1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Pyramid of Djedefre
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The Pyramid of Djedefre consists today mostly of ruins located at Abu Rawash in Egypt. It is Egypts most northerly pyramid, and is believed to have built by Djedefre, son. If completed, however, it is suggested to have been about the size as the Pyramid of Menkaure — the third largest of the Giza pyramids. It is believed to have originally been the most beautiful of the pyramids, with an exterior of polished, imported granite, limestone, the pyramids ancient name was Djedefres Starry Sky. According to the documentary The Lost Pyramid, aired by the History Channel and it is believed that the pyramid was actually destroyed, though it is unclear why. It is speculated that Djedefre was an unpopular ruler, the pyramid was built over a natural mound and the chambers were created using the pit and ramp method, previously used on some mastaba tombs. Djedefre dug a pit 21m x 9m and 20m deep in the natural mound, a ramp was created at an angle of 22º35 and the chambers and access passage were built within the pit and on the ramp. Once the inner chambers were finished, the pit and ramp were filled in and this allowed the chambers to be made without tunneling, and avoided the structural complications of making chambers within the body of the pyramid itself. He also reverted to a style of construction by creating a rectangular enclosure wall oriented north-south, similar to those of Djoser
3.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
4.
Giza
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Giza, is the third-largest city in Egypt. It is located on the west bank of the Nile,5 km southwest of central Cairo, along with Cairo Governorate, Shubra El-Kheima, Helwan, 6th October City and Obour, the five form Greater Cairo metropolis. The city of Giza is the capital of the Giza Governorate and it is located right on the banks of the River Nile. The citys population was 2,681,863 in the 2006 national census and its large population made it the worlds second largest suburb in 2006, tied with Incheon, South Korea and Quezon City, Philippines, second only to Yokohama, Japan. Giza has always been a point in Egypts history due to its location close to Memphis. Its St. George cathedral is the see of the Coptic Catholic Eparchy of Giza. The Great Pyramid of Giza at one time was advocated as the location for the Prime Meridian, a reference point used for determining a base longitude. Mn Nefer, which means the wall in the ancient Egyptian language. Gizas most famous site, the Giza Plateau, holds some major monuments of Egyptian history. Once thriving with the Nile that flowed right into the Giza Plateau, the Giza Plateau is also home to Egyptian monuments such as the tomb of Pharaoh Djet of the First Dynasty, as well as that of Pharaoh Ninetjer of the Second Dynasty. The area in what is now Giza served as the necropolis of several pharaohs who ruled ancient Egypt, Three of these tombs, in the form of giant pyramids, are what is now the famed Three Pyramids of Giza. As ancient Egypt passed under several conquests under the Persians, Greeks, Romans and Byzantines, a Byzantine village named Teresa, located south of Giza, existed before the Muslim conquest of the region. A year later in 642 AD, they founded the city of Giza and its name, al-Jizzah in Arabic, means the valley or the plateau, pertaining to the areas topography. Giza has seen changes over time. Giza is a centre of Egyptian culture and is quite heavily populated, with many facilities. Giza saw much attention in particular to its vast amount of ancient Egyptian monuments found on the Giza Plateau, gizas infrastructure saw much attention from both the British government prior to the 1952 coup détat, as well as the current Egyptian government due to the citys importance in tourism. The city hosts the first zoo on the entire African continent and one of the oldest in the Mediterranean region, in addition, there are several parks, the most famous among them is Orman Park, which means Forest Park in the Turkish language. Giza has advanced level of medical care just like its elder twin Cairo, a list of famous hospitals in Giza, Agooza in Agouza district
5.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
6.
Pyramid
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A pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single point at the top, making the shape roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, as such, a pyramid has at least three outer triangular surfaces. The square pyramid, with base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common version. A pyramids design, with the majority of the closer to the ground. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures and it has been demonstrated that the common shape of the pyramids of antiquity, from Egypt to Central America, represents the dry-stone construction that requires minimum human work. Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world, khufus Pyramid is built mainly of limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains over 2,000,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tonnes to 15 tonnes and is built on a base with sides measuring about 230 m. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees and it is still the tallest pyramid. The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, the Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats. In ancient times, these were painted in gold/bronze. Since they were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, little remains of them, ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC, the earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC, built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside, the facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks, the number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but there is no evidence for this. Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a ramp from base to summit
7.
Khufu
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Khufu, originally Khnum-Khufu, is the birth name of an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, who ruled during the Fourth Dynasty in the first half of the Old Kingdom period. Khufu was the pharaoh of the 4th dynasty, he followed his possible father, king Sneferu. He is generally accepted as having commissioned the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the only completely preserved portrait of the king is a three-inch high ivory figurine found in a temple ruin of later period at Abydos in 1903. All other reliefs and statues were found in fragments and many buildings of Khufu are lost, everything known about Khufu comes from inscriptions in his necropolis at Giza and later documents. For example, Khufu is the actor of the famous Papyrus Westcar from the 13th dynasty. Most documents that mention king Khufu were written by ancient Egyptian, thanks to these documents, an obscure and critical picture of Khufus personality persists. Khufus name was dedicated to the earth deity Khnum, which point to an increase of Khnums popularity. Khufu may have viewed himself as a creator, a role that was already given to Khnum. As a consequence, the king connected Khnums name with his own, interestingly, the pharaoh officially used two versions of his birth name, Khnum-khuf and Khufu. The first version clearly exhibits Khufus religious loyalty to Khnum, the version does not. It is unknown as to why the king would use a shortened version, since it hides the name of Khnum. It might be possible though, that the name wasnt meant to be connected to any god at all. Khufu is well known under his Hellenized name Khêops or Cheops and less well known under another Hellenized name, a rare version of the name of Khufu, used by Josephus, is Sofe. Arab historians, who wrote stories about Khufu and the Giza pyramids. The royal family of Khufu was quite large and it is uncertain if Khufu was actually the biological son of Sneferu. Mainstream Egyptologists believe Sneferu was Khufus father, but only because it was handed down by historians that the eldest son or a selected descendant would inherit the throne. In 1925 the tomb of queen Hetepheres I, G 7000x, was found east of Khufus pyramid and it contained many precious grave goods, and several inscriptions give her the title Mut-nesut, together with the name of king Sneferu. Therefore, it seemed clear at first that Hetepheres was the wife of Sneferu, more recently, however, some have doubted this theory, because Hetepheres is not known to have borne the title Hemet-nesut, a title indispensable to confirm a queens royal status
8.
Pyramid of Menkaure
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The Pyramid of Menkaure, located on the Giza Plateau in the southwestern outskirts of Cairo, Egypt, is the smallest of the three main Pyramids of Giza. It is thought to have built to serve as the tomb of the fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Menkaure. Menkaures pyramid had a height of 65.5 metres and was the smallest of the three major pyramids at the Giza Necropolis. It now stands at 61 m tall with a base of 108.5 m and its angle of incline is approximately 51°20′25″. It was constructed of limestone and granite, the first sixteen courses of the exterior were made of red granite. The upper portion was cased in the manner with Tura limestone. Part of the granite was left in the rough, incomplete projects such as this pyramid help archaeologists understand the methods used to build pyramids and temples. South of the pyramid of Menkaure are three pyramids that are each accompanied with a temple and have a substructure. The southernmost is the largest and a true pyramid and its casing is partly of granite, like the main pyramid, and is believed to have been completed due to the limestone pyramidion found close by. Neither of the two progressed beyond the construction of the inner core. In the mortuary temple the foundations and the core were made of limestone. The floors were begun with granite and granite facings were added to some of the walls, the foundations of the valley temple were made of stone. However both temples were finished with crude bricks and it was not unusual for a son or successor to complete a temple when a Pharaoh died, so it is not unreasonable to assume that Shepseskaf finished the temples with crude brick. There was an inscription in the temple that said he made it as his monument for his father. During excavations of the temples Reisner found a number of statues mostly of Menkaure alone. These were all carved in the style of the old kingdom with a high degree of detail evident. The pyramids date of construction is unknown, because Menkaures reign has not been accurately defined and it lies a few hundred meters southwest of its larger neighbors, the Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Pyramid of Khufu in the Giza necropolis. Richard William Howard Vyse, who first visited Egypt in 1835, discovered in the upper antechamber the remains of a wooden anthropoid coffin inscribed with Menkaures name, deeper into the pyramid, Vyse came upon a beautiful basalt sarcophagus, rich in detail with a bold projecting corniche
9.
