigger than the male. The parents take no action to stop the killing, due to the size and power of many eagle species, they are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex predators in the avian world. The type of prey varies by genus, the snake and serpent eagles of the genera Circaetus, Terathopius, and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of snakes found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The eagles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in open habitats, where Aquila eagles are absent, other eagles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle of South America, may assume the position of top raptorial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, including the species-rich Spizaetus genus, live predominantly in woodlands and these eagles often target various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds, which are often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense, knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among the species and genera, with some individual eagles having engaged in quite varied techniques based their environment, most eagles grab prey without landing and take flight with it, so the prey can be carried to a perch and torn apart. The bald eagle is noted for having flown with the heaviest load verified to be carried by any flying bird, golden and crowned eagles have killed ungulates weighing up to 30 kg and a martial eagle even killed a 37 kg duiker, 7–8 times heavier than the preying eagle. It has been observed that most birds of prey look back over their shoulders before striking prey, all hawks seem to have this habit, from the smallest kestrel to the largest Ferruginous – but not the Eagles. Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey, only the condors and it is regularly debated which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body mass, different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species
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Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
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F. Gwendolen Rees
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Florence Gwendolen Rees, FRS was a Welsh zoologist and parasitologist. She was the first Welsh woman to become a fellow of the Royal Society, by the time she was 80 years old, she had published 68 papers. Rees was born in the Welsh town of Aberdare in 1906 and she attended University College, Cardiff with three scholarships. During her time there, she studied chemistry, biology and zoology, Rees then went on to complete her doctorate in 18 months, studying the trematode parasites in different species of snails. Over the course of 100 days she collected more than 5,000 snails from nearly 90 locations in Glamorgan and she was also Chairman of the School of Biological Studies and acting Head of Department. During her time as a member at the University College of Wales at Aberystwyth Rees supervised 215 honors students and 25 post-graduate students. Her research was in the area of helminthology, focusing on systematics, comparative morphology, histology. Her work was important in elucidating the relationship of these parasites with their intermediate hosts. From 1960 to 1981 Rees was involved with the publication Parasitology, for the first 10 years, she was a member of the editorial board and then went on to serve as chair of the editorial board until 1981. She was a member of the British Society for Parasitology. Rees became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1971, the first Welsh woman to be elected and she was also elected Fellow of the Institute of Biology in the same year. She received the Linnean Medal, the highest award of the Linnean Society and she was also featured in a 1975 Vogue article on influential and interesting British women
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Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
22.
Ambassador
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The word is also often used more liberally for persons who are known, without national appointment, to represent certain professions, activities and fields of endeavor such as sales. An ambassador is the government representative stationed in a foreign capital. The host country typically allows the control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, an ambassador has the highest diplomatic rank, countries may choose to maintain diplomatic relations at a lower level by appointing a chargé daffaires in place of an ambassador. The equivalent to an Ambassador exchanged among members of the Commonwealth of Nations are known as High Commissioners, the ambassadors of the Holy See are known as Papal or Apostolic Nuncios. The first known usage of the term is known to be in the 14th century, the foreign government to which an ambassador is assigned must first approve the person. In some cases, the government might reverse its approval by declaring the diplomat a persona non grata. This kind of declaration usually results in recalling the ambassador to his/her home nation, due to the advent of modern travel, todays world is a much smaller place in relative terms. As an officer of the service, an ambassador is expected to protect the citizens of his home country in the host country. Another result of the increase in travel is the growth of trade between nations. For most countries, the economy is now part of the global economy. This means increased opportunities to sell and trade with other nations, one of the cornerstones of foreign diplomatic missions is to work for peace. This task can grow into a fight against international terrorism, the trade, international bribery. Ambassadors help stop these acts, helping people across the globe and these activities are important and sensitive and are usually carried out in coordination with the Defense Ministry of the state and the head of the nation. The rise of the diplomatic system was a product of the Italian Renaissance. The use of ambassadors became a strategy in Italy during the 17th century. The political changes in Italy altered the role of ambassadors in diplomatic affairs, because many of the states in Italy were small in size, they were particularly vulnerable to larger states. The ambassador system was used to disperse information and to protect the vulnerable states