Giza pyramid complex
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The Giza pyramid complex is an archaeological site on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. It is located in the Libyan Desert, approximately 9 km west of the Nile river at the old town of Giza and it is by far the oldest of the ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence. The Great Sphinx lies on the east side of the complex, current consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre. Along with these monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as queens pyramids, causeways. The valley temple was connected to a causeway which was destroyed when the village was constructed. The causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu, from this temple the basalt pavement is the only thing that remains. The mortuary temple was connected to the king’s pyramid, the king’s pyramid has three smaller queen’s pyramids associated with it and five boat pits. The boat pits contained a ship, and the 2 pits on the side of the pyramid still contained intact ships. One of these ships has been restored and is on display, khufus pyramid still has a limited collection of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of white limestone quarried from the nearby range. Khafre’s pyramid complex consists of a temple, the Sphinx temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple. The valley temple yielded several statues of Khafre, several were found in a well in the floor of the temple by Mariette in 1860. Others were found during excavations by Sieglin, Junker, Reisner. Khafre’s complex contained five boat-pits and a pyramid with a serdab. Khafres pyramid retains a prominent display of casing stones at its apex, menkaure’s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king’s pyramid. The valley temple once contained several statues of Menkaure, during the 5th dynasty, a smaller ante-temple was added on to the valley temple. The mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure, the king’s pyramid has three subsidiary or queen’s pyramids. Of the four monuments, only Menkaures pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished limestone casing
10.
Turonian
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The Turonian is, in the ICS geologic timescale, the second age in the Late Cretaceous epoch, or a stage in the Upper Cretaceous series. It spans the time between 93.9 ±0.8 Ma and 89.8 ±1 Ma, the Turonian is preceded by the Cenomanian stage and underlies the Coniacian stage. At the beginning of the Turonian an anoxic event took place which is called the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event or the Bonarelli Event, the Turonian was defined by the French paleontologist Alcide dOrbigny in 1842. Orbigny named it after the French city of Tours in the region of Touraine, the base of the Turonian stage is defined as the place where the ammonite species Wutinoceras devonense first appears in the stratigraphic column. The official reference profile for the base of the Turonian is located in the Rock Canyon anticline near Pueblo, the top of the Turonian stage is defined as the place in the stratigraphic column where the inoceramid bivalve species Cremnoceramus rotundatus first appears. The Turonian is sometimes subdivided in Lower/Early, Middle and Upper/Late substages or subages, inoceramids are bivalve Mollusca related to todays mussels. & Smith, A. G.2004, A Geologic Time Scale 2004, & Cobban, W. A.2005, The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Turonian Stage of the Cretaceous, Pueblo, Colorado, U. S. A
11.
Coniacian
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The Coniacian is an age or stage in the geologic timescale. It is a subdivision of the Late Cretaceous epoch or Upper Cretaceous series, the Coniacian is preceded by the Turonian and followed by the Santonian. The Coniacian is named after the city of Cognac in the French region of Saintonge and it was first defined by French geologist Henri Coquand in 1857. The base of the Coniacian stage is at the first appearance of the bivalve species Cremnoceramus rotundatus. An official reference profile for the base had in 2009 not yet been appointed, the top of the Coniacian is defined by the appearance of the inoceramid bivalve Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus. The Coniacian overlaps the regional Emscherian stage of Germany, which is coeval with the Coniacian and Santonian stages. In magnetostratigraphy, the Coniacian is part of magnetic chronozone C34, the so-called Cretaceous Magnetic Quiet Zone, after a maximum of the global sea level during the early Turonian, the Coniacian was characterized by a gradual fall of the sea level. This cycle is in sequence stratigraphy seen as a first order cycle, during the middle Coniacian a shorter, second order cycle, caused a temporary rise of the sea level on top of the longer first order trend. The following regression separates the Middle from the Upper Coniacian substage, an even shorter third order cycle caused a new transgression during the Late Coniacian. Beginning in the Middle Coniacian, an event occurred in the Atlantic Ocean. The anoxic event lasted till the Middle Santonian and is the longest and last such event during the Cretaceous period, the Coniacian is often subdivided into Lower, Middle and Upper substages. M. & Smith, A. G.2004, A Geologic Time Scale 2004, & Forster, A.2006, Origins and accumulation of organic matter in expanded Albian to Santonian black shale sequences on the Demerara Rise, South American margin, Organic Geochemistry 37, pp 1816–1830
12.
Geological formation
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A formation or geological formation is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. A formation consists of a number of rock strata that have a comparable lithology. Formations are not defined on the thickness of the strata they consist of. The concept of formally defined layers or strata is central to the discipline of stratigraphy. Formations can be divided into members and are themselves frequently parcelled together in groups, the definition and recognition of formations allow geologists to correlate geologic strata across wide distances between outcrops and exposures of rock strata. Formations were initially described to be the essential geologic time markers based on relative ages, the divisions of the geological time scale were the formations described and put in chronological order by the geologists and stratigraphers of the 18th and 19th centuries. Geologic formations are sedimentary rock layers, but may also be metamorphic rocks. Igneous intrusive rocks are not divided into formations. Formations are the only formal lithostratigraphic units into which the stratigraphic column everywhere should be divided completely on the basis of lithology, Formations must be able to be delineated at the scale of geologic mapping practiced in the region. The thickness of formations may range from less than a meter to several thousand meters, geologic formations are typically named for the geographic area in which they were first described. Strictly, formations cannot be defined on any other criteria except primary lithology, sequence stratigraphy is a concept which challenges the idea of strict lithostratigraphic units by defining units based on events in sedimentary basins such as oceanic regressions and transgressions. The term formation is used informally to refer to a specific grouping of rocks. Formation is also used informally to describe the sometimes odd shapes that rocks acquire through erosional or depositional processes, such a formation is said to be abandoned when it is no longer affected by the geologic agent that produced it. Some well known cave formations include stalactites and stalagmites, geochronology List of Rock Formations List of Chinese geological formations List of fossil sites
13.
Rudists
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The size of these conical forms ranged widely from just a few centimeters to well over a meter in length. The small upper valve could take a variety of interesting forms, including, a flat lid, a low cone, a spiral. The rudists became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous, apparently as a result of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. It had been thought that this began a decline about 2.5 million years earlier which culminated in complete extinction half a million years before the end of the Cretaceous. However, evidence now suggests that rudists survived until the extinction event. The rudists are, according to different systematic schemes, placed in the orders Hippuritoida or Rudistes, however, rudists were one of the most important constituents of reefs during the Cretaceous Period. During the Cretaceous, rudist reefs were so successful that they drove scleractinian corals out of tropical environments, including shelves that are today the Caribbean. It is likely that their success as reef builders was at least partially due to the environment of the Cretaceous. Because of their porosity, rudist reefs are highly favored oil traps. An Introduction to the Paleontology of Rudist Bivalves, paleos. com, The Aptian Age Johnson, C. 2002, The rise and fall of Rudist reefs, American Scientist, v.90, Rudist Reef at the Smithsonian Ocean Portal More about Rudists
14.
Depositional environment
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In most cases the environments associated with particular rock types or associations of rock types can be matched to existing analogues. However, the back in geological time sediments were deposited. Sedimentary Environments, Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy, sedimentary Environments Classification Charts Depositional environments on e-notes
15.