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United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
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Artificial intelligence
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Artificial intelligence is intelligence exhibited by machines. Colloquially, the artificial intelligence is applied when a machine mimics cognitive functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as learning. As machines become increasingly capable, mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition, for instance, optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of artificial intelligence, having become a routine technology. AI research is divided into subfields that focus on specific problems or on specific approaches or on the use of a tool or towards satisfying particular applications. The central problems of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, general intelligence is among the fields long-term goals. Approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence, and traditional symbolic AI, Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics. The AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, the field was founded on the claim that human intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly, while thought-capable artificial beings appeared as storytelling devices in antiquity, the idea of actually trying to build a machine to perform useful reasoning may have begun with Ramon Llull. With his Calculus ratiocinator, Gottfried Leibniz extended the concept of the calculating machine, since the 19th century, artificial beings are common in fiction, as in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein or Karel Čapeks R. U. R. The study of mechanical or formal reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity, in the 19th century, George Boole refined those ideas into propositional logic and Gottlob Frege developed a notational system for mechanical reasoning. Around the 1940s, Alan Turings theory of computation suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1 and this insight, that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning, is known as the Church–Turing thesis. Along with concurrent discoveries in neurology, information theory and cybernetics, the first work that is now generally recognized as AI was McCullouch and Pitts 1943 formal design for Turing-complete artificial neurons. The field of AI research was born at a conference at Dartmouth College in 1956, attendees Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and Arthur Samuel became the founders and leaders of AI research. At the conference, Newell and Simon, together with programmer J. C, shaw, presented the first true artificial intelligence program, the Logic Theorist. This spurred tremendous research in the domain, computers were winning at checkers, solving problems in algebra, proving logical theorems. By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U. S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense and laboratories had been established around the world. AIs founders were optimistic about the future, Herbert Simon predicted, machines will be capable, within twenty years, Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, within a generation. The problem of creating artificial intelligence will substantially be solved and they failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks
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Computational biology
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Computational Biology, sometimes referred to as bioinformatics, is the science of using biological data to develop algorithms and relations among various biological systems. Prior to the advent of computational biology, biologists did not have access to large amounts of data, researchers were able to develop analytical methods for interpreting biological information, but were unable to share them quickly among colleagues. Bioinformatics began to develop in the early 1970s and it was considered the science of analyzing informatics processes of various biological systems. At this time, research in intelligence was using network models of the human brain in order to generate new algorithms. This use of data to develop other fields pushed biological researchers to revisit the idea of using computers to evaluate. By 1982, information was being shared amongst researchers through the use of punch cards, the amount of data being shared began to grow exponentially by the end of the 1980s. This required the development of new methods in order to quickly analyze. Since the late 1990s, computational biology has become an important part of developing emerging technologies for the field of biology, the terms computational biology and evolutionary computation have a similar name, but are not to be confused. Unlike computational biology, evolutionary computation is not concerned with modeling and analyzing biological data and it instead creates algorithms based on the ideas of evolution across species. Sometimes referred to as genetic algorithms, the research of this field can be applied to computational biology, while evolutionary computation is not inherently a part of computational biology, Computational evolutionary biology is a subfield of it. Computational biology has been used to sequence the human genome, create accurate models of the human brain. Computational anatomy is a discipline focusing on the study of anatomical shape and it involves the development and application of computational, mathematical and data-analytical methods for modeling and simulation of biological structures. It focuses on the structures being imaged, rather than the medical imaging devices. It is similar in spirit to the history of Computational linguistics, at Computational anatomys heart is the comparison of shape by recognizing in one shape the other. This connects it to DArcy Wentworth Thompsons developments On Growth and Form which has led to scientific explanations of morphogenesis, the original formulation of Computational anatomy is as a generative model of shape and form from exemplars acted upon via transformations. It is a branch of the analysis and pattern theory school at Brown University pioneered by Ulf Grenander. The models of metric pattern theory, in group action on the orbit of shapes. Computational biomodeling is a field concerned with building computer models of biological systems, Computational biomodeling aims to develop and use visual simulations in order to assess the complexity of biological systems
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Computer vision
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Computer vision is an interdisciplinary field that deals with how computers can be made for gaining high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the visual system can do. g. in the forms of decisions. Understanding in this means the transformation of visual images into descriptions of the world that can interface with other thought processes. This image understanding can be seen as the disentangling of symbolic information from image data using models constructed with the aid of geometry, physics, statistics, as a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as sequences, views from multiple cameras. As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply its theories, sub-domains of computer vision include scene reconstruction, event detection, video tracking, object recognition, object pose estimation, learning, indexing, motion estimation, and image restoration. Computer vision is a field that deals with how computers can be made for gaining high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the visual system can do. Computer vision is concerned with the extraction, analysis and understanding of useful information from a single image or a sequence of images. It involves the development of a theoretical and algorithmic basis to achieve automatic visual understanding, as a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as sequences, views from multiple cameras. As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply its theories, in the late 1960s, computer vision began at universities that were pioneering artificial intelligence. It was meant to mimic the visual system, as a stepping stone to endowing robots with intelligent behavior. In 1966, it was believed that this could be achieved through a project, by attaching a camera to a computer. The next decade saw studies based on rigorous mathematical analysis. These include the concept of scale-space, the inference of shape from various cues such as shading, texture and focus, researchers also realized that many of these mathematical concepts could be treated within the same optimization framework as regularization and Markov random fields. By the 1990s, some of the research topics became more active than the others. Research in projective 3-D reconstructions led to better understanding of camera calibration, with the advent of optimization methods for camera calibration, it was realized that a lot of the ideas were already explored in bundle adjustment theory from the field of photogrammetry
27.
Robotics
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Robotics is the interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that includes mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, and others. Robotics deals with the design, construction, operation, and use of robots, as well as systems for their control, sensory feedback. These technologies are used to develop machines that can substitute for humans, Robots can be used in any situation and for any purpose, but today many are used in dangerous environments, manufacturing processes, or where humans cannot survive. Robots can take on any form but some are made to resemble humans in appearance and this is said to help in the acceptance of a robot in certain replicative behaviors usually performed by people. Such robots attempt to replicate walking, lifting, speech, cognition, many of todays robots are inspired by nature, contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. Throughout history, it has been assumed that robots will one day be able to mimic human behavior. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, Robotics is also used in STEM as a teaching aid. The word robotics was derived from the robot, which was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R. U. R. which was published in 1920. The word robot comes from the Slavic word robota, which means labour, the play begins in a factory that makes artificial people called robots, creatures who can be mistaken for humans – very similar to the modern ideas of androids. Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word and he wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother Josef Čapek as its actual originator. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov, published in May 1941 in Astounding Science Fiction. Asimov was unaware that he was coining the term, since the science and technology of electrical devices is electronics, he assumed robotics already referred to the science and technology of robots. In some of Asimovs other works, he states that the first use of the word robotics was in his short story Runaround, however, the original publication of Liar. Predates that of Runaround by ten months, so the former is generally cited as the words origin, in 1942, the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov created his Three Laws of Robotics. In 1948, Norbert Wiener formulated the principles of cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics, fully autonomous only appeared in the second half of the 20th century. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine, commercial and industrial robots are widespread today and used to perform jobs more cheaply, more accurately and more reliably, than humans. They are also employed in jobs which are too dirty, dangerous. For example, a designed to travel across heavy dirt or mud
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MUD
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A MUD, is a multiplayer real-time virtual world, usually text-based. MUDs combine elements of role-playing games, hack and slash, player versus player, interactive fiction, players can read or view descriptions of rooms, objects, other players, non-player characters, and actions performed in the virtual world. Players typically interact with other and the world by typing commands that resemble a natural language. Traditional MUDs implement a video game set in a fantasy world populated by fictional races and monsters. The objective of this sort of game is to slay monsters, explore a world, complete quests, go on adventures, create a story by roleplaying. Many MUDs were fashioned around the rules of the Dungeons & Dragons series of games. MUDs have attracted the interest of scholars from many fields, including communications, sociology, law. At one time, there was interest from the United States military in using them for teleconferencing, most MUDs are run as hobbies and are free to players, some may accept donations or allow players to purchase virtual items, while others charge a monthly subscription fee. MUDs can be accessed via standard telnet clients, or specialized MUD clients which are designed to improve the user experience, numerous games are listed at various web portals, such as The Mud Connector. Indeed, before the invention of the term MMORPG, games of this style were simply called graphical MUDs, a number of influential MMORPG designers began as MUD developers and/or players or were involved with early MUDs. Colossal Cave Adventure, created in 1975 by Will Crowther on a DEC PDP-10 computer, was the first widely used adventure game, the game was significantly expanded in 1976 by Don Woods. Also called Adventure, it contained many D&D features and references, numerous graphical MUDs were created on the PLATO system at the University of Illinois and other American universities that used PLATO, beginning in 1975. Among them were pedit5, oubliette, moria, avathar, krozair, dungeon, dnd, crypt, PLATO MUDs are often ignored by historians and by the creators of other MUDs whose work came later. Inspired by Adventure, a group of students at MIT in the summer of 1977 wrote a game for the PDP-10 minicomputer, called Zork, Zork was ported, under the filename DUNGEN, to FORTRAN by a programmer working at DEC in 1978. In 1978 Roy Trubshaw, a student at Essex University in the UK and he named the game MUD, in tribute to the Dungeon variant of Zork, which Trubshaw had greatly enjoyed playing. Trubshaw converted MUD to BCPL, before handing over development to Richard Bartle, the game revolved around gaining points till one achieved the Wizard rank, giving the character immortality and special powers over mortals. It became the first Internet multiplayer online role-playing game in 1980, the original MUD game was closed down in late 1987, reportedly under pressure from CompuServe, to whom Richard Bartle had licensed the game. This left MIST, a derivative of MUD1 with similar gameplay, as the only remaining MUD running on the Essex University network, MIST ran until the machine that hosted it, a PDP-10, was superseded in early 1991
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Alan Cox
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He maintained the 2.2 branch of the Linux kernel and continues to be heavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel, an association that dates back to 1991. He lives in Swansea, Wales, where he lived with his wife Telsa Gwynne, while employed on the campus of Swansea University, Cox installed a very early version of Linux on one of the machines belonging to the university computer society. This was one of the first Linux installations on a busy network, Cox fixed many of these bugs and went on to rewrite much of the networking subsystem. He then became one of the developers and maintainers of the whole kernel. He maintained the 2.2 branch, and his own versions of the 2.4 branch and this branch was very stable and contained bugfixes that went directly into the vendor kernels. Cox was once regarded as being the second in command after Linus Torvalds himself. On 28 July 2009, Cox quit his role as the TTY layer maintainer, after disagreement with Torvalds about the scope of work required to fix an error in that subsystem, alan was employed by the Linux distributor Red Hat during 1999-2009. He has also involved in the GNOME and X. Org projects, and was the main developer of AberMUD. Alan Cox runs Etched Pixels, a train company producing N gauge kits. Alan Cox is an ardent supporter of programming freedom, and an opponent of software patents, the DMCA. He resigned from a subgroup of Usenix in protest, and said he would not visit the United