Intertidal zone
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The intertidal zone, also known as the foreshore and seashore and sometimes referred to as the littoral zone, is the area that is above water at low tide and under water at high tide. This area can include different types of habitats, with many types of animals, such as starfish, sea urchins. The well-known area also includes rocky cliffs, sandy beaches. The area can be a strip, as in Pacific islands that have only a narrow tidal range. Organisms in the zone are adapted to an environment of harsh extremes. The intertidal zone is home to many several species from different taxa including Porifera, Annelids, Coelenterates, Mollusks, crustaceans, Arthropods. Water is available regularly with the tides but varies from fresh with rain to highly saline, wave splash can dislodge residents from the littoral zone. With the intertidal zones high exposure to the sun, the range can be anything from very hot with full sun to near freezing in colder climates. Some microclimates in the zone are ameliorated by local features. Adaptation in the littoral zone allows the use of nutrients supplied in high volume on a basis from the sea. Edges of habitats, in this land and sea, are themselves often significant ecologies. Along most shores, the zone can be clearly separated into the following subzones, high tide zone, middle tide zone. The intertidal zone is one of a number of biomes or habitats, including estuaries, neritic, surface. Marine biologists divide the region into three zones, based on the overall average exposure of the zone. The low intertidal zone, which borders on the shallow subtidal zone, is exposed to air at the lowest of low tides and is primarily marine in character. The mid intertidal zone is exposed and submerged by average tides. The high intertidal zone is covered by the highest of the high tides. The high intertidal zone borders on the splash zone, on shores exposed to heavy wave action, the intertidal zone will be influenced by waves, as the spray from breaking waves will extend the intertidal zone
16.
Littoral zone
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The littoral zone is the part of a sea, lake or river that is close to the shore. In coastal environments the littoral zone extends from the water mark. It always includes this intertidal zone and is used to mean the same as the intertidal zone. However, the meaning of littoral zone can extend well beyond the intertidal zone, what is regarded as the full extent of the littoral zone, and the way the littoral zone is divided into subregions, varies in different contexts. The use of the term varies from one part of the world to another. For example, military commanders speak of the littoral in ways that are different from marine biologists. The adjacency of water gives a number of characteristics to littoral regions. The erosive power of water results in particular types of landforms, such as sand dunes, the natural movement of the littoral along the coast is called the littoral drift. Biologically, the availability of water enables a greater variety of plant and animal life. In addition, the local humidity due to evaporation usually creates a microclimate supporting unique types of organisms. The word littoral is used both as a noun and an adjective and it derives from the Latin noun litus, litoris, meaning shore. In oceanography and marine biology, the idea of the zone is extended roughly to the edge of the continental shelf. Starting from the shoreline, the zone begins at the spray region just above the high tide mark. From here, it moves to the region between the high and low water marks, and then out as far as the edge of the continental shelf. These three subregions are called, in order, the zone, the eulittoral zone and the sublittoral zone. The supralittoral zone is the area above the high tide line that is regularly splashed. Seawater penetrates these elevated areas only during storms with high tides, organisms here must cope also with exposure to fresh water from rain, cold, heat and predation by land animals and seabirds. At the top of this area, patches of dark lichens can appear as crusts on rocks, some types of periwinkles, Neritidae and detritus feeding Isopoda commonly inhabit the lower supralittoral
17.
Facies
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Ideally, a sedimentary facies is a distinctive rock unit that forms under certain conditions of sedimentation, reflecting a particular process or environment. Sedimentary facies are either descriptive or interpretative, sedimentary facies are bodies of sediment that are recognizably distinct from adjacent sediments that resulted from different depositional environments. Generally, geologists distinguish facies by the aspect of the rock or sediment being studied, Facies based on petrological characters are called lithofacies, whereas facies based on fossil content are called biofacies. A facies is usually further subdivided, for example, one might refer to a tan, the characteristics of the rock unit come from the depositional environment and from the original composition. Sedimentary facies reflect their depositional environment, each facies being a kind of sediment for that area or environment. Since its inception, the concept has been extended to related geological concepts. For example, characteristic associations of organic microfossils, and particulate organic material, discrete seismic units are similarly referred to as seismic facies. Walthers Law of Facies, or simply Walthers Law, named after the geologist Johannes Walther, conversely, it states that when a depositional environment migrates laterally, sediments of one depositional environment come to lie on top of another. In Russia the law is known as Golovkinsky-Walthers Law, honoring also Nikolai A. Golovkinsky, a classic example of this law is the vertical stratigraphic succession that typifies marine transgressions and regressions. The sequence of minerals that develop during progressive metamorphism define a facies series, seismic facies are mappable three-dimensional seismic units composed of reflection units whose parameters differ from adjacent facies units. Lithofacies Metamorphic rock Sequence stratigraphy Stratum
18.
Shoal
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Often it refers to those submerged ridges, banks, or bars that rise near enough to the surface of a body of water as to constitute a danger to navigation. Shoals are also known as sandbanks, sandbars, or gravelbars, two or more shoals that are either separated by shared troughs or interconnected by past and or present sedimentary and hydrographic processes are referred to as a shoal complex. The term shoal is also used in a number of ways that can be similar or quite different from how it is used in the geologic, geomorphic. Shoals are characteristically long and narrow ridges and they can develop where a stream, river, or ocean current promotes deposition of sediment and granular material, resulting in localized shallowing of the water. Marine shoals also develop either by the in place drowning of barrier islands as the result of sea level rise or by the erosion. Shoals can appear as a coastal landform in the sea, where they are classified as a type of bank, or as fluvial landforms in rivers, streams. A shoal–sandbar may seasonally separate a smaller body of water from the sea, such as, Marine lagoons Brackish water estuaries Freshwater seasonal stream and river mouths and deltas. They are typically composed of sand, although they could be of any matter that the moving water has access to and is capable of shifting around. Wave shoaling is the process when surface waves move towards shallow water, such as a beach, they slow down, their wave height increases and this behavior is called shoaling, and the waves are said to shoal. The waves may or may not build to the point where they break, depending on how large they were to begin with, in particular, waves shoal as they pass over submerged sandbanks or reefs. This can be treacherous for boats and ships, shoaling can also diffract waves, so the waves change direction. For example, if waves pass over a bank which is shallower at one end than the other. Thus the wave fronts will refract, changing direction like light passing through a prism, refraction also occurs as waves move towards a beach if the waves come in at an angle to the beach, or if the beach slopes more gradually at one end than the other. Sandbars, also known as a trough bars, form where the waves are breaking, sometimes this occurs seaward of a trough. Sand carried by the moving bottom current is deposited where the current reaches the wave break. Other longshore bars may lie further offshore, representing the point of even larger waves. A harbor or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at an entrance or river mouth by. Where beaches are suitably mobile, or the river’s suspended and/or bed loads are large enough, deposition can build up a sandbar that completely blocks a river mouth and damming the river
19.
Beni Suef
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Beni Suef, is the capital city of the Beni Suef Governorate in Egypt. Beni Suef is an important agricultural center, which grew from a village at the turn of the century. It was famous for its manufacturing in the Middle Ages. It is also known for its alabaster, quarried in the nearby hills, Beni Suef is located about 115 km south of Cairo. The Meidum Pyramid and Fayum Oasis are nearby, Beni Suef is known for its large mansions, including the Ismail Mansion, owned by General Ahmed Mamdouh Ismail. Beni Suef University and the private Al Nahda University are located in Beni Suef, Beni Suef has a hot desert climate in Köppen-Geiger classification, as does all of Egypt. It has very hot summers and warm winters with cool nights, a train accident in 1995 near Beni Suef left 75 people dead. The Beni Suef Cultural Palace Fire, on September 5,2005, berlenti Abdul Hamid, actress Telephonat Bani Sweif football team has been promoted for the first time in the Egyptian Premier League for the 2011/2012 season. Sannur Cave national park Bishop Athanasius The Daughters of St. Mary Falling Rain Genomics, Inc
20.
Egyptian pyramids
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The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. As of November 2008, sources cite either 118 or 138 as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids, most were built as tombs for the countrys pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis, the earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser which was built during the third dynasty. This pyramid and its surrounding complex were designed by the architect Imhotep, the most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built, the Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence. By the time of the Early Dynastic Period, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas, the second historically-documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser. Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other, the result was the Pyramid of Djoser, which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Such was the importance of Imhoteps achievement that he was deified by later Egyptians, the most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of absolutist rule. It was during this time that the most famous pyramids, the Giza pyramid complex, were built. Long after the end of Egypts own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-building occurred in what is present-day Sudan, al-Aziz Uthman tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure because the task proved too huge, the shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. Pyramids were often named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur The Southern Shining Pyramid. While it is agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion is that they were designed as a type of resurrection machine, the Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaohs soul directly into the abode of the gods
21.