States for fear of being imprisoned after the arrest of Dmitry Sklyarov for DMCA violations. In January 2007, he applied for a series of patents on RMS and it is said that he has filed a patent for digital rights management. Coxs former employer, has stated that it not use patents against free software projects. Cox is also an adviser to the Foundation for Information Policy Research, Cox was the recipient of the Free Software Foundations 2003 Award for the Advancement of Free Software at the FOSDEM conference in Brussels. On 5 October 2005, Cox received an achievement award at the LinuxWorld awards in London. The University of Wales Trinity Saint David Awarded Cox an Honorary Fellowship on 18 July 2013 and he received an honorary doctorate from the Swansea University, his Alma Mater, on 20 July 2016. Alan Cox, The maintainer of production version of the Linux kernel, ch.5 of ebook Open Source Pioneers, includes a lot of difficult to find interviews
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Jan Pinkava
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Jan Jaroslav Pinkava, PhD is the director and writer of the Pixar Oscar-winning 1997 short film Geris Game and the originator and co-director of Pixars Oscar-winning 2007 film Ratatouille. His family emigrated to Britain in 1969, where he obtained British citizenship and he attended Colchester Royal Grammar School from 1974 to 1982 showing interest and talent in the arts, music, drama and sculpture. After obtaining an 8mm movie camera for Christmas in 1975, he began experimenting with pixilation, stop-motion plasticine, paper-drawn and he had some early prize-winning successes in animation competitions. Most notably, he won the Young Film-Makers Competition of the Year Award 1980 on the long-running BBC childrens quiz series Screen Test for his animated short The Rainbow. After university he turned to a career in computer animation initially in London, with Digital Pictures, in 1993 he joined Pixar, and moved to the USA. His Arrows TV commercial for Listerine won the Gold Clio Award in 1994 and his 1997 animated short Geris Game won the Oscar on his mothers birthday, which prompted him to dedicate the award to her long-distance, with a message in Czech and won a string of other awards. The short film 67 Aluminum Plates was created during the 1998 Ottawa International Animation Festival by a group of volunteers under the direction of Jan Pinkava, the film is stop motion, filmed in one long day and edited the next. It was shown on the night of the festival. In 2000, he work as director on Ratatouille, a European-flavoured. This was to have been his film debut and the first Pixar film beyond the terms of the then-expiring Pixar-Disney franchise. In 2005, Pinkava was replaced as director by The Incredibles director Brad Bird. In an interview given in 2006, Pinkava had no comment about this turn of events, at the time when he was replaced, Pinkava had written the core storyline of the film and created the styling, key characters and sets. Following his departure from the project, Pinkava initially undertook other duties, in the final film, Pinkava is credited for his original story idea and as the co-director. The film was nominated for five Academy Awards, including a nomination for Pinkava in the Best Original Screenplay category and he subsequently worked as a director at LAIKA on his new film Little White Lie, but left in 2011 along with Claire Jennings. In his most recent assignment, with Motorola Mobility, he came up with a new, in-phone and he is the third-born of four children of the Czech polymath Václav Pinkava alias Jan Křesadlo
31.
Academy Awards
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The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the Academy Award of Merit, which has become commonly known by its nickname Oscar. The awards, first presented in 1929 at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, are overseen by AMPAS, the awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is now live in more than 200 countries and can be streamed live online. The Academy Awards ceremony is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music and recording – are modeled after the Academy Awards. The 89th Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2016, were held on February 26,2017, at the Dolby Theatre, in Los Angeles, the ceremony was hosted by Jimmy Kimmel and was broadcast on ABC. A total of 3,048 Oscars have been awarded from the inception of the award through the 88th, the first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16,1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel, the cost of guest tickets for that nights ceremony was $5. Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the industry of the time. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes, winners were announced to media three months earlier, however, that was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11,00 pm on the night of the awards. The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and he had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier, this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, for the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27,1957, until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies always end with the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting, see also § Awards of Merit categories The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. The five spokes represent the branches of the Academy, Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers. The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor Emilio El Indio Fernández, sculptor George Stanley sculpted Cedric Gibbons design. The statuettes presented at the ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze
32.