Memphis, Egypt
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Memphis was the ancient capital of Aneb-Hetch, the first nome of Lower Egypt. Its ruins are located near the town of Mit Rahina,20 km south of Giza, according to legend related by Manetho, the city was founded by the pharaoh Menes. Capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom, it remained an important city throughout ancient Mediterranean history and it occupied a strategic position at the mouth of the Nile delta, and was home to feverish activity. Its principal port, Peru-nefer, harboured a high density of workshops, factories, during its golden age, Memphis thrived as a regional centre for commerce, trade, and religion. Memphis was believed to be under the protection of the god Ptah and its great temple, Hut-ka-Ptah, was one of the most prominent structures in the city. The name of temple, rendered in Greek as Aί γυ πτoς by the historian Manetho, is believed to be the etymological origin of the modern English name Egypt. The history of Memphis is closely linked to that of the country itself and its eventual downfall is believed to be due to the loss of its economic significance in late antiquity, following the rise of coastal Alexandria. Its religious significance also diminished after the abandonment of the ancient religion following the Edict of Thessalonica, the ruins of the former capital today offer fragmented evidence of its past. They have been preserved, along with the complex at Giza. The site is open to the public as an open-air museum, Memphis has had several names during its history of almost four millennia. Its Ancient Egyptian name was Inbu-Hedj, because of its size, the city also came to be known by various other names that were actually the names of neighbourhoods or districts that enjoyed considerable prominence at one time or another. For example, according to a text of the First Intermediate Period, it was known as Djed-Sut, the city was also at one point referred to as Ankh-Tawy, stressing the strategic position of the city between Upper and Lower Egypt. This name appears to date from the Middle Kingdom, and is found in ancient Egyptian texts. At the beginning of the New Kingdom, the city known as Men-nefer. The name Memphis is the Greek adaptation of this name, which was originally the name of the pyramid of Pepi I, in the Bible, Memphis is called Moph or Noph. The city of Memphis is 20 km south of Cairo, on the west bank of the Nile. The modern cities and towns of Mit Rahina, Dahshur, Abusir, Abu Gorab, the city was also the place that marked the boundary between Upper and Lower Egypt. The island of the city is today uninhabited, the closest settlement is the town of Mit Rahina
22.
Giza Plateau
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The Giza Plateau is a plateau that is located in Giza, Egypt. The famous Giza Necropolis is located in this area, which is characterized by a sandy, desert climate. It is somewhat virgin desert and it is a place attractive to tourists, researchers, stout shoes or jogging shoes are recommended for visitors to the plateau. In the beginning of the year 1887, the chest, the paws, the altar, flights of steps were unearthed, and finally accurate measurements were taken of the great figures. The height from the lowest of the steps was found to be one hundred feet, modern Gizas layout is accessed by two main roads. The first from the leads to Khufus pyramids and the other road leads near the Sphinxs forecourt from the east. They cross the Nile River from the east bank and follow the causeway westward, dominating the plateau and running in a southwest diagonal through the site are the three pyramids of the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura. The northernmost, and the largest, one belongs to Khufu, khafras pyramid is built precisely on a southwest diagonal to his fathers pyramid, as well as having been built on higher ground to create the illusion of being bigger. The pyramid of Menkaura is much smaller and is not aligned along the diagonal line as the other two pyramids. On a clear day the Pyramids of Abusir can be seen from the Giza Plateau, some looting took place during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 at the site. Plans to build the Grand Egyptian Museum, on the Giza Plateau were stalled, initially hopes were to have the GEM completed by 2012. In October,2015, the Minister of Antiquities, Mamdouh al-Damaty, stated that GEM will be inaugurated in 2018
23.
Great Pyramid of Giza
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The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, initially at 146.5 metres, the Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made structure in the world for more than 3,800 years. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones that formed an outer surface. Some of the stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories about the Great Pyramids construction techniques, most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. There are three chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished, the so-called Queens Chamber and Kings Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu and was constructed over a 20-year period, Khufus vizier, Hemiunu, is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian cubits tall, each base side was 440 cubits,230.4 metres long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes, the volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres. Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day, the first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. Almost all reports are based on his measurements, many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide. The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, the accuracy of the pyramids workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length. The base is horizontal and flat to within ±15 mm, the ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760/280 royal cubits equates to 2π to an accuracy of better than 0. 05%. Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion, verner wrote, We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it. Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded, but these relations of areas, others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size, in 2013 rolls of papyrus were discovered written by some of those who delivered stone and other construction materials to Khufus brother at Giza
24.
Pyramid of Khafre
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The pyramid has a base length of 215.5 m and rises up to a height of 136.4 metres The pyramid is made of limestone blocks weighing more than 2 tons each. The slope of the pyramid rises at a 53°10 angle, steeper than its neighbor, the Pyramid of Khufu, the pyramid sits on bedrock 10 m higher than Khufu’s pyramid, which makes it appear to be taller. The pyramid was opened and robbed during the First Intermediate Period. During the Eighteenth Dynasty, the overseer of construction took casing stone from it to build a temple in Heliopolis on Ramesses II’s orders. Arab historian Ibn Abd al-Salam recorded that the pyramid was opened in 1372 AD, on the wall of the burial chamber, there is an Arabic graffito that probably dates from the same time. It was first explored in modern times by Giovanni Belzoni on March 2,1818, when the entrance was found on the north side of the pyramid. Belzoni had hopes of finding an intact burial, however, the chamber was empty except for an open sarcophagus and its broken lid on the floor. The first complete exploration was conducted by John Perring in 1837, in 1853, Auguste Mariette partially excavated Khafres valley temple, and, in 1858, while completing its clearance, he managed to discover a diorite statue. Like the Great Pyramid, a rock outcropping was used in the core, due to the slope of the plateau, the northwest corner was cut 10 m out of the rock subsoil and the southeast corner is built up. The pyramid is built of horizontal courses, the stones used at the bottom are very large, but as the pyramid rises, the stones become smaller, becoming only 50 cm thick at the apex. The courses are rough and irregular for the first half of its height, at the northwest corner of the pyramid, the bedrock was fashioned into steps. Casing stones cover the top third of the pyramid, but the pyramidion, the bottom course of casing stones was made out of pink granite but the remainder of the pyramid was cased in Tura Limestone. Close examination reveals that the edges of remaining casing stones are not completely straight. One theory is that this is due to settling from seismic activity, an alternative theory postulates that the slope on the blocks was cut to shape before being placed due to the limited working space towards the top of the pyramid. Two entrances lead to the chamber, one that opens 11.54 m up the face of the pyramid. These passageways do not align with the centerline of the pyramid, the lower descending passageway is carved completely out of the bedrock, descending, running horizontal, then ascending to join the horizontal passage leading to the burial chamber. This would place the entrance to the lower descending passage within the masonry of the pyramid. While the bedrock is cut away farther from the pyramid on the side than on the west side, it is not clear that there is enough room on the plateau for the enclosure wall
25.
Great Sphinx of Giza
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Facing directly from West to East, it stands on the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile in Giza, Egypt. The face of the Sphinx is generally believed to represent the Pharaoh Khafre, cut from the bedrock, the original shape of the Sphinx has been restored with layers of blocks. It measures 238 feet long from paw to tail,66.3 ft high from the base to the top of the head and 62.6 feet wide at its rear haunches. It is the oldest known sculpture in Egypt and is commonly believed to have been built by ancient Egyptians of the Old Kingdom during the reign of the Pharaoh Khafre. The Sphinx is a monolith carved into the bedrock of the plateau, the nummulitic limestone of the area consists of layers which offer differing resistance to erosion, leading to the uneven degradation apparent in the Sphinxs body. The lowest part of the body, including the legs, is solid rock, the body of the lion up to its neck is fashioned from softer layers that have suffered considerable disintegration. The layer in which the head was sculpted is much harder, the Great Sphinx is one of the worlds largest and oldest statues, but basic facts about it are still subject to debate, such as when it was built, by whom and for what purpose. These questions have resulted in the idea of the Riddle of the Sphinx. In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx was called Hor-em-akhet, the English word sphinx comes from the ancient Greek Σφίγξ apparently from the verb σφίγγω, after the Greek sphinx who strangled anyone who failed to answer her riddle. The name may alternatively be a corruption of the phonetically different ancient Egyptian word Ssp-anx. This name is given to royal statues of the Fourth dynasty of ancient Egypt, medieval Arab writers, including al-Maqrīzī, call the Sphinx balhib and bilhaw, which suggest a Coptic influence. The modern Egyptian Arabic name is أبو الهول, the circumstantial evidence mentioned by Hassan includes the Sphinxs location in the context of the funerary complex surrounding the Second Pyramid, which is traditionally connected with Khafra. A diorite statue of Khafre, which was discovered buried upside down along with other debris in the Valley Temple, is claimed as support for the Khafra theory, the Dream Stele, erected much later by the pharaoh Thutmose IV, associates the Sphinx with Khafra. When the stele was discovered, its lines of text were already damaged and incomplete, an extract was translated, which we bring for him, oxen. and all the young vegetables, and we shall give praise to Wenofer. Khaf. the statue made for Atum-Hor-em-Akhet, the Egyptologist Thomas Young, finding the Khaf hieroglyphs in a damaged cartouche used to surround a royal name, inserted the glyph ra to complete Khafras name. When the Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed. In 1857, Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, unearthed the much later Inventory Stela, such an act became common when religious institutions such as temples, shrines and priests domains were fighting for political attention and for financial and economic donations. Gaston Maspero, the French Egyptologist and second director of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and he supports this by suggesting that Khafras Causeway was built to conform to a pre-existing structure, which, he concludes, given its location, could only have been the Sphinx
26.
Zawyet El Aryan
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Zawyet El Aryan is a town in the Giza Governorate, located between Giza and Abusir. To the west of the town, just in the area, is a necropolis. Almost directly east across the Nile is Memphis, in Zawyet El Aryan, there are two pyramid complexes and five mastaba cemeteries. The layer pyramid was built in the dynasty, probably during the reign of Khaba. The pyramid was meant to be a pyramid of possibly five to seven steps. No casing stones have been found, suggesting that the pyramid was never finished, the layout of the underground chambers resembles that of the pyramid of Sekhemkhet. A corridor leading into the interior has thirty-two side chambers meant for storage of the burial equipment and this unfinished pyramid belongs to a king with an illegible name and comprise little more than a massive descendry. All that stands now is a base on which the core of the pyramid would have been constructed. A pink granite sarcophagus was found in a trench which cuts through the structure, the existence of underground chambers has been suspected, but excavations have not been possible as the structure is now part of a military restricted zone. Also called the Northern Pyramid, this dates to the fourth dynasty. The area of Zawyet El Aryan is surrounded by a total of five cemeteries dating to the 1st Dynasty, 2nd Dynasty, late 3rd Dynasty, 18th Dynasty and Roman Period. Of these cemeteries, only the one dating to the late 3rd Dynasty contains large tombs, reisner and Fisher observed that this is to be expected of the necropolis surrounding the pyramid of a pharaoh, the large tombs being those of the royal family and court officials. In particular, around 200 metres north of the pyramid is a huge mastaba, today known as Mastaba Z500. Reisner and Fisher therefore conclude that if the mastabas belong to people connected with the king who built the pyramid and this opinion is shared by most egyptologists who attribute the layer pyramid to Khaba. Since 1960, much of the area near Zawyet El Aryan has been restricted for use as a military base, access to the pyramids has been restricted since 1964. No excavations are allowed, the necropolis is overbuilt with military bungalows. The condition of both burial shafts is uncertain and most possibly disastrous
27.
Abusir
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The name is also that of a neighbouring village in the Nile Valley, whence the site takes its name. Abusir is located several kilometres north of Saqqara and, like it, several other villages in northern and southern Egypt are named Abusir or Busiri. Abusir is one small segment of the extensive pyramid field that extends from north of Giza to below Saqqara. The locality of Abusir took its turn as the focus of the prestigious western burial rites operating out of the then-capital of Memphis during the Old Kingdom 5th Dynasty, Abusir was the origin of the largest find of Old Kingdom papyri to date — the Abusir Papyri. In the late century, a number of Western museums acquired collections of fragmentary papyri from the administrative records of one Abusir funerary cult. The Czech Institute of Egyptology of the Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague has been conducting excavations at Abusir since 1976 and they are presently directed by Miroslav Bárta. There are considerable catacombs near the ancient town of Busiris, to the south of Busiris one great cemetery appears to have stretched over the plain. The Heptanomite Busiris was in fact a hamlet standing at one extremity of the necropolis of Memphis, there are a total of 14 pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abusir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty and they are smaller than their predecessors, and are built of low quality local stone. Lepsius Pyramid no.24 — The pyramid belonged to a woman, the name of the vizier Ptahshepses appears among builders marks, which dates the pyramid to the time of Pharaoh Nyuserre Lepsius Pyramid no. Part of the door from the tomb of the priest Rahotep was stolen. Systematic looting continues into 2013 with organized digging and destruction of tombs, köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies it climate as hot desert, as the rest of Egypt. Busiris Busiri List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites Czech Institute of Egyptology, Abúsír, the site Egyptian monuments, Abusir Necropolis Waseda University Expedition to Abusir South
28.
Abu Gorab
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Abu Gorab is a locality in Egypt situated 15 km south of Cairo, between Saqqarah and Al-Jīzah, about 1 km north of Abusir, on the edge of the desert plateau on the western bank of the Nile. In addition, Abu Gorab is also the site of a First Dynasty cemetery, North of the sun temple of Nyuserre is a cemetery dating back to the First Dynasty of Egypt, where people belonging to the middle ranks of the Ancient Egyptian society were buried. The cemetery also features the burials of many donkeys in close association with the tombs. This is highly unusual as it is only found in necropolises dating to the much later Hyksos period. The temple was excavated by Egyptologists between 1898 and 1901 by Ludwig Borchardt on behalf of the Berlin Museum and is located near the city of Memphis and it was built to honor the Sun god Ra. The temple was constructed on the orders of Nyuserre Ini, sixth king of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt, the exact dates of his reign are unknown but it is estimated that he came to the throne early in the second half of the 25th century BCE. Nyuserre also built a pyramid complexe in what was then the royal necropolis,1 km to the south of Abu Gorab in Abusir, the sun temple was probably constructed late in Niuserres reign and was called Shesepibre, meaning The Joy of Ra. The complex is built out of mudbrick covered with limestone, and is located on the shores of Abusir lake, entrance to the temple site is gained through a small structure called the Valley Temple. Archeologists have been unable to study the Valley Temple in detail and it is partially submerged and has suffered extensive damage. However, it is known that an entrance corridor ran from the portico through the building, norris Alistair Gress, husband of golf course designer Alice Gress, used his wifes knowledge of garden design and passive geographic engagement to extrapolate a possible route for the causeway. Per the hypothesis, this led to the entrance to the main temple. The main temple was built on a hill that had been enhanced. Artificial terraces on this hill were created using mudbrick that was covered with limestone. The temple was built on top of these terraces. The entrance is in the east side, inside the temple is a large, open courtyard. At the western end of the courtyard are the ruins of a stone obelisk. The obelisks base is a pedestal, with sloping sides and a square top and it is approximately twenty meters high and is constructed of red granite and limestone. Estimates of the height of the obelisk and base vary
29.