Geri's Game
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Geris Game is a 1997 computer animated short film made by Pixar, written and directed by Jan Pinkava. The film won an Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 1998, as the game progresses, it seems as though there are two people playing, at one point, the hands of both opponents are in frame. The aggressive Black Geri soon gains the hand over the more docile White Geri. However, White Geri outsmarts Black Geri by faking an attack to distract him. While Black Geri is still distracted, White Geri checkmates what is now his opponents king, finding that now he is the one with only his king left and discovering what has happened, Black Geri resigns the game and hands over a set of false dentures as the prize. White Geri puts them in, then chuckles and grins in his victory, bob Peterson as Geri The first Pixar production to have a human main character, Geris Game was produced with the goal to take human and cloth animation to new heights. The face of the character Geri resembles actor Jonathan Harris, who provided the voice of Geri for his later appearance in Toy Story 2. Chess pieces can be seen in his case, in a nod to the short. Jan Pinkava, the writer and director, has said the character is loosely based on himself and his elderly relatives, particularly his grandfather who was a frequent. This short movie served as a demonstration of a new tool called subdivision surfaces. The music heard on the background is an arrangement of the famous Flambée Montalbanaise. Geris Game premiered on November 24,1997 at Laemmles Monica Theater in Santa Monica and it was also attached to the theatrical release of A Bugs Life in 1998 and was subsequently featured on that films VHS and DVD releases. A VHS recording of the film was released in 1998. However, Geris Game can be found on the DVD Pixar Short Films Collection and it was also released on super-8 film with stereo sound
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Service robot
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Service robots assist human beings, typically by performing a job that is dirty, dull, distant, dangerous or repetitive, including household chores. They typically are autonomous and/or operated by a control system. The term service robot does not have a technical definition. The possible applications of robots to assist in human chores is widespread, at present there are a few main categories that these robots fall into. Domestic robots perform tasks that humans regularly perform in non-industrial environments, like peoples homes such as for cleaning floors, mowing the lawn, people with disabilities, as well as people who are older, may soon be able to use service robots to help them live independently. It is also possible to use robots as assistants or butlers, robotic systems perform many functions such as repetitive tasks performed in research. The ADAM at the University of Aberystwyth in Wales can logical assumptions based on information programmed into it about yeast metabolism and it then set about proving that its predictions were correct. Autonomous scientific robots perform tasks which humans would find difficult or impossible, the Woods Hole Sentry can descend to 4,500 metres and allows a higher payload as it does not need a support ship or the oxygen and other facilities demanded by human piloted vessels. Robots in space include the Mars rovers which could carry out sampling, domestic robot Home automation for the elderly and disabled Robot kit Haidegger T, Barreto M, Goncalves P, Habib MK, Ragavan SKV, Li H et al Applied ontologies and standards for service robots. Sprenger M, Mettler T Service Robots, Business & Information Systems Engineering,57, 271–274
34.
Librarian
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A librarian is a person who works professionally in a library, providing access to information and sometimes social or technical programming. In addition, librarians provide instruction on information literacy and they are usually required to hold a graduate degree from a library school such as a Masters degree in Library Science or Library and Information Studies. Traditionally, a librarian is associated with collections of books, as demonstrated by the etymology of the word librarian, the role of a librarian is continually evolving to meet social and technological needs. Appreciation for librarians is often included by authors and scholars in the acknowledgment sections of books, for history in North America, see Librarians in North America. The Sumerians were the first to train clerks to keep records of accounts, Masters of the books or Keepers of the Tablets were scribes or priests who were trained to handle the vast amount and complexity of these records. The extent of their duties is unknown. Sometime in the 8th century BC, Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria, Ashurbanipal was the first individual in history to introduce librarianship as a profession. All of these tablets were cataloged and arranged in order by subject or type. The Great Library of Alexandria, created by Ptolemy I after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, was created to house the entirety of Greek literature. It was notable for its famous librarians, Demetrius, Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius, Aristophanes, Aristarchus and these scholars contributed significantly to the collection and cataloging of the wide variety of scrolls in the librarys collection. Most notably, Callimachus created what is considered to be the first subject catalogue of the library holdings, the pinakes contained 120 scrolls arranged into ten subject classes, each class was then subdivided, listing authors alphabetically by titles. The librarians at Alexandria were considered the custodians of learning, near the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire, it was common for Roman aristocrats to hold private libraries in their home. Many of these aristocrats, such as Cicero, kept the contents of their libraries to themselves. Others, such as Lucullus, took on the role of lending librarian by sharing scrolls in their collection, many Roman emperors included public libraries into their political propaganda to win favor from citizens. While scholars were employed in librarian roles in the various emperors libraries, for example, Pompeius Macer, the first librarian of Augustus library, was a praetor, an office that combined both military and judicial duties. A later librarian of the library was Gaius Julius Hyginus. Christian monasteries in Europe are credited with keeping the institution of libraries alive after the fall of the Roman Empire and it is during this time that the first book enters popularity, the parchment codex. Within the monasteries, the role of librarian was often filled by an overseer of the scriptorium where monks would copy out books cover to cover, a monk named Anastasias who took on the title of Bibliothecarius following his successful translations of the Greek classicists