Saqqara
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Saqqara, also spelled Sakkara or Saccara in English /səˈkɑːrə/, is a vast, ancient burial ground in Egypt, serving as the necropolis for the Ancient Egyptian capital, Memphis. Saqqara features numerous pyramids, including the world-famous Step pyramid of Djoser, sometimes referred to as the Step Tomb due to its rectangular base, located some 30 km south of modern-day Cairo, Saqqara covers an area of around 7 by 1.5 km. At Saqqara, the oldest complete stone building known in history was built, Djosers step pyramid. Another 16 Egyptian kings built pyramids at Saqqara, which are now in states of preservation or dilapidation. High officials added private funeral monuments to this necropolis during the pharaonic period. It remained an important complex for non-royal burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into Ptolemaic, north of the area known as Saqqara lies Abusir, south lies Dahshur. The area running from Giza to Dahshur has been used as a necropolis by the inhabitants of Memphis at different times, some scholars believe that the name Saqqara is not derived from the ancient Egyptian funerary god Sokar, but from a supposed local Berber Tribe called Beni Saqqar. The earliest burials of nobles can be traced back to the First Dynasty, during this time, the royal burial ground was at Abydos. The first royal burials at Saqqara, comprising underground galleries, date to the Second Dynasty, the last Second Dynasty king Khasekhemwy was buried in his tomb at Abydos, but also built a funerary monument at Saqqara consisting of a large rectangular enclosure, known as Gisr el-Mudir. It probably inspired the monumental enclosure wall around the Step Pyramid complex, Djosers funerary complex, built by the royal architect Imhotep, further comprises a large number of dummy buildings and a secondary mastaba. French architect and Egyptologist Jean-Philippe Lauer spent the part of his life excavating and restoring Djosers funerary complex. During the second half of the Old Kingdom, under the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, the Fifth and Sixth Dynasty pyramids are not built of massive stone, but with a core consisting of rubble. They are consequently less well preserved than the world-famous pyramids built by the Fourth Dynasty kings at Giza, Unas, the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, was the first king to adorn the chambers in his pyramid with Pyramid Texts. It was custom for courtiers during the Old Kingdom to be buried in mastaba tombs close to the pyramid of their king, clusters of private tombs were thus formed in Saqqara around the pyramid complexes of Unas and Teti. Few private monuments from this period have been found at Saqqara, Pyramid of king Khendjer Pyramid of an unknown king During the New Kingdom Memphis was an important administrative and military centre, being the capital after the Amaran Period. From the Eighteenth Dynasty onwards many high officials built tombs at Saqqara, when still a general, Horemheb built a large tomb here, though he was later buried as Pharaoh in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Other important tombs belong to the vizier Aperel, the vizier Neferrenpet, the artist Thutmose and to Maia, many monuments from earlier periods were still standing, but dilapidated by this period. Prince Khaemweset, son of Pharaoh Ramesses II, made repairs to buildings at Saqqara, among other things, he restored the Pyramid of Unas and added an inscription to its south face to commemorate the restoration
30.
Pyramid of Djoser
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The Pyramid of Djoser, or step pyramid is an archeological remain in the Saqqara necropolis, Egypt, northwest of the city of Memphis. It was built during the 27th century BC for the burial of Pharaoh Djoser by his vizier and it is the central feature of a vast mortuary complex in an enormous courtyard surrounded by ceremonial structures and decoration. This first Egyptian pyramid consisted of six mastabas built atop one another in what were clearly revisions, the pyramid originally stood 62 metres tall, with a base of 109 m ×125 m and was clad in polished white limestone. Djoser was the first or second king of the 3rd Dynasty of the Egyptian Old Kingdom and he is believed to have ruled for 19 years or, if the 19 years were biennial taxation years,38 years. He reigned long enough to allow the plan for his pyramid to be realized in his lifetime. Djoser is best known for his tomb, which dominates the Saqqara landscape. In this tomb he is referred to by his Horus name Netjeriykhet, Djoser’s step pyramid is astounding in its departure from previous architecture. It sets several important precedents, perhaps the most important of which is its status as the first monumental structure made of stone, the social implications of such a large and carefully sculpted stone structure are staggering. The process of building such a structure would be far more labor-intensive than previous monuments of mud-brick and this suggests that the state, and therefore the royal government had a new level of control of resources, both material and human. Also, from this point on, kings of the Old Kingdom are buried in the North, finally, another intriguing first is the identification of the architect Imhotep, who is credited with the design and construction of the complex. Djoser’s Pyramid draws ideas from several precedents, the most relevant precedent is found at Saqqara mastaba 3038. The substructure lay in a 4m deep rectangular pit, and had mudbrick walls rising to 6 m, three sides were extended and built out to create eight shallow steps rising at an angle of 49°. This would have been a step pyramid if the remaining side had not been left uncovered. In another parallel to Djoser’s complex, to complete this complex an niched enclosure wall was erected. Djoser’s Step Pyramid complex has several structures pivotal to its function in life and the afterlife. Several are discussed below with attention paid to function and form, the pyramid was not simply a grave in ancient Egypt. Its purpose was to facilitate a successful afterlife for the king so that he could be eternally reborn, another well accepted theory is that it facilitated the king’s ascension to join the eternal North Star. The main excavator of the Step Pyramid was Jean-Philippe Lauer, a French architect who reconstructed key portions of the complex, the complex covers 15ha and is about 2.5 times as large as the Old Kingdom town of Heirakonpolis
31.
Pyramid of Unas
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The Pyramid Complex of Unas is located in the pyramid field at Saqqara, near Cairo in Egypt. It was built for pharaoh Unas, the ninth and final king of the Fifth Dynasty in the mid 24th century BC and its ancient name, Nefer Isut Unas, means Beautiful are the places of Unas. Originally reaching 43 metres high with a base of 58 by 58 metres. It was investigated by Perring and then Lepsius, but it was Gaston Maspero who first gained entry to the chambers in 1881 and these together with others found in nearby pyramids of successive pharaohs are now known as the Pyramid Texts. In the burial chamber itself the remains of a mummy were found, including the skull, right arm and shin, near to the main pyramid, to the north east, there are mastabas that contain the burials of the consorts of the king. The pyramid was built close to the pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara, the causeway was approximately 750m long and the unusual shape is because it follows a wadi. Material was taken from the complex of Djoser that was used to plug gaps in the wadi, the roof of the causeway was covered over to make a closed tunnel, with the exception of a long slot that illuminated the walls that were decorated with brightly painted reliefs. View the hieroglyphs and the complete translation
32.
Serapeum
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There were several such religious centers, each of which was a serapeion or, in its Latinized form, a serapeum. 31°10′55″N 29°53′49″E The Serapeum of Alexandria in the Ptolemaic Kingdom was a ancient Greek temple built by Ptolemy III Euergetes and dedicated to Serapis, by all detailed accounts, the Serapeum was the largest and most magnificent of all temples in the Greek quarter of Alexandria. Besides the image of the god, the temple housed an offshoot collection of the great Library of Alexandria. The geographer Strabo tells that this stood in the west of the city, excavations at the site of the column of Diocletian in 1944 yielded the foundation deposits of the Serapeion. These are two sets of ten plaques, one each of gold, silver, bronze, Egyptian faience, sun-dried Nile mud, the inscription that Ptolemy III Euergetes built the Serapeion, in Greek and Egyptian, marks all plaques, evidence suggests that Parmeniskos was assigned as architect. The foundation deposits of a dedicated to Harpocrates from the reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator were also found within the enclosure walls. Subterranean galleries beneath the temple were most probably the site of the mysteries of Serapis. In 1895, a diorite statue representing Serapis in his Apis bull incarnation with the sun disk between his horns was found at the site, an inscription dates it to the reign of Hadrian. The Serapeum in Alexandria was destroyed by a Christian mob or Roman soldiers in 391, several conflicting accounts for the context of the destruction of the Serapeum exist. According to early Christian sources, bishop Pope Theophilus of Alexandria was the Nicene patriarch when the decrees of emperor Theodosius I forbade public observances of any rites but Christian. In Alexandria, Bishop Theophilus obtained legal authority over one such forcibly abandoned temple of Dionysus, during the renovations, the contents of subterranean spaces were uncovered and profaned, which allegedly incited crowds of non-Christians to seek revenge. The trapped pagans plundered the Serapeum, consequently, the Serapeum was levelled by Roman soldiers and monks called in from the desert, as were the buildings dedicated to the Egyptian god Canopus. An alternate account of the incident is found in writings by Eunapius, here, an unprovoked Christian mob successfully used military-like tactics to destroy the Serapeum and steal anything that may have survived the attack. Whichever the cause, the destruction of the Serapeum, described by Christian writers Tyrannius Rufinus and Sozomen, was but the most spectacular of such conflicts, according to Peter Brown. However, Peter Brown frames it against a backdrop of frequent mob violence in the city. Also, Eusebius mentions street-fighting in Alexandria between Christians and non-Christians, occurring as early as 249, there is evidence that non-Christians had taken part in citywide struggles both for and against Athanasius of Alexandria in 341 and 356. Similar accounts are found in the writings of Socrates of Constantinople, R. McMullan further reports that, in 363, George of Cappadocia was killed for his repeated acts of pointed outrage, insult, and pillage of the most sacred treasures of the city. Whatever the prior events, the Serapeum of Alexandria was not rebuilt, another Serapeum was located at Canopus, in the Nile Delta near Alexandria
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Pyramid of Teti
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The Pyramid of Teti is a smooth-sided pyramid situated in the pyramid field at Saqqara in Egypt. It is historically the second known pyramid containing pyramid texts, excavations have revealed a satellite pyramid, two pyramids of queens accompanied by cult structures, and a funerary temple. The pyramid was opened by Gaston Maspero in 1882 and the complex explored during several campaigns ranging from 1907 to 1965 and it was originally called Tetis Places Are Enduring. The preservation above ground is very poor, and it now resembles a small hill, below ground the chambers and corridors are very well preserved. The pyramid complex of Teti follows a model established during the reign of Djedkare Isesi, a valley temple, now lost, was probably destroyed in antiquity due to the place of an Old Kingdom temple dedicated to Anubis constructed there. A better known funerary temple revealed by James Edward Quibell in 1906, is connected to the temple by a causeway. The plan of the temple of Teti is also comparable in many respects to that of Unas, which is its immediate predecessor. Tetis temple has a special plan, however, due to a deviation of the floor which traditionally should have been located in the axis of the temple. It then accesses the temple through a hallway of the north–south facade joining the east–west axis of the monument, followed in this main axis is a second hall. The thickness of the walls suggests a vaulted cover and this hall opened into an open courtyard surrounded on all four sides by colonnades whose main purpose was the presentation of daily offerings and ritual libations. The only way out is centered to the west and provides access to the innermost part the sanctuary. This part also included a room containing the false door stela of the King, a veritable object of funeral worship. The first row frames the party host and is accessible by a corridor along the entire width of the building that leads to the south and north within the peribolos of the pyramid. The second set frames the sanctuary and the hall of statues of gods and was accessible from the latter. This small pyramid covers an underground plan consisting of a ramp leading to a single underground chamber. In the middle of the courtyard of the paribolos, facing east and west, are two landscaped basins in the granite floor. Their use is disputed by Egyptologists, but the location of these basins, following the path of the sun, the orientation of the pyramid is not aligned with the four cardinal points. However, the proportions and plan of the pyramid follow exactly the same pattern as that of the Pyramid of Djedkare-Isesi, the internal dimensions and slope are the same and it is otherwise very similar
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Imhotep Museum
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The Imhotep Museum is an archaeological museum located at the foot of the Saqqara necropolis complex, near Memphis in Lower Egypt. The museum, which was named for the ancient Egyptian architect Imhotep, was opened on April 26,2006 by Mrs. Suzanne Mubarak and Mrs. Bernadette Chirac. Imhotep is credited with being the first Egyptian to build a structure out of stone. In the museum, artifacts are more protected from theft. The statue depicts the 19th Dynasty High Priest of Mut, Amenemopet, in the entrance hall, the visitor is welcomed by a fragment of the Djoser statue on which one can read the name of the king and the architect Imhotep. This find was on loan from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, the second hall displays archaeological finds from various excavations on the Saqqara plateau. The artifacts in this exhibit will be rotated, the third hall is devoted Egyptian art, and contains vessels, statues, and stelae made of wood and stone, as well as the ancient tools used to build the monuments. The fourth hall exhibits architectural elements from the Step Pyramid complex, such as columns, a small statue of Imhotep is also found in this room. The fifth hall displays objects used in burials from the 6th Dynasty through the New Kingdom, a gallery dedicated to the French Egyptologist, Jean-Philippe Lauer, displays some of his personal effects and photographs of him at work on the plateau. Lauer began working at the Djoser complex in the 1920s, and continued to work there for the remainder of his career, some 75 years
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Dahshur
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Dahshur is a royal necropolis located in the desert on the west bank of the Nile approximately 40 kilometres south of Cairo. It is known chiefly for several pyramids, two of which are among the oldest, largest and best preserved in Egypt, built from 2613–2589 BC, building the Dahshur pyramids was an extremely important learning experience for the Egyptians before they could build the Great Pyramid of Giza. Two of the Dahshur Pyramids, The Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid, were constructed during the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu, the Bent Pyramid was the first attempt at a smooth-sided pyramid but ultimately wasnt successful. One design flaw was that there was a very unstable base for it made of desert gravel and this in turn is thought to be the reason the pyramid is bent and changes angles about halfway up the sides. Sneferu was not pleased with this pyramid, so he built called the Red Pyramid. Getting its name from the red hue the pyramid gives off after a nice rain, standing more than 30 stories tall, it is thought to be Sneferus pride and glory and the place where he is believed to be buried. The Red pyramid was the largest smooth-sided pyramid standing until Sneferus son, Khufu, outdid his father by building the Great Pyramid of Giza, though Khufus pyramid is larger, he would not have been able to build it without the knowledge that his father discovered before him. The pyramid of the 12th Dynasty king Amenemhat II is now badly damaged, next to it were found several undisturbed tombs of royal women still containing a large amount of jewellery. The pyramid of Sesostris III was part of a complex, with several smaller pyramids of royal women. In a gallery next to this pyramid were found two treasures of the kings daughters. The Black Pyramid dates from the reign of Amenemhat III and, although badly eroded. The polished granite pyramidion or capstone of the Black Pyramid is on display in the hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Next to the pyramid was found the partly disturbed tomb of 13th Dynasty king Hor, several other pyramids of the 13th Dynasty were built at Dahshur. Only the one of the reign of Ameny Qemau has been excavated so far, ahmad Fakhri was an archaeologist who worked at this site. Extensive cemeteries of officials of the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom have been found around Dahshurs pyramids, Dahshur was Egypts royal necropolis during the reign of the 12th Dynasty king Amenemhat II. In July 2012, Dahshurs entire Christian community, which some estimate to be as many as 100 families, the violence began in a dispute over a badly ironed shirt, which in turn escalated into a fight in which a Christian burned a Muslim to death. This, in turn, sparked a rampage by angry Muslims, at least 16 homes and properties of Christians were pillaged, some were torched, and a church was damaged during the violence. Dahshur has a hot desert climate according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system, List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites Acanthus, an old village in Dahsur mentioned in Ancient Greek literature
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Bent Pyramid
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The Bent Pyramid is an ancient Egyptian pyramid located at the royal necropolis of Dahshur, approximately 40 kilometres south of Cairo, built under the Old Kingdom Pharaoh Sneferu. A unique example of early development in Egypt, this was the second pyramid built by Sneferu. The Bent Pyramid rises from the desert at a 54-degree inclination, archaeologists now believe that the Bent Pyramid represents a transitional form between step-sided and smooth-sided pyramids. This theory appears to be out by the fact that the adjacent Red Pyramid. It is also unique amongst the approximately ninety pyramids to be found in Egypt, the ancient formal name of the Bent Pyramid is generally translated as -Southern-Shining-Pyramid, or Sneferu--Shining-in-the-South. The Bent Pyramid has two entrances, one fairly low down on the side, to which a substantial wooden stairway has been built for the convenience of tourists. The second entrance is high on the west face of the pyramid. Each entrance leads to a chamber with a high, corbelled roof, the entrance leads to a chamber that is below ground level. A hole in the roof of the chamber leads via a rough connecting passage to the passage from the western entrance. The western entrance passage is blocked by two blocks which were not lowered vertically, as in other pyramids, but slid down 45° ramps to block the passage. One of these was lowered in antiquity and a hole has been cut through it, the connecting passage referenced above enters the passage between the two portcullises. On the east side of the temple there are the remains of the pyramid temple. Like the pyramid temple of the Meidum pyramid, there are two stelae behind the temple, though of these only stumps remain, there is no trace of inscription to be seen. The temple remains are fragmentary but it is presumed to be similar to that of the Meidum temple, a satellite pyramid, built to house the Pharaohs Ka, is located 55 metres south of the Bent Pyramid. The satellite pyramid originally measured 26 metres in height and 52.80 metres in length, with faces inclining 44°30, the structure is made of limestone blocks, relatively thick, arranged in horizontal rows and covered with a layer of fine limestone from Tura. The burial chamber is accessible from a corridor with its entrance located 1.10 metres above the ground in the middle of the north face. The corridor, inclined at 34°, originally measured 11.60 metres in length, a short horizontal passage connects the corridor with an ascending corridor, inclined at 32°30, leading up to the chamber. The design of the corridors is similar to the one found in the Great Pyramid of Giza, the corridor leads up to the burial chamber
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Red Pyramid
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The Red Pyramid, also called the North Pyramid, is the largest of the three major pyramids located at the Dahshur necropolis in Cairo, Egypt. Named for the rusty reddish hue of its red limestone stones, it is also the third largest Egyptian pyramid, after those of Khufu and it is also believed to be Egypts first successful attempt at constructing a true smooth-sided pyramid. Local residents refer to the Red Pyramid as el-heram el-watwaat, meaning the Bat Pyramid, the Red Pyramid was not always red. It used to be cased with white Tura limestone, but only a few of these now remain at the pyramids base. During the Middle Ages much of the white Tura limestone was taken for buildings in Cairo, the Red Pyramid was the third pyramid built by Old Kingdom Pharaoh Sneferu, and is located approximately one kilometer to the north of the Bent Pyramid. It is built at the same shallow 43 degree angle as the section of the Bent Pyramid. Construction is believed to have begun during the year of Sneferus reign. Egyptologists disagree on the length of time it took to construct, archaeologists speculate its design may be an outcome of engineering crises experienced during the construction of Sneferus two earlier pyramids. The Red Pyramid is 105 metres high, a rare pyramidion, or capstone, for the Red Pyramid has been uncovered and reconstructed, and is now on display at Dahshur. However, whether it was ever used is unclear, as its angle of inclination differs from that of the pyramid it was apparently intended for. The Red Pyramid, along with the Bent Pyramid, was closed to tourists for many years because of an army camp. It is now open for tourists and a somewhat intrusive ventilation has been installed which pipes air down the entrance shaft to the interior chambers. Visitors climb steps cut in or built over the stones of the pyramid to a high on the north side. A passage,3 feet in height and 4 feet wide, slopes down at 27° for 200 feet to a horizontal passage leading into a chamber whose corbelled roof is 40 feet high. At the southern end of the chamber, but offset to the west and this passage was probably closed at one time and the offset was a measure intended to confuse potential robbers. The second chamber is similar to the first and lies directly beneath the apex of the pyramid, high in the southern wall of the chamber is an entrance, now reached by a large wooden staircase built for the convenience of tourists. This gives onto a horizontal passage that leads to the third. The first two chambers have their long axis aligned north-south, but this chambers long axis is aligned east-west
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Pyramid of Amenemhat III (Dahshur)
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The Black Pyramid was built by King Amenemhat III during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. It is one of the five remaining pyramids of the original eleven pyramids at Dahshur in Egypt, originally named Amenemhet is Mighty, the pyramid earned the name Black Pyramid for its dark, decaying appearance as a rubble mound. The Black pyramid was the first to both the deceased pharaoh and his queens. Jacques de Morgan, on a French mission, began the excavation on the pyramids at Dahshur in 1892, the German Archaeological Institute of Cairo completed excavation in 1983. The pyramid was originally about 75 meters tall with a base 105 meters long, typical for pyramids of the Middle Kingdom, the Black Pyramid, although encased in limestone, is made of mud brick and clay instead of stone. The ground-level structures consist of the opening into the courtyard and mortuary temple. There are two sets of walls, between them, there are ten tombs, which are a type of burial structure formed from graves built into natural rock. The pyramidion, which is the capstone of a pyramid, was covered with inscriptions, some of these were scratched off, leading researchers to conclude the pyramidion was never used or it was defaced during Akhenatens rule. Below ground level in the structure lay a network of complicated passages. The kings section remains intact with a sarcophagus and canopic jar, however. The section for the queens was broken into and looted, there are four other burial chambers in the subterranean structure, to whom they belong, however, is unknown. Two are thought to belong to King Amenemhet IV and queen Sobekneferu, the Dashur pyramid was on an east-west orientation with two entrances and a complicated set of chambers. One entrance is on the corner and the other on the south-western. The core of the superstructure was of mud brick with no internal walls, the pyramid was built on clay that was unable to support the weight and began to sink, just as the Bent Pyramid of Sneferu at Dashur had begun to sink centuries before. The two pyramids are approximately 1.5 km apart, the outer cladding of limestone veneer was held together with dovetail pegs, following the style of his fathers tomb. The finished dimensions were approximately 200 cubits per side and 150 cubits high, the pyramid was abandoned after it began to crush the underground chambers. The builders had hastily installed supporting beams and mud walls to stop the sinking, but it was too little, too late. Although both chambers had been entered and looted in antiquity, archaeologists found many items overlooked by the looters, Queen Aats chamber contained a sarcophagus similar to the kings
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Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
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There have been many hypotheses about the Egyptian pyramid construction techniques. These techniques seem to have developed over time, later pyramids were not built the way as earlier ones. Most of the hypotheses are based on the idea that huge stones were carved with copper chisels from stone quarries. Disagreements chiefly concern the methods used to move and place the stones, in addition to the many unresolved arguments about the construction techniques, there have been disagreements as to the kind of workforce used. The Greeks, many years after the event, believed that the pyramids must have built by slave labor. For the Middle Kingdom Pyramid of Amenemhat II, there is evidence from the stone of the king that foreigners from Palestine were used. During the earliest period, pyramids were constructed wholly of stone, locally quarried limestone was the material of choice for the main body of these pyramids, while a higher quality of limestone quarried at Tura was used as the outer casing. Granite, quarried near Aswan, was used to some architectural elements, including the portcullis. Occasionally, granite was used in the casing as well. The Bent Pyramid at Dahshur seems to indicate acceptance of a technique at a transition between these two building techniques. Its lower section is built of sloping courses, while in its upper section the stones are laid horizontally, during the Middle Kingdom, pyramid construction techniques changed again. Most pyramids built then were more than mountains of mud brick encased in a veneer of polished limestone. In several cases, later pyramids were built on top of hills to further reduce the volume of material needed in their construction. One of the problems faced by the early pyramid builders was the need to move huge quantities of stone. The Twelfth Dynasty tomb of Djehutihotep has an illustration of 172 men pulling an alabaster statue of him on a sledge. The statue is estimated to weigh 60 tons and Denys Stocks estimated that 45 workers would be required to start moving a 16,300 kg lubricated block, or eight workers to move a 2,750 kg block. Dr R H G Parry has suggested a method for rolling the stones, four of those objects could be fitted around a block so it could be rolled easily. This idea was described by John Bush in 1977, and is mentioned in the Closing Remarks section of Parrys book
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Lepsius list of pyramids
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The Lepsius list of pyramid is the first attempt at systematically listing all the Egyptian pyramids, and as such, is a pioneering effort of early modern Egyptology. The list was published together with the results of the expedition in Lepsius work Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien, karl Richard Lepsius, who had learned of Champollions method to decipher the hieroglyphs and had met Ippolito Rosellini of the Franco-Tuscan Expedition, was chosen to lead it. The main aim of the expedition was to explore and record the remains of the ancient Egyptian civilization as well as to materials for the Egyptian Museum of Berlin. The Prussian expedition assembled in Alexandria in 1842 and quickly departed for Giza, proceeding north to south, Lepsius men then explored the pyramids field of Abusir, Saqqara, Dahshur and, in 1843, Hawara. Lepsius and its team stayed for 6 months in total at these locations as the Prussian expedition was the first study, in total, Lepsius and his men uncovered a total of 67 pyramids and 130 tombs. The pyramids, dating from the Third Dynasty until the Thirteenth Dynasty, were given roman numerals from north to south, Lepsius numerals have remained the standard designation for some of the pyramids. The results of the Prussian expedition to Egypt, comprising the list of pyramids, Lepsius drew maps of the locations his expedition visited and which regroup the pyramid listed above. They are presented below, from north to south